Discussions: InfoTech In A Global Economy (ITS-832)

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technical ability to provide them (primarily, in regions with low levels of information its necessary to provide data form via Internet browser) was to be created, the pro- cedures for maintenance of a unified registry database were to be regulated, and an exchange mechanism via SAS “Administration” using inter-departmental electronic interaction systems (SIDEIS), etc. was to be established.

In 2013, an expansion of the composition of information resources that interact with the system and the composition of its users was planned, and the automation of data uploading from SAS “Administration” into Contour sub-system was planned, designed for use by senior persons in the state apparatus. It was created by the federal guard system (FGS).

Finally, in 2014, the connection of non-governmental sources of information to SAS “Administration” was planned to ensure the possibility of embedding third- party developer software into the system portal. Upon completion of these phases, the authors promised to create a register of state databases, increase the share of state systems integrated into SAS “Administration” to at least 70 % and to decrease by the same number the duplication of information flows. The authors of the concept do not promise to connect all the regions to the system, only “to provide for the possibility of access”.

Experts, with whom Journal CNews discussed the prospects of SAS “Administra- tion”, are largely sceptical. “The functional customer of this resource is unknown”, says an IT head of one of the federal agencies. “It was planned to take some data from agencies and put them up onto some panels for the first persons. But, do they need it? The first persons do not have the time to use these panels. In addition, it is not possible to determine the accuracy of the data as there is no mechanism of verification. Regions may submit any figures that are of benefit to them, and every- one will be sure, that’s true”. “Before you upload data to SAS “Administration” it is necessary to establish order in source information systems”, adds another source of CNews. “Regions and federal agencies with high-quality databases can be counted on one hand”. (Why SAS “Administration” did not take off 2013).

17.5 Other Policy-Making Tools and Techniques

All of the above apply to the forms of tools designed to support the administrative decisions of federal authorities, the creation of which was financed from the national budget. Solutions, centrally generated up to the 1990s, were designated to carry out the reporting and planning tasks of practically all levels of state, municipal and district administration. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, in the process of the transition to a market economy, and the provision to municipalities of all levels of some economic freedom and administration powers, the need to implement and use tools and techniques to enhance the effectiveness of administration solutions arose but there was a failure to develop and actively create and use these. In the 2000s, Russia began the systematic construction of the “vertical power structure”, resulting in the practical loss of freedom of choice in political and economic decision making

17 Challenges to Policy-Making in Developing Countries 389

Fig. 17.1 Number of crimes

on the part of the regional and local authorities. For this reason, one may count, among 83 constituent entities of the Federation and more than 23,000 municipalities of all levels, only a few dozen examples of analytical IT tools used for policy-making.

One of the examples is the use of simulation tools in drug trafficking to generate programmes to counter crime in this area.

In relation to the task of evaluating processes such as drug addiction or drug trafficking, it is important to understand that the absolute values of the indicators of departmental statistics rarely reflect the process itself. Thus, the number of recorded crimes characterizes rather the registration and response system than the actual crime rate. Therefore, an important task is to model and estimate the value of the so-called latency of crimes, i.e. the number of hidden and unregistered crimes. This allows us to come closer to a real assessment of the situation in a region and to identify the factors which affect changes in crime rates.

For the purpose of assessing the actual number of drug users, a mathematical model was created, taking into account the interdependence of such indicators as information concerning seizures of illicit trafficking, registered cases of drug ad- diction, opinion polls data and the intensity of the debate on drug-related topics in social networks. As a result, estimates were obtained which show that the actual number of persons taking drugs at least once in their lifetime exceeds the registered number by 50 times. This discrepancy describes the process as highly latent, which is an obstacle to obtaining a high accuracy of modelling and forecasting when using the above-mentioned sources of information, therefore, measures were proposed to reduce latency, for example, compulsory testing for drug traces in pupils, students, drivers and public employees. However, these measures have not been taken, pos- sibly because of fears that the reported cases of drug consumption are indirectly punishable under the criminal code and the very fact of such a discovery may lead to negative consequences for the system of identification and apprehension.

Even with the low accuracy of the model, the forecast of the development of the level of crime based on retrospective data provides the possibility of identifying trends and offers explanations of changes in dynamics (Fig. 17.1). For example,

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Reflection of the problem situation in reports of the response system, in the Internet (including the

blogosphere and social media)

PROBLEM SITUATION IN THE FIELD OF

PROLIFERATION OF DRUG ADDICTION

Presentation of the study paper (regular

or extraordinary)

Monitoring of problem situation

Governor of Saint Petersburg

Government

Modeling and forecasting

The Anti-Drug Commission

of Saint Petersburg

Response system

The State Program “Combating Proliferation of Drugs” (2013-2016)

Policy

Federal structures: ▪ The Federal Service of the Russian

Federation for Control Over the Circulation of Narcotics

▪ The Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Federal Security Service

District structures: ▪ Education ▪ Healthcare ▪ Other

Impact (influence) on the situation (of the event)

St. Petersburg Informational and Analytical Center

Fig. 17.2 Organizational tools for decision making and the response system according to results of informational and analytical activities on topics related to combating spread of drug addiction in Saint Petersburg

increases in recorded crime until 2011 were caused by increased migration from Central Asia and the reduction is a consequence of a series of municipal anti-drug programmes implemented in Saint Petersburg. The forecast predicting a growth in crime in 2013–2014 was due to a delay in the implementation of further anti-drug programmes.

The place of modelling and forecasting in the overall system of organizational tools to combat the spread of drug addiction in Saint Petersburg is shown in Fig. 17.2.

This example is one of the few successful examples of the practical application of the tools for modelling social or economic processes used for the purpose of policy formation and operational decision making.

17 Challenges to Policy-Making in Developing Countries 391

17.6 Conclusions

Analysis of the literature and projects’ performance in the field of information- analytical systems application in Russian for the improvement of socioeconomic processes leads to the following conclusions:

1. Systems of situational centres and federal vertically oriented systems (“Adminis- tration”) are actively developing in the last 5 years, but they are not integrated into decision-making procedures. These systems are used in crisis situations and for “brainstorming” in the elaboration and adoption of government programmes (or report generation), but their abilities are still clearly underestimate by decision makers.

2. The existing resources and capabilities of situational centres are not fully lever- aging. According to expert opinion, 90% of the existing situation centers are used only as a space for video conferencing. Only occasionally it used as a multidimen- sional view of data and multivariate analysis, as well as methods of situational modelling and forecasting.

3. There are serious problems with the financing for research (related to the de- velopment of situational forecasting and modeling), rarely to solving external experts. Meanwhile, in the USA, a separate budget line is allocated to finance the development of situational centres. Special federal contract system for the man- agement of intellectual property used in the management decisions also operates separately.

As a recommendation, which can alleviate these problems and gradually increase the effectiveness of the functioning of information and analytical systems in government in the Russian Federation, the experts include the following:

1. To link the problem of information-analytical systems in government with the priorities of the state policy to improve the functioning of the state and municipal government.

2. More active involvement in the development associated with situational modeling and prediction, network expert community building.

3. The inclusion of information systems of this class in the list of public information resources, denoting requirements as to the actual system, and to a set of informa- tion sources and operational updates related to this activity with the development of open government data (Open Gov Data).

4. Maintaining up-to-date bank of simulation results and ensuring the coordination of research in the field of simulation, in order to improve linkages between the models for the authorities, industries and regions (the Russian Federation, the industry, the Federal District, the subject of the Federation, the municipality).

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References

Analytics in Government Structures: Approaches and Solutions (2013) IT in government bodies 2013: review. CNews analytics. http://www.cnews.ru/reviews/free/gov2013/articles/ analitika_v_gosstrukturah_podhody_i_resheniya/

Afanasiev VG (1975) Social information and administration of society. Political literature. Moscow, 408 p

Glushkov VM (1987a) Some problems of use of computing machines for administration of social processes. Retrieved from: http://ogas.kiev.ua/glushkov/nekotorye-problemy-yspolzovanyya- vychyslytelnyh-mashyn-dlya-upravlenyya-sotsyalnymy-protses

Glushkov VM (1987b) Basics of paperless informatics. Nauka, Moscow, p. 552 Handbook of Analytical Centers (1994) Limits of power: annex to journal “XX century and the

world”, 1. Retrieved from: http://old.russ.ru/antolog/predely/1/econen.htm Kiriyenko VE (2012) IT systems of local government godies: from NAS to information society.

Tomsk. Retrieved from: http://www.asdg.ru/upload/isomsu.pdf Maiminas EZ (1971) Planning processes in economy: information aspect. Economy. Moscow, 392 p Mikheyev YuA (2001) Public administration system in information society and information and

communication technologies. VNIIPVTI, Moscow Novikova E, Demidov N (2012) Means of intellectual analysis and modeling of sophisticated

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Raykov A (2009) Thorny path of intellectual information technologies. Retrieved from: http://www.strf.ru/material.aspx?CatalogId†=392&d_no=19326#.UsJW7LS6lOA

Raykov AN (2009) Converged management and decision support. ICAR Publishing House, Moscow, p. 245

Site SAS “Administration” (2003) Retrieved from: http://www.gas-u.ru/docs/doc/show/2.35.htm Situational Centers at the Service of the State (2012) IT in government bodies 2012: review. CNews

Analytics. http://www.cnews.ru/reviews/free/gov2012/articles/articles6.shtml Stafford B (1994) Brain of the firm, 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471948391 Timofeyeva MA (2004) Institutions of political forecast in modern russia. Political analysis. Reports

of the Center of Empirical Political Studies of Saint Petersburg State University. Issued 5. Ed. by G.P. Artyomov. Saint Petersburg: Publishing House of Saint Petersburg University, 81–89. http://philosophy.spbu.ru/userfiles/politanalise/Politanalise05.doc

Why SAS “Administration” did not take off (2013) CNews analytics. http://www.cnews.ru/ reviews/?2013/07/08/534778

Chapter 18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy: A Comparative Overview of EU Policies and Projects

Diego Navarra and Simona Milio

Abstract This chapter will provide a comparative overview of existing policies and projects to achieve energy efficiency in the European Union (EU) region delivering a concise overview of the contribution of e-government to energy efficiency in view of climate change. A system dynamics (SD) model is also presented to show how good urban policy and governance can support extant as well as future information and communications technology (ICT) projects in order to reduce energy usage, rehabil- itate the housing stock and promote sustainable urban development. An additional contribution of the chapter is to show the role and significance of the cadastre to sustainable urban development e-government projects and the key characteristics of future policy and projects towards the European 2050 Agenda.

18.1 Introduction

What are the key characteristics of successful European initiatives in sustainable ur- ban governance? And how can e-government projects encourage sustainable urban development in view of climate change? This chapter will identify the multidis- ciplinary dimensions of e-government projects in energy efficiency and present representative cases and experiences from different areas of the European Union (EU) in order to identify the key characteristics of future policy (including fund- ing policy) that should be considered in practical developments and sustainability projects linked to the European 2050 policy agenda in different areas of the highly diverse European region. We find that, for the vast majority, existing and previous projects taking place in the EU (see Appendix 1) have been primarily centred around what we might consider as monodisciplinary approaches (i.e. approaches used from

D. Navarra (�) Studio Navarra, 25 Cleveland Gardens, London W2 6DE, UK e-mail: [email protected]

S. Milio London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 393 M. Janssen et al. (eds.), Policy Practice and Digital Science, Public Administration and Information Technology 10, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-12784-2_18

394 D. Navarra and S. Milio

a scientific discipline or subdisciplines without consulting any other discipline), em- phasizing IT solutions as tools to reduce energy consumption, or information and communications technology (ICT) systems and energy efficiency management sys- tems in buildings to monitor and transmit consumption data, rarely integrated or interoperable. At the same time energy and ICT systems (such as in energy trad- ing and performance management) have become increasingly interdependent and complex.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions (which are a major determinant of climate change) typically come from energy supply, transport and industry in urban areas (Parry and IPPC 2007). Urban and industrial energy use in particular accounts for 80 % of all GHG emission in the EU and it is at the root of climate change and most air pollution. ‘About 30–40 % of the total energy consumption in western countries is assigned to buildings. About 50 % of these refer to the energy consumption for indoor air conditioning (heating and cooling)’ (Pulselli et al. 2009). Regarding the effects of climate change on the built environment Roberts (2008) clarifies that build- ings play an important role in both adaptation and mitigation. Therefore, we argue that sustainable urban development, governance and policies informed by interdis- ciplinary approaches addressing future integrated energy monitoring and production needs can greatly contribute not only to improvements in energy efficiency but also facilitate mitigation and adaptation of urban areas to climate change.

18.2 Literature Review on EU Energy Security and ICT Policy

The point of departure of the EU’s (European Commission 2007) energy policy is threefold: combating climate change, limiting the EU’s external vulnerability to imported hydrocarbons, and promoting growth and jobs, thereby providing secure and affordable energy to consumers. The main focus of the EU’s policy is to move towards a single global regime and the mainstreaming of climate into other policies, which will be assigned 20 % of the entire 2014–2020 EU budget. The focus at the urban level is to produce the greatest results in energy efficiency integrating three sectors:

1. Urban energy production and use, by supporting policies aimed at establishing standards for increasing the efficiency of existing buildings, supporting new en- ergy efficient developments and conservation plans so as to minimize the use and production of fossil fuel-based electricity generation (OECD 1995).

2. Urban transport and mobility, by strengthening and implementing green transport policies aimed at increasing the share of cleaner transport options, such as public transportation for urban travel, zero-emissions vehicles (such as bicycles) and car sharing schemes (European Commission 1996).

3. Urban ICT, potentially affecting both of the sectors above and also the over- all potential contribution to the reduction of urban CO2 emissions in electricity production, use as well as in the construction of a dedicated city-wide ICT infrastructure for the evaluation of energy efficiency.

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 395

The EU has also developed a methodology to evaluate energy efficiency, relying on Internet-based ICT: the eeMeasure. The methodology is based on experimental projects carried out in public buildings and social dwellings. eeMeasure provides a first example of a European e-government policy aiming to increase energy efficiency using a common data collection approach and a single software system to collect and accommodate energy savings data across the pilot projects in both residential as well as nonresidential buildings. According to the eeMeasure website (eeMeasure 2014b) there are currently two ICT methodologies to measure energy efficiency: the residential methodology and the nonresidential methodology.

Both methodologies are based on the International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol, a framework used to determine water and energy costs associated with energy conservation measures (IPMVP 2002). eeMeasure method- ologies are developed from the experience of current and previous ICT projects which include approximately 10,000 social dwellings and 30 public buildings (such as hos- pitals and schools). The residential methodology is applicable only to dwellings and generally assumes a monthly measurement period. The main objectives of the eeMeasure methodologies are to: allow EU and related project parties to collect data in a centralized database, to produce better quantitative analyses of the energy sav- ing potential of ICT solutions in residential and nonresidential buildings, to facilitate the evaluation of behavioural changes occurring due to ICT solutions, and to better public awareness about energy efficiency and ICT solutions (eeMeasure 2014a).

It is possible to distinguish between three main areas of data collection to measure energy efficiency in the pilot projects. Data collected to measure energy efficiency statistically (i.e. estimation, calculation, parameters, demand response and avoided CO2 emissions) data collected to measure and quantify impact assessment (energy savings vs. socioeconomic status, energy savings vs. nationality, energy savings vs. cost of energy, physical and mental perception of comfort, perceived usabil- ity/usefulness of ICT solution) and finally qualitative data collected to understand behaviour: such as changes in energy use and habits. Reinforcing factors are those consequences of actions that give individuals positive or negative feedback for contin- uing their behaviour. These include information about the impacts of past behaviour (e.g. lower energy bill), feedback of peers, advice, and feedback by powerful actors. Enabling factors are the external constraints on behaviour. These factors allow new behaviour to be realized.

eeMeasure also collects data with respect to: (a) socio-demographic characteris- tics of tenants, (b) energy consumption behaviour, (c) ecological awareness: attitudes and knowledge, (d) user acceptance concerning consumption feedback services, (e) interest in the service and reasons for non-usage of passive users. The above are con- sidered together with behaviour and motivation influencing factors. These factors are awareness, knowledge, social influence, attitude, perceived capabilities and inten- tion. For people to intentionally change their energy behaviour, they must become aware of their energy use, pay notice to it, and be informed about the consequences. They must then be motivated to use the available information and instruments to control their energy use (International Energy Agency 2008; European Commission 2005; Hildyard 2011; Social Market Foundation 2003; United Nations 2004; World Bank 2013).

396 D. Navarra and S. Milio

The eeMeasure’s database includes a control building design methodology. In a control building design methodology the data is collected over the same period in time, both in the control and experimental groups, while experiencing differing influences on their behaviour such as a tightening credit crunch or a lengthening of school holidays. Control buildings are used to represent also the future exploitation of potential energy saving interventions using ICT. The calculation of energy saving is the result of the difference between the estimated nonintervention consumption in the control group and the measured energy consumption in the treatment (or experimental) group in the reporting period.

Appendix 1 outlines the pilot projects implementing the above-mentioned method- ology (and related policies) in the European region. The listed projects have been selected based on the significance of the methodology which will be derived for the European region. However, we also feel that their significance could be further if a significant discussion about how their possible application to entire urban areas could produce the same impacts and expected results. Thus, extending and integrating the data generated from those initial projects also with existing and new databases within the public administration could be a way to develop an even greater set of innova- tive services and solutions which can increase resource use awareness and resource management in all key energy forms.

Nevertheless, the eeMeasure methodology remains confined to a handful of projects, these are still to be completed, and afterwards the question about how to expand the scope of the methodology beyond individual buildings to become ap- plicable to entire urban areas will remain of interest. In fact, even if visible progress towards the conceptual identification of ICT enablers of energy efficiency has been made (see Fig. 18.1), thanks to intelligent monitoring systems within homes, or at the level if individual buildings, a great diversity of technologies and solutions adopted, a coherent set of results or policies applicable to the EU region is still lacking.

Essentially, the EU policy towards the funding of the eeMeasure methodology and related pilot projects developments can be linked to the first phase of EU support, centred around a first recognition of the potential role ICTs can play in improving energy performance, yet without an actual assessment of such technologies, if we exclude the outline in Table 18.1 providing some estimates from the ITU on the benefits of ICT solutions (ITU 2009).

However, up to a quarter of heat generated in houses can be lost though buildings’ roof and can account for much of total energy consumption in urban areas resulting in higher fuel and energy consumption as well as higher levels of emissions that can negatively affect climate change. Accurate visualizations of thermal loss data in buildings can, therefore, provide a first important step towards heat-loss maps giving both a view of energy use at peak times as well as the possibility to identify urban areas mostly affected by heat loss. In that context, cadastral and land administration organizations (as will be illustrated) could have a fundamental role to play as part of a wider e-government policy initiative able to address simultaneously both the phenomena of urban energy efficiency and security as well as climate change, which are closely related to each other.

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 397

Fig. 18.1 The five different ICT enablers of energy efficiency identified by European strategic research Roadmap to ICT enabled Energy-Efficiency in Buildings and constructions (REEB) (2010)

Table 18.1 ICT solutions and benefits. (Source: ITU 2009)

ICT solutions Benefits

Telework Telework by 10 % of workers in the EU-25 countries will reduce CO2 by 22 million t annually

Audio-conference Replacement of conferences by audio-conferences once a year by workers in the EU-25 countries will reduce CO2 by 2.128 million t annually

Videoconference Replacement of 20 % of business trips with videoconferences in the EU-25 countries will reduce CO2 by 22.35 million t annually

Online phone billing Online billing to all households with Internet access in the EU-15 countries and all mobile phone subscribers in the EU-25 countries will reduce CO2 by 1.03 million t annually

Web-based tax returns Filing tax returns over the Internet by all (193 million) workers in the EU-25 countries will reduce CO2 by 195,790 t annually

18.3 Case Studies

We now present four detailed case studies providing the comparative overview of existing EU policies and projects to achieve energy efficiency. These are: integrating energy efficiency and urban sustainability in Nordic Europe, the Dutch Kadaster, the Solar Atlas of Berlin and the Sicilian ‘Carta del Sole’. The cases have been selected based on their realized and future potential for sustainable urban development, as well as to show the diversity and differences in the application of EU energy security and climate change policies

398 D. Navarra and S. Milio

18.3.1 Integrating Energy Efficiency and Urban Sustainability

Northern Europe is regularly at the top of the green cities ranking according to the 2012 ‘Sustainable Cities Report’ (Sustainable cities 2012) launched at the RIO+20 United Nations Conference in Sustainable Development. Already in 2003, Oslo received the European Sustainable City Award, while Copenhagen is famous for the strong municipal character and national policies for the creation of an excellent record on environmental issues. Stockholm was given the European Green Capital Award in 2010. Unsurprisingly, the Economist Intelligence Unit named the city as the greenest in Europe in 2011.

In the Nordic region, Finland is considered the country where urban sustainability takes a national as well as a municipal character. Helsinki is rated top on environ- mental politics in the European Green Cities Index and has been lauded for its active citizens, who are aware of environmental matters and support of Helsinki’s environ- mental policy. The city displays an excellent record on air quality, waste utilization and construction. Its energy production is also extremely efficient at up to 90 % of all new developments, making lower emissions more achievable.

Other experiences in Finland include the City of Oulu, which is already a leader in energy-efficient building construction and city planning. Like in Helsinki, more than 90 % of new houses use low-energy buildings. The goal is that all new houses will be ‘passive houses’ by 2015, using zero energy building principles, and carbon neutral by 2020. Again in Finland, the city of Tampere launched the ECO2 project, emphasizing climate and energy issues in the city. The eco-efficiency of new urban plans is assessed comprehensively and energy system analyses in new areas are made. All new buildings in Tampere have to be at least energy class A from the beginning of 2012. Tampere hosts also Finland’s first passive energy day care centre, which started its operation in the beginning of 2012 and the new information centre for energy efficiency in construction and housing.

A useful set of metrics to measure urban sustainability and energy efficiency has been developed by the city of Amsterdam and is known as the Amsterdam Sustain- ability Index (ASI). Please see Fig. 18.2 displaying the index indicators used the city of Amsterdam to measure urban sustainability.

According to the ASI urban sustainability is measured through: (a) energy savings achieved by locally produced sustainable energy and the efficient use of fossil fuels, which reduce also CO2 emissions within the city; (b) mobility and air quality (Am- sterdam is expected to be an accessible city on condition that our transport system is sustainable); (c) sustainable innovative economy (international companies choose Amsterdam because doing sustainable business in Amsterdam is worthwhile); (d) materials and consumers: Amsterdam is a liveable city where citizens and compa- nies use raw materials in an effective way, live and act in a sustainable way and where the municipal organization itself demonstrates this approach. Low emissions energy systems, the harvesting of rainwater and clean water supply and sewage are just as important.

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 399

Pillars Indicator Indicators specified Source General indicators CO2 emissions per

inhabitant Annual CO2 emissions in tonnes of CO2 per inhabitant

Amsterdam Department for Research and Sta s cs

NOX emissions per inhabitant

Average concentra on NO2 + average concentra on NO, data from ten measuring sta ons

Amsterdam Health Department

Climate and Energy Energy use (households) per inhabitant

Annual energy use inhabitants in GJ per inhabitant

Liander, grid company

Sustainable energy produc on per inhabitant (inverse)

Annual sustainable energy produc on in GJ per inhabitant

Amsterdam Climate and Energy Bureau

Sustainable Mobility and Air Quality

Bicycle share in modal split (inverse)

Percentage of bicycles in total movement of bicycles + mopeds + motorbikes + cars on the Singelgracht

Amsterdam Department of Transport and Infrastructure

Share clean truck and lorries (inverse)

Percentage of trucks and lorries with Euro 4 or cleaner engine

TNO, research ins tute

Sustainable Innova ve Economy

A rac veness of Amsterdam for new companies

Ranking in European Ci es Monitor (ECM)

Cushman & Wakefield

Energy use per added value

Use of electricity and natural gas in MJ per euro added value

Liander, TNO and Amsterdam Department for Research and Sta s cs

Materials and Consumers

Amount of residual household waste per inhabitant

Residual waste from households in kg per inhabitant

Amsterdam Waste and Energy Company

Liveability indicator (inverse)

Value between 1 and 10 given by inhabitants when asked: 'How sa sfied are you with your own neighbourhood?'

Amsterdam Department for Research and Sta s cs

Fig. 18.2 The Amsterdam Sustainability Index. (Sustainable cities 2012)

Please note from the figure that climate and energy are considered to be part of the same pillar, likewise for indicators used to measure progress due to their high level of interdependency. It should also be noted that although the ASI provides and inter- esting benchmarking to measure the progress towards sustainability in an urban area,

400 D. Navarra and S. Milio

in Europe climate change related pressures will also affect rural environments and natural habitats driven also by human land use requirements, pollution and resource exploitation in urban areas. Progress towards urban sustainability (or the lack of it) could have severe impacts well beyond urban areas and not only as a consequence of decreasing water volume, higher temperatures and higher intensity rainfall. Hence, the role of national and municipal policies should not be underestimated. Anything from the promotion of ecological high-tech jobs, the redevelopment of brownfields, the diversity and ecological quality of services, access to low emissions public trans- port, pedestrian and bicycle systems and incentives for the construction of innovative house types can improve urban sustainability. However, policies shall also be car- ried forward by those organizations which can have a significant role in achieving the expected results. Albeit considering the fresh challenges which climate change presents not many countries have yet successfully experimented with overarching policy response collaborations with dedicated governance arrangements involving both the public and private sector organizations. According to climate tracker (WWF 2010) all of the EU 27 countries have failed on their developments in climate and energy policies on the way to achieving their goals towards 2050.

And while ICT can have a valuable role to play in sustainable urban development, yet no common understanding currently exists about the way in which the progress and future direction of existing policies and projects should be evaluated in terms of energy efficiency. The remaining of the chapter will emphasize the need of effective inter-institutional collaboration to establish effective data gathering and analysis systems able to cater for the integration and management of energy usage data with ICT able not only to monitor energy efficiency, but also to evaluate entire urban areas according to their energy labels, as well as to contribute to the policies which can stimulate sustainable urban development. Therefore, how can the vast amounts of data collected provide useful information to decision and policy makers and to support future sustainable policy and project initiatives in the EU? In other words, what is and what could be the contribution of e-government to energy efficiency in the EU?

18.3.2 The Dutch Kadaster

As one of the signatory parties to the Kyoto Protocol, the Netherlands’ government recognizes the urgency and scale of the global climate challenge: its goal is a 30 % reduction in GHG emissions by 2020, relative to the benchmark year of 1990, prefer- ably as part of a European effort. In view of the fact that 50 % of the land area in the Netherlands is located below sea level, it is no surprise that coping with the rising average seawater level, the higher run-off and discharge predictions for the major rivers and extreme precipitation forecasts is a priority. However, the govern- ment realizes that measures to cope with water management should be coupled to measures on land use, nature conservation, urbanization, transport and recreation. Therefore, the National Adaptation Policy is based on the concept of integrated

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 401

land-use planning, which combines objectives of sustainable coastal defense mea- sures, supplemented by robust river water systems, sustainable cities, climate-proof buildings and climate-proof agriculture. The Dutch Kadaster also supports land ac- quisition by the government in order to implement anti-flooding measures. The land consolidation expertise available at Kadaster is put into practice when the govern- ment aims at realizing better climate-proof agricultural business structures as well as subcatchments for river water. As a consequence of sea level rise, seawater will also penetrate further into the estuaries of the Rhine and Meuse, causing salt intrusion leading to high salt concentrations. In this area as well, Kadaster provides relevant land information to support land-based anti-salinization spatial planning.

Since January 1, 2008, legislation has entered into effect that requires an energy label to be available at the time of transactions related to the construction, sale or letting of houses and buildings. The energy label issued for a specific house provides information about the energy consumed during its standardized use. The registra- tion of energy labels of buildings is a result of the implementation of the Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD). In this directive, the EU has implemented the obligation to make an energy performance certificate for residential and utility buildings available for the prospective owner. This obligation was implemented with the direct aim of promoting the energy performance of buildings and is effective for all member states of the EU (Brounen et al. 2011).

In the Netherlands, this legislation has been implemented since January 2008. An energy label is now required during sale, letting or construction transactions of real estate. The energy labels are registered in the registers of the Dutch Cadastre and as such publicly available. These energy labels form a new category in the land registers. To date, the Dutch Kadaster has registered about 50,000 labels. Starting with the core data, cadastral parcels, buildings and ownership rights it is possible to attach relevant information attributes and design these into coherent and tailor-made information packages. These information packages can be used in the context of the policy issues as for climate change policies and energy policies (Vranken and Broekhof 2012). The energy labels are open for public inspection, as is all cadastral data. Kadaster supports the government in providing not only all information about land tenure, value and use of land and houses, but also about public properties and environmental limitations regarding use, noise, soil pollution and nuisance.

18.3.3 The Solar Atlas of Berlin

Another interesting European case study of the application of ICT for the efficient use of energy and to foster the development of renewable sources of energy is the Solar Atlas of Berlin. It is based on initial calculations for the German city of Berlin, which suggested that about two thirds of the entire energy consumption and small businesses could be generated on the city’s roofs.

The implementation of the Solar Atlas of Berlin has three main objectives: the first objective is to display the location of existing solar installations in the city; the second

402 D. Navarra and S. Milio

objective is to visualize the potential of the solar industry in Berlin and finally the third objective is to highlight rooftops suitable for solar panel installation. In order to calculate the city’s potential for solar energy production and installations down to the individual building a comprehensive and realistic 3D city model integrated to the solar atlas was developed. According to the project’s description (Berlin Partner 2011): ‘to create the model, the city’s about 500,000 buildings in area of 890 km2

were surveyed using aerial photography, and their roofs were measured with lasers. In addition, detailed models were created for about 80 landmarks, five of which can even be explored from the inside (Olympic Stadium, Sony Center, The Reichstag Building, DZ-Bank, and the Central Train Station)’.

For each suitable area the 3D model allows the calculation of solar energy potential by combining data on insulation, roof size, potential electricity generation, potential CO2 savings, power in kilowatts and investment volume. This makes it possible for both owners and investors in real estate to find out whether or not the roof of a building is suitable for use as a source of energy, and whether or not such an investment would be sensible. The atlas, which was especially designed and developed for home and business owners, was first implemented in two pilot areas with a total of 19 km2, is now online and free to access by residents.

18.3.4 The Sicilian ‘Carta del Sole’

The Southern European region has to our knowledge (with the notable exception of Spain) not yet produced a lighthouse project or initiative which can be seen as to epitomize the direction set by the European roadmap to 2050. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile mentioning the Sicilian ‘Carta del Sole’, ten rules which were under- signed in 2012 by a number of industry and public sector representatives as well as the then candidates to the regional presidency. The ideas contained in those rules included the practical development of a variety of plants for distributed energy production also from citizens, public organizations and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), centered around thermodynamic solar concentration, an idea conceived by an Italian Nobel Laureate, thanks to the aid of European structural funds.

Sicily has always been a problematic area of Europe, characterized by the diffi- culty of developing projects able to make use of assigned European resources, thus the Sicilian ‘Carta del Sole’ and its signatory parties pledged for an action plan aimed at broad environmental sustainability policies with the intention of supporting eco- nomic development with specific calls to be published by 2015. No action has so far followed. Regulations in support of integrated solutions in buildings are lacking, administrative procedures remain highly bureaucratized and complex and credit fa- cilities supporting the diffusion of energy efficiency based on the increased use of renewable sources of energy are longed for.

It might then come as a surprise that at the same time the most modern European plant for the production of electricity with thermodynamic concentrated solar power based on the idea of Carlo Rubbia, an Italian Nobel Laureate, was opened in the

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 403

same region in 2010. Therefore, Sicily provides an interesting case of the challenges faced by Southern European regions to fully take on the developments which the availability of solar resources can support. In particular, large areas of the public administration remain unaware of the needs and skills needed to support distributed energy production and the innovations required in the existing housing stock in sup- port of the necessary improvements in urban sustainability are also not always known from citizens. Finally, one of the most striking issues is the regional government’s lack of action in support of a signed agreement which could crucially ratify, with the availability of the needed resources from the European structural funds, the necessary projects in furtherance an innovative model of sustainable urban development. The former could at the same time become a test-bed for European regions in a similar situation, also to ascertain the extent to which the applicability of European policies and funding mechanisms can be applied from the rooms of Brussels to diverse social and economic realities.

18.4 Policy Implications for Future EU Funding Policy and Projects’ Evaluation

Beyond ICT, e-government can be used in a broad range of city functions that can directly impact urban sustainability as well indirectly produce economic recovery dy- namics. These include urban policy development, planning and citizen engagement; public works, infrastructure development and maintenance (including transport plan- ning and road and highway management); land administration; cadastral survey; environmental protection; coastal, ports and marine management; law enforcement and security; public health management; visualization of urban environment, demo- graphic trends and social conditions for use by elected officials and citizens; and last but not least the evaluation and monitoring of cities energy efficiency (Navarra and van der Molen 2010, 2014).

The case studies presented in this chapter show that future EU funding policy and the evaluation of projects aimed at increasing sustainability and energy efficiency in urban areas should become more interdisciplinary and holistic. In doing so, it is important also to recognize, beyond ICT, what are the key components of future policies and projects developments. In the future, the role and significance of cadas- tre and land registration organizations as part of a wider e-government system for the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of urban energy efficiency needs to be highlighted.

The role and significance of the cadastre and land registration authorities to sus- tainable urban development rests with the usefulness of the large-scale cadastral map as a tool able to expose a ‘representation of the human scale of land use and how people are connected to their land’ (Williamson et al. 2010). As it is possible to see from Fig. 18.3, the digital cadastral representation of the human scale of the built environment and the cognitive understanding of land use patterns in peoples’ farms, businesses, homes, and other developments form the core cadastral information sets,

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Fig. 18.3 Significance of the cadastre. (Williamson et al. 2010)

can enable a country to build an overall administrative framework to deliver sus- tainable urban development when well established within e-government projects, as shown in the previous case study.

The key question would then be: which approach or method could be adopted to make sense of the data produced from the integration of such large-scale databases resulting from the interinstitutional collaborations necessary to deliver according to new future funding priorities and to increase policy effectiveness?

Multiple indicators for assessing the contribution of ICT to energy efficiency should consider also the political nature of the development and management of ICT. This introduces a further difficulty to understand not only the cost of such in- formation and value of the services that rely on them, but also of the effectiveness of the processes using ICT to provide these services, which together with informational elements have also distinct technological and social qualities. As a consequence, the contribution of ICT should be both conceived and evaluated with an apt interdisci- plinary approach and a sound data validation and integration approach which can enable energy efficiency and help ascertain and create the conditions for replication of e-government initiatives on a large scale across Europe.

Navarra and Bianchi (2013) demonstrated how system dynamics (SD) modelling can be used in complex systems such as e-government policy and ICT systems as an aid to support territorial analysis, planning and governance, sustainable performance in urban areas and the assessment of policy outcomes. The approach is relevant for application in renewable energy, efficiency, the design and exploitation of urban energy, water and waste management infrastructure and the alignment of differ- ent stakeholders involved. Therefore, the methodological approach adapted from Navarra and Bianchi (2013) is considered to be especially relevant for this chapter.

The advantage of using this approach is placing performance measures into the broader context of the system, responding to the reality that even simple policy and process changes to impact specific outputs and outcomes are not likely to be that ‘simple’ in reality. The main focus is on the wider system, and policy implications

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 405

Fig. 18.4 A dynamic performance management view. (Bianchi 2012; Navarra and Bianchi 2013)

for each player can be taken by the light of the responses that the observed system’s behaviour is likely to give, as a consequence of changes in its structure. SD can then be used to enrich performance management in local government, focusing specifically on how the development of conceptual and simulation models can foster a common shared view of the relevant system and the expected end results among stakehold- ers. This approach is especially suitable when the number and range of stakeholders involved in making decisions influencing strategic resource dynamics—and, there- fore, the relevant system’s performance—are located in several organizational units and institutions within a given territorial area, as it is the case of the e-government policies and projects of interest in this study.

Figure 18.4 illustrates how in SD the end-results provide an endogenous source in an organization to the accumulation and depletion processes affecting (political as well as) strategic resources. In fact, they can be modelled as in- or outflows, which change over a given time span the corresponding stocks of strategic resources, as a result of actions implemented by decision makers.

End-results that most synthetically measure the overall organizational perfor- mance, are flows affecting the accumulation of corresponding strategic resources that cannot be purchased. These are: (1) resources generated by management routines, and (2) financial resources. Figure 18.4 also highlights that performance drivers are a measure of factors on which to act in order to affect the final performance. For instance, if related to an end-result such as the number of new business initiatives undertaken in a urban area in a given time span, corresponding performance drivers could be associated with the (financial and sociopolitical) perceived stability of a re- gion, and to the perceived transparency and promptness of the public sector (e.g. in terms of authorization protocols or supply of various services, such as those related

406 D. Navarra and S. Milio

to security, transportation, social assistance, housing). On the other hand, energy efficiency improvements could result from combining software, hardware, data pro- vision and a web-portal service that enables free-of-charge, automatic assessment of domestic waste-heat footprints by simply clicking on a house in easily accessible map interface. Although the closest as a pilot project in Europe is to such an ambi- tion is currently developed by the Netherlands Cadastre, if successful in the future a similar approach could also be used also to evaluate energy efficiency of an entire city at a glance.

Such a pilot could also identify the top 10,000-plus hottest houses in an area, enabling planners and policy makers to evaluate and compare the energy efficiency of different communities allowing them to formulate more informed advice, for in- stance for sponsoring energy-saving retro-fit incentives, focused repairs on weaker parts of a roof and to verify the effectiveness of post-renovation. Citizens can en- ter information about the material of the roof directly to determine the material’s emissivity: a measure of the material’s ability to radiate absorbed energy, which in turn allows accurate, and house-specific energy consumption and saving modelling. Finally, an intuitive graphical user interface can enable the retrieval of house area from the city’s cadastral data and determines a fuel table model, which can be used to estimate the costs per day of heating based on the roof’s temperature using several types of fuel, but also total monetary and GHG footprint costs and savings per year for each house.

18.5 Concluding Remarks

The examples from successful European experiences in urban sustainability and energy efficiency show some similarities: (1) a strong municipal vision for the city as a green-hub based around economic, social and cultural growth, according to nature’s ability to sustain that growth ecologically; (2) focussed efforts on improving transport sustainability; (3) a dynamic approach to model possible areas of environmental impact or improvement; (4) an integrated e-government system, consideration of the environment in budgets and excellent planning, reporting and monitoring. The main policy implications of this brief chapter, therefore, are:

• Cadastral data can be incorporated in e-government and to calculate the integrated energy performance of buildings, for sponsoring energy saving retro-fit incentives and changes in taxation for communities with high heat loss and accurate house- specific energy modelling and to produce consistent and reliable evaluations of energy use in buildings for compliance with building regulations, for building energy performance certification purposes.

• Interinstitutional arrangements, legal frameworks, fiscal incentives, processes, standards and deliver meaningful information to citizens and decision makers should be promoted as key approaches to the use of government and non- government data for climate change mitigation and adaption policies, projects and for sustainable urban development dynamics in the future (Navarra and Bianchi 2013).

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 407

In conclusion, to encourage sustainable urban development in view of climate change and to promote energy efficiency, cadastres as part of government should enhance the development of focused policy measures with the aid of ICT in three main ar- eas of urban sustainability adaptation and mitigation: infrastructure planning, energy efficiency and green building developments. Innovative ecosystems combining com- plex systems integration across the public and private sector in specific e-government projects built centred on good governance arrangements and interinstitutional collab- oration are an essential first step towards the achievement of greater energy efficiency in urban areas. Nevertheless, further studies will be needed in order to improve our un- derstanding of the relatively unknown impact e-government can have on behavioural change, which can also support even greater energy efficiency and resilience in urban areas.

18.6 Appendix 1: Selected EU Policies and Projects in E-Government and Energy Efficiency

Name of project Web reference Description

3eHouses—saving energy & environment across Europe

www.3ehouses.eu Objectives: the project aims at implementing and testing an integrated and replicable ICT-based solution

Expected results: to bring a significant reduction of 25 % of energy consumption in European social housing by providing tenants with feedback on actual consumption and by offering personalized advice for improving their EE and increasing the share of RES

Impact: the project will monitor and transmit consumption data to Energy Services Companies which could enable real-time energy audits in order to perform more accurate refurbishment decisions as well as maintenance operations

BECA—balanced European conservation approach—ICT services for resource saving in social housing

www.beca- project.eu

Objectives: the project addresses the need to reduce energy consumption in European social housing by a very significant amount to meet overall emission reduction targets

Expected results: to substantially reduce peak and overall demand for energy and water across EU social housing, BECA will develop a full set of innovative services for resource use awareness and resource management. Impact: balance is achieved by addressing not only energy but water, by including all key energy forms—electricity, gas and heating—and by including strong activities in Eastern Europe as well as in the North, South and West of the EU

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Name of project Web reference Description

Best Energy—Built Environment Sustainability and Technology in Energy

www.bestenergy project.eu

Objectives: the project aims to integrate building and lighting technology and state-of-the-art ICT technology into innovative control and monitoring systems

The main objective of this project is to improve the energy efficiency in public buildings and street public lighting, by the ICT-based centralized monitoring and management of the energy consumption and production, and to provide decision makers with the necessary tools to be able to plan energy saving measures

Expected results and impact: to achieve an energy consumption reduction of 12 % in buildings and 30 % in public lighting systems

e3SOHO—ICT services for Energy Efficiency in European Social Housing

www.e3soho.eu Objectives: the project aims at implementing and testing an integrated and replicable ICT-based solution

Expected results: to bring a significant reduction of 25 % of energy consumption in European social housing by providing tenants with feedback on actual consumption and by offering personalized advice for improving their EE and increasing the share of RES

Impact: the project will monitor and transmit consumption data to Energy Services Companies which could enable real-time energy audits in order to perform more accurate refurbishment decisions as well as maintenance operations

EDISON—Energy Distribution Infrastructure for Ssl Operative Networks

www.project- edison.eu

Objectives: the project aims to demonstrate, under real operational conditions, that a smart lighting system improves energy efficiency, reduces CO2 emissions and encourages the use of small-scale renewable energy sources in European public buildings (e.g. schools, museums, administrative offices, hospitals, etc.)

Expected results: to realize a smart energy platform (SEP), mainly aimed at delivering an efficient lighting system. This combination is able to provide more than 60 % reduction in on-going electricity costs, and is also able to reduce building maintenance costs. Measurement and analysis tools and metering indicators of energy performance, acting to demonstrate clear energy savings, have a relevant role in the Pilots

Impact: the goal of the experimental actions is to validate the effectiveness of the proposed ICT (SEP) solution for smart lighting, to serve as showcases to these technologies, and to facilitate their wider uptake and replication

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 409

Name of project Web reference Description

eSESH—Saving Energy in Social Housing with ICT

www.esesh.eu Objectives: the project aims to design, develop and pilot new solutions to enable sustained reductions in energy consumption across European social housing

Expected results: providing usable ICT-based services for energy management (EMS) and energy awareness (EAS) directly to tenants, providing effective ICT monitoring and control of local generation of power and heat and by providing social housing providers, regional and national government with the data they need to optimize their energy-related policy and investment decisions at national, regional and organizational level

Impact: the project will help Europe meet emission targets by achieving a significant reduction of energy consumption in European social housing

GREEN@Hospital— web-based enerGy management system foR the optimization of the EnErgy coNsumption in Hospitals

www.greenhospital- project.eu

Objectives: the project aims at integrating the latest ICT solutions in order to obtain a significant energy saving in existing hospital buildings, through a better management of energy resources and losses reduction

Expected results: the realization of web-based energy management and control systems—web-EMCS—which integrates monitors and controls multiple buildings systems at the component level. Four different hospitals have been selected across Europe to take part in the pilot in order to demonstrate the validity of the proposed solution under real operating conditions

Impact: the study will be the basis for possible replications of the solutions taking into account savings and return of investments

HosPilot—efficient energy efficiency control in hospitals

www.hospilot.eu Objectives: the project is envisioned as an expert system providing—to the technical advisor or facility manager of a hospital—information on possibilities for energy saving by making educated choices between different available technical improvements for lighting and HVAC

Expected results: energy conservation

Impact: estimated payback period/ total cost of ownership, or, if this is not possible to access without an in-situ investigation, the relative installation difficulty

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Name of project Web reference Description

ICE WISH— demonstrating through Intelligent

www.ice-wish.eu Objectives: to design, integrate and pilot an innovative solution for social housing, using mature and interactive ICT

Control (smart metering, wireless technology, cloud computing, and user-oriented display information), energy and water wastage reductions in European Social Housing

Expected results and impact: to enable sustained reductions of energy and water consumption of at least 15 % below the current practice, without compromising living conditions, across 300 social dwellings in ten European countries, with latitudes ranging from 56 to 38◦N

LiTES: Led-based intelligent street lighting for energy saving

www.lites- project.eu

Objectives: to deliver an intelligent public street lighting service using solid-state lights LED in order to reduce energy consumption

Expected results: manufacturing the LED technology and the embedded intelligence, it is significant energy saving potential up to 70 %. The core element of the solution is the dimming of the lamp depending on the environment; a set of embedded sensors measures ambient light, temperature, current, and detect motion

Impact: output data of sensors is then processed by the embedded intelligence allowing optimum regulation of light levels

Save energy www.ict4saveen ergy.eu

Objectives: address the challenge of behaviour transformation through the use of ICT (serious game and real-time information) as an enabler of energy efficiency in five public building in five European cities—Helsinki, Leiden, Lisbon, Luleå and Manchester

Expected results and impact: to provide an engaging virtual environment for users, citizens and policy makers to gain awareness, understanding and experience associated with energy saving attitudes

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 411

Name of project Web reference Description

SHOWE-IT—real-life trial in Social Housing, of Water and Energy efficiency ICT services

www.showe-it.eu Objectives: the project aims to reduce energy and water consumption in social housing against (for all stakeholders) favourable conditions, by creating a win–win situation where the different stakeholders all have something to gain

Expected results: this project should prove the attribution that ICT solutions could make to create these circumstances and help to create situations for replication that will be attractive and accepted on a large scale across Europe. To make the results of the project also financially viable we expect to need savings of around 20 % in consumption

Impact: SHOWE-IT consists of three pilot sites in Rochdale (UK), St Etienne (FR) and Botkyrka (SE) where a total of 211 households will be provided with human-centred, ICT enabled services to save energy and water

SMARTBUILD— Implementing smart ICT concepts for energy efficiency in public buildings

www.smartbuild.eu Objectives and expected results: the project will be implemented in existing public buildings in Germany, Italy, Slovenia and Greece in order to reach energy savings in annual and peak consumption up to 35 % and to provide social–economic benefits to building users, to building managers, to public authorities and to distributor network operators

Impact: The “Far Echo” ICT system has already been installed and successfully tested for more than 1 year in Italy. The “Far Echo” ICT system will be implemented in each pilot building according to the building characteristics and National standards

SMARTSPACES— Saving energy in Europe’s public buildings using ICT

www.smartspaces. eu

Objectives: the project enables public authorities in Europe significantly to improve their management of energy in the buildings they occupy

Expected results: The SMARTSPACES energy optimization service exploits the potential of ICT including smart metering for significant energy saving in public buildings

Impact: The implementation of operational services includes 11 pilot sites with more than 550 buildings in 8 countries with almost 20,000 professionals and staff users and reaching more than 6,000,000 visitors annually. The project is cofunded by the European Commission within the CIP ICT Policy Support Programme

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Name of project Web reference Description

VerySchool— Valuable EneRgY for a smart School

www.veryschool.eu Objectives: the project is a result-oriented project focused on Pilot demonstration and validation actions, with the Energy Action Navigator (EAN) at the core of the development

Expected results: engage the subset of schools in the building domain developing a fundamental understanding of ISO 50001 international standard and a business process for systematic Energy Management Programme (EMP) in schools, with specification of the requirements for establishing, implementing, maintaining and improving the energy management system (EnMS) in the form of a more efficient and sustainable energy

Impact: to be effective in energy management (in schools, and beyond) the VERYSchool project develops a roadmap on how to bring ICT solutions with cutting edge technologies and action management, that matches the specific needs of schools

EnergyTic— Technology, Information and Communication services for engaging social housing residents in energy and water efficiency

www.energy- tic.eu

Objectives: a demonstration project that will put into practice innovative ICT solutions available in different countries (France, Spain and later on a third cluster). Expected results and impact: providing the end-users with an easy to understand/intuitive solution allowing him to monitor and adapt its energy and water consumption

SMART CAMPUS— building-user learning interaction for energy efficiency

greensmartcampus. eu

Objectives: the project aims at the development of services and applications supported by a data gathering platform

Expected results and impact: to integrate real-time information systems and intelligent energy management systems that drive a bidirectional learning process such that the user learns how to interact with the building and the building learns how to interact with the user in a more energy efficient way

18 Sustainable Urban Development, Governance and Policy 413

18.7 Appendix 2: Research Projects Identified by REEB as Being Relevant for the ICT as a Motor Project

Name of project

Web reference Description

AIM http://www.ict- aim.eu/home.html

A novel architecture for modelling, virtualizing and managing the energy use of household appliances. The main objective is to foster a harmonized technology for profiling and managing the energy use of appliances at home. AIM seeks to introduce energy monitoring and management mechanisms in the home network and to provide a proper service creation environment to serve virtualization of energy use, with the final aim of offering users a number of stand-alone and operator services Duration: 2008–2010

ADDRESS http://www.addressfp7. org/index.html

Acronym for ‘Active Distribution network with full integration of Demand and distributed energy RESourceS’

ADDRESS wants to study, develop and validate solutions to enable active demand and exploit its benefits

To enable active demand ADDRESS intends to: – Develop technical solutions both at the

consumer’s premises and the power system level

– Identify the possible barriers against active demand development and develop recommendations and solutions to remove these barriers considering economic, regulatory, societal and cultural aspects

To exploit the benefits of active demand ADDRESS will: – Identify the potential benefits for the different

power system participants – Develop appropriate markets and contractual

mechanisms to manage the new scenarios – Study and propose accompanying measures to

deal with societal, cultural and behavioural aspects. Duration: 2008–2012

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Name of project

Web reference Description

BeAware http://www.energyaware ness.eu/beaware/about/

BeAware studies how ubiquitous information can turn energy consumers into active players by developing: an open and capillary infrastructure wirelessly sensing energy use at appliance level in the home and mobile interaction to integrate energy use profiles into users’ everyday life. Value added service platforms and models are provided where consumers can act on ubiquitous energy information and energy producers and other actors gain new business opportunities. The prime challenge in BeAware is to provide consumers with a new kind of feedback about electricity conservation and turn them into active and responsible consumers Duration 2008–2011

BeyWatch http://www.beywatch.eu/ about.php

Building Energy Watcher’ aims to design, develop and evaluate an innovative, energy-aware and user-centric solution, able to provide intelligent energy monitoring/control and power demand balancing at home/building and neighbourhood level Duration 2008–2010

BuildWise http://zuse.ucc.ie/buildwise/ The objective of this project is to specify, design and validate a data management technology platform that will support integrated energy and environmental management in buildings utilizing a combination of wireless sensor network technologies, an integrated data model and data mining methods and technologies. Energy and environmental performance management systems for residential buildings do not exist and consist of an ad hoc integration of wired building management systems and monitoring and targeting systems for nonresidential buildings. These systems are unsophisticated and do not easily lend themselves to cost-effective retrofit or integration with other enterprise management systems. Duration 2007–2010

References

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Bianchi Carmine (2012) Enhancing performance management and sustainable organizational growth through system dynamics modeling. In: Groesser SN, Zeier R (eds) Systemic man- agement for intelligent organizations: Concepts, model-based approaches, and applications. Heidelberg, Springer-Publishing

Brounen D, Kok N, Quigley JM (2011) Residential energy use and conservation: economics and demographics. Eur Econ Rev 56:931–945

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eeMeasure (Producer) (2014a) Definition of methodologies. http://www.3ehouses.eu/sites/ default/files/3e-HOUSES_-_Deliverable_1_2_Definition_of_Methodologies_v12Annex.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2014

eeMeasure (2014b) Methodologies. http://eemeasure.smartspaces.eu/eemeasure/generalUser/ methodology. Accessed 22 Dec 2014

European Commission (1996) Energy savings in urban transport. Luxembourg Brussels: Office for the Official Publications of the European Community; European Commission, Directorate Gen- eral I–External Economic Relations. Tacis Information Office. Tacis Technical Dissemination Project

European Commission (2005) Directorate-general for energy and transport. Doing more with less: green paper on energy efficiency. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

European Commission (2007) An energy policy for Europe. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_ policy/doc/01_energy_policy_for_europe_en.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2014

Hildyard L (2011) Delivering energy efficiency in London: practical options for London boroughs to engage with the green deal and energy company obligation. Future of London, London

International Energy Agency (2008) Assessing measures of energy efficiency performance and their application in industry. http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ jprg_info_paper-1.pdf

IPMVP (2002) Concepts and options for determining energy and water savings, Vol I. I. P. M. V. P. Committee (ed) http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/31505.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2014

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Navarra DD, Bianchi C (2013) Territorial governance, e-governance and sustainable development policy: a system dynamics approach. Paper presented at the IIFP EGOV 2013, Koblenz

Navarra D, van der Molen P (2010) A global perspective on the role of cadastres in greening urban real estate markets. Paper presented at the UNECE-UBA Conference on Greening Real Estate Markets, Dessau, Germany

Navarra D, van der Molen P (2014) A global perspective on cadastres and Geo-ICT for sustainable urban governance in view of climate change. ACE Archit City Environ 24(8):58–72

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Parry ML, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group II (2007) Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press

Pulselli RM, Simonchi E, Marchettini N (2009) Energy and energy based cost-benefit evaluation of building envelopes. Build Environ 44:920–928

REEB (2010) ICT-based energy efficiency in construction—best practices guide REEB European strategic research roadmap to ICT enabled energy efficiency in buildings and constructions. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/sustainable_growth/docs/sb_publications/ reeb_ee_construction.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2014

Roberts S (2008) Effects of climate change on the built environment. Energy Policy 36:4552–4557 Social Market Foundation (2003) Household energy efficiency: meeting the challenges. Social

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efficiency and promotion of a sustainable energy future. New York: United Nations Vranken M, Broekhof S (2012) Contribution of Cadastral Information to Climate Change Policy

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Chapter 19 eParticipation, Simulation Exercise and Leadership Training in Nigeria: Bridging the Digital Divide

Tanko Ahmed

. . . behind every technology is somebody who is using it and this somebody is a society . . . Ernesto Che Guevara de La Serna (1963)

Abstract The digital divide remains formidable in scaling information and com- munication technology (ICT)-enabled opportunities for effective leadership and development in countries lagging behind. In a country like Nigeria, leadership and development challenges often hinge on the lack of effective coordination beneficial of eParticipation. This chapter discusses the application and practice of ePartici- pation in simulation exercise for leadership training in Nigeria. The Crisis Game, a simulation exercise, of the Nigeria’s National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS) provides a case study with the theme of political zoning. Three major theories of structuration, institutional and actor-network are used to ascertain the significance of eParticipation in bridging digital divide. Its findings include low level and inadequate utilization of ICT devices and processes for eParticipation at the highest level of leadership training in Nigeria. The chapter recommends stronger institutionalization of ICT support; public enlightenment; collaborative research on eParticipation; and legislation for enhancing eParticipation capability in bridging global digital divide.

19.1 Introduction

19.1.1 Background

The digital divide, based on accessibility to information and communication technol- ogy (ICT), remains formidable in scaling opportunities for countries lagging behind. The practice of eParticipation provides an avenue for adaptation, application and

T. Ahmed (�) National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS), Kuru, Jos, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 417 M. Janssen et al. (eds.), Policy Practice and Digital Science, Public Administration and Information Technology 10, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-12784-2_19

418 T. Ahmed

utilization of ICT, as subset of eGovernance, in the realm of eDemocracy. This ar- rangement depicts a context and need for bridging existing digital gap within and across countries in global context.

This divide arises from the technological backwardness of developing countries in contrast with advancement in developed countries. A revolutionary call for ac- quisition and application of technology for societal building and development came from Ernesto Che Guevara de La Serna (1963):

. . . every technology should be used to the benefit of the greatest number of people so that we can build the society of the future, no matter what name it may be called. Guevara (1963)

As the world moves at a faster and voluminous pace, the need to acquire technology and the skill to use it is increasing at the rate beyond those societies that are unable to remedy their inadequacies. The essence of bridging the digital divide therefore rests on the systematic application of ICT capacity building through eParticipation. The challenges and opportunities in achieving this provides the impetus for this work.

The challenges to meet this pressure are enormous, but not insurmountable. The means to remedy such challenges are abundantly available in ICT-supported pro- cesses like eParticipation. The ICT is an enabler, as well as an equalizer, only if deliberate efforts are made to utilize its inherent opportunities. It is pertinent to view eParticipation as seemly beyond the immediate access of individuals and institutions. As cited in preceding sections of this work, however, the opportunities are indeed within reach through ideas and practices expressed at local to global fora.

The United Nations (UN), in support of countries at lower level of the emerg- ing information age, organized World Summits on Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva and Tunis, in 2003 and 2005, respectively. This decade-long activity has so far instituted strong attempts towards building a people-oriented information soci- ety for all. The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) also aim at making half of the world’s population to have ICT access by 2015 (UN–ITU 2011). Thus, it behooves for ICT-based solutions in eParticipation to echoed at various global fora (Phang and Kankanhalli 2008; Butka et al. 2010) reflective of local to global structure of the digital divide.

19.1.2 Literature Flow

Literature on eParticipation tends to flow in multi-access stream, allowing for group contribution and utilization, mostly intensified by the UN–WSIS approach. A case in view is the Third International Federation for Information Processing held in the Netherlands at Delft, August/September 2011, with proceedings well circulated across the globe at all levels. Lee and Kim (2013) recognize that growing body of literature make emphasis on eParticipation as means of facilitating greater citizen participation. The eGovPoliNet, the policy community, aims at building a global multidisciplinary digital government and policy research and practice (eGovPoliNet 2014). This work contributes to a project by the eGovPoliNet on ICT-based or digital

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solution for governance and policy by bringing to light the need to bridge the gap in local to global digital divide.

19.1.3 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria is a developing country, diverse and divided, where challenges in governance and overall democratic practices often hinge on effective coordination. Imobighe (1988, p. 4) opine that Nigerian leaders are not adequately conversant with tech- niques of effective coordination. This situation can be improved by application of ‘eParticipation’ principles and practice, particularly in leadership training for pol- icymakers. This chapter discusses the application of eParticipation principles and practice in ‘simulation exercise’ for ‘leadership training’. The Crisis game, a simula- tion exercise, of National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS) is dealt as a case study on eParticipation, with the theme of ‘political zoning’.

19.1.4 Aim and Objectives

The chapter focuses on the use of innovative instruments and technologies as solution to policy problems through eParticipation as a contribution to bridging the digital divide. Its points of inquiry include:

a. What are the concepts and relationships of digital divide, eParticipation, simulation exercise, crisis game, leadership training, and political zoning?

b. How eParticipation is applicable to simulation exercises? c. To what extent eParticipation in leadership training can contribute in bridging the

digital divide? d. What recommendations can be proffered in promoting eParticipation for eGov-

ernance in the realm of eDemocracy in Nigeria?

19.1.5 Significance

The significance of this chapter is on the need to bridge the digital divide, from personal to local, national and global eParticipation, as a subset of e-government in the realm of eDemocracy. Its findings and recommendations would serve to improve much needed leadership skills for national development in Nigeria. It will also open grounds for scholarly and professional dialogue, understanding, and further research on the way forward in the field of eParticipation. It is hoped that the digital divide will close ranks from its lowest to the highest across the world, in a ‘glocal’ context.

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19.2 Theoretical Framework

19.2.1 Major Theories in eParticipation

Major theories associated with application of eParticipation in activities of capacity building include the structuration, institutional, and actor-network. These theories address how ways of doing things affect the way such things are done. Islam (2008) suggests a framework for an effective eParticipation model applicable to any coun- try targeting some essential common elements for universal applicability. This is based on some theories and lessons learned from eParticipation practices in both developing and developed countries in the digital divide architecture. A triad of structuration, institutional, and actor-network are explained and constructed into a thrust, as follows:

a) Structuration Theory

Structural theory suggests that human activity and larger structures relate with each other in such a way that structures are produced or altered by new ways and means (Gauntlett 2002). The local to global structure of the digital divide is a construct which can be produced or altered by applied principles of eParticipation, especially associated with institutional practices. This is expressed in the earlier UNs’ WSIS cited above.

b) Institutional Theory

Institutional theory asserts that institutional environment influence the devel- opment of formal structures by diffusion of innovative structures http://faculty. babson.edu. Captured in the process of leadership training module, the tenets of this theory combine to impart eParticipation to beneficiaries as they engage in an interactive actor-network activities or exercise.

c) Actor-Network Theory

Actor-network theory treats individual objects as part of larger structure, map- ping relations between things and meanings, in a network of relations (Latour 1987, 1999, 2005; Law and Hassard 2005). A situation of simulated exercise ex- poses participants to a network of relations consolidating bottom-up connectivity capable of bridging gaps in the global digital divide architecture.

19.2.2 A Theoretical Framework

The above framework yields to the propositions that complex situations may appear simpler than expected based on a construct view of the observer (Schmidhuber 1997; Chater 1999; Chater and Vitany 2003; Dessalles 2010). In this wise, the interlock of the structuration, institutional and actor-network theories would generate principles

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STRUCTURATION THEORY

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

ePARTICIPATION APPLICATION INSTITUTIONAL THEORY

ACTOR-NETWORK THEORY

Fig. 19.1 Construct of ‘3 Theory’ framework for application of eParticipation

and practice as common denominators. This construct in turn serves as a theoretical framework as presented in Fig. 19.1.

This proposition is used to test and apply the hypothesis that eParticipation can bridge the digital divide. The interplay of the major theories at hand attempts to val- idate this assumption in the case of eParticipation application to simulation exercise in leadership training in Nigeria.

19.2.3 A Hypothesis

Seen from the above theoretical prospect, the interlocking theories tend to generate principles and practices for application of eParticipation. Thus, this chapter hypoth- esizes that eParticipation application to simulation exercise for leadership training would enhance the bridging of digital divide.

19.3 Methodology

The method of study is mainly based on desk and library research, review of existing literature and analysis of acquired data. Focused group and individual interviews were conducted on stakeholders within the NIPSS. The chapter also examines empirical data used in the NIPSS simulation exercise on ‘political zoning in Nigeria’ to draw realistic conclusions. The theoretical framework is systematically applied and tested on the transmitted hypothesis downstream.

422 T. Ahmed

19.4 Conceptual Discourse

19.4.1 Digital Divide

Digital divide denotes the inequality of access to ICT or difference in opportuni- ties available to people who have access and those who do not. The term applies more to inequalities between individuals, households, businesses, and geographi- cal areas at different socioeconomic and other demographic scale categories (Norris 2001; Patricia 2003; US-NTIA 1995). Global Digital Divide, however, applies at the scale of nations as units of analysis, referring to gap between developing and devel- oped countries (Chinn and Fairlie 2004). The two terms of digital divide and global digital divide may be represented in vertical and horizontal dimensions, respectively.

Buente and Robbin (2008) and Hilbert (2011) outline different angles in concep- tualizing digital divide. They include subjects, characteristics, means, intensity, and purpose of connectivity corresponding to inquiries of ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’. Huang and Chen (2010) add the dynamics of evolution to address the questions of whether and when. These approaches and inquiries provide a framework for discourse on eParticipation and simulation exercise as follows:

a. Subjects of connectivity (who), including individuals, organizations, institutions, etc.;

b. Characteristics or attributes (which) including demography, socioeconomic variables, geography, etc.;

c. Means (what) including equipment like telephone, Internet, television, radio, etc.; d. Intensity (how) including usage, access, interactivity, innovation, etc.; e. Purpose (why) including reason, cause, justification, etc.; and f. Dynamics of evolution (whether and when) including gap, utilization, develop-

ment, etc.

Selhofer and Huesing (2002) had earlier considered ‘digital divide’ as a modern version of the knowledge gap theory. The acquisition, access and utility of ICT are therefore very crucial to eParticipation in its entire ramification. This work focuses on ICT-supported activities expressed as eParticipation.

19.4.2 eParticipation

The letter ‘e’ signifies ‘electronic’, relating to computer application, use, access or practice. Participation refers to the act of taking part in joint activities for the pur- pose of reaching a common goal. eParticipation involves the adaptation, application and utilization of modern ICT equipment, practices, or processes in activities. The term is generally defined as ‘ICT-supported participation in processes involved in government and governance (Avdic et al. 2007), including administration, service delivery, decision making and policy making’.

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Macintosh (2004) posits eParticipation to include the use of ICT to broaden and deepen political participation by enabling citizens to connect with one another. Clift (2003) encapsulates eParticipation as subset of e-government in the realm of eDemoc- racy for political processes at individual, local, state, regions, nations and global levels. Fraser (2006) reflects on the complexities arising from large number of differ- ent participation areas, stakeholders, levels of engagement, stages in policy making which characterize research and application. In this way, eParticipation becomes the threshold for digital circuit ‘effect’ or contact point. The subjects, characteristics, means, intensity and purpose of connectivity, all come to bear on eParticipation, particularly in its principles and practices of applications. One of such levels of application is found in the conduct of simulation exercise.

19.4.3 Simulation Exercise

Simulation is the production of essential features of something as an aid to study or training; while exercise refers to tasks designed and performed as a way of practice and improving skills and procedures of doing things. Simulation exercise is a training exercise in which participants perform same or all of the actions they would take in the event of plan activation, http://securemediastorage.co.uk/glossary.

Trends in training and education are replacing formal and extensive theoretical development with simulation exercises that develop ideas based on practical real- world situation (Biehler 1985; Gordon and Gordon 1992; Hogg 1992; Moore 1992). In some instances, entire course modules are zeroed into simulation exercises, for more practical benefits (Lipson 1997). This is demonstrated in the senior executive course module of NIPSS in which the Crisis Game simulation exercise is designed and introduced to inculcate leadership skills to its participants (Imobighe 1988, p. 4).

19.4.4 Crisis Game

Crisis is a situation or period in which things are uncertain, difficult or painful, especially a time when action must be taken to avoid complete disaster or breakdown. Game refers to competitive activity with rules in which participants strive or compete for scores or accomplishment of tasks. Crisis games are aspects of crisis management training in which participants deal or work through simulated crises to learn how to solve or cope with problems as they arise.

The purpose of Crisis Game at NIPSS is to simulate a crisis situation in order to equip participants of the senior executive course with skills to manage and resolve real-life crises. It is a decision-making tool designed for use by policymakers whose decisions usually have far-reaching effects on the polity. The convener of the NIPSS program, Imobighe (1988) elucidated that ‘crisis game is to strategic studies what clinical work is to the study of medicine’ (p. 5).

424 T. Ahmed

Crisis Games, as simulation exercises, are conducted for purpose of governance and policy modelling local-to-global implications. An example is the Unified Quest simulations conducted by the US Army War College with participants ranging from military officers to professors. Gardner (2008) reported a fictitious Nigerian scenario set in 2013 depicting a near collapse of government as rival factions vie for power. This is not irrelevant to the theme of ‘political zoning’ adopted for the NIPSS Crisis Game 2011.

19.4.5 Political Zoning

The word political concerns balance in power relationship especially in a group, organization or country. Zoning refers to the principle of using subsections of par- ticular area, like a country, divided for purposes of rational or rotational benefits. Political zoning embraces allotment, ration, rotation or sharing of offices or positions amongst contending interests within or amongst groupings like political parties and institutions of governance.

In Nigeria, zoning carries an extensive usage from the inception of the country to the present six geopolitical zones structure on which the current debate on zoning is staged. Thus, the issue of zoning is critical in the general schemes and activities of governance in Nigeria, and a delicate subject, not easy to contain. Further, extension on the concept and practice of zoning in Nigerian politics include administrative and legal expression of federal character, quota system, catchment areas, localization of projects, etc. Political zoning in Nigeria is a rooted and institutionalized practice requiring skills necessary for effective leadership. The NIPSS Crisis Game theme on political zoning provides for roles, units and tempo in exercise of eParticipation application for leadership training.

19.4.6 Leadership Training

Leadership is the ability to guide, direct or influence people in the accomplish- ment of set tasks. Training is the process of teaching or learning a skill or job. Leadership training or leadership development refers to any activity that enhances the quality of leadership within an individual or organization, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Leadership_training. Leadership development is defined as an intentional effort to provide leaders and emerging leaders with opportunities to learn, grow and change, with skills to function effectively, www.hillconsultinggroup.org.

Imobighe (1988) assesses Nigerian crops of leaders and pronounced that:

. . . it has not been evident that the country’s leaders are adequately conversant with the techniques of crisis management. In most cases, they have relied on chance; and hardly were their responses based on any thorough and systematic appreciation of the mechanics for handling the relevant events. (pp. 3–4)

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The need for leadership development in Nigeria necessitated the establishment of the NIPSS in 1979. Within the NIPSS senior executive course is the Crisis Game described as ‘crisis game simulation’ and considered as the ‘crowning event’ of the programme (Imobighe 1988).

19.5 Application of eParticipation in Simulation Exercise

19.5.1 Digital Opportunity Index (DOI)

The Digital Opportunity Index (DOI) operates on an e-index based on internationally accepted ICT indicators. The DOI is a standard tool for assessment of ICT perfor- mance within and across countries. These indicators are clustered into three main headings of opportunity, infrastructure and utilization applicable to the principles and application of eParticipation. For example, simulation exercises are administered on selected themes in scenarios activated by subjects, attributes, means, intensity and purpose for which they are staged. These exercises are designed to simulate state- of-play environment with briefs, timeframe, roles, locations, tempo and equipment similar to those encountered in real life.

19.5.2 Features of eParticipation Applications in Simulation Exercise

Individual or institutional participants, as subjects of simulation exercise, include persons or agencies charged with responsibilities for decision and policymaking and implementation. They bring forth the attributes of group dynamics in governance; utilization of the means through available equipment and skills; face the intensity of interactivity; and purpose of justified actions. The application of eParticipation to simulation exercise involves the use of modern ICT equipment, principles, practices and processes as tools.

19.5.3 Tools of eParticipation in Simulation Exercise

Simulation exercises are supported with tools ranging from ordinary electronic gad- gets like television sets, radio equipment, recorders, cameras, and other audio visual aids to higher and more sophisticated computer-based applications. They include networking, Internet and systems like the Web 2.0., which allows users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue in real time http://scholar.googleusercontent.com. DiNucci (1999, pp. 221–222) describes this methodology as ‘the ether through which interactivity happens’.

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19.5.4 Examples of eParticipation Applications

These tools of eParticipation represent the architecture for real-time simulation ex- ercises. An example is the EU’s ‘Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) or ICT Challenge 7 in support of governance and policy modelling http://cordis.europa.eu. Other examples include simulation exercises like the US Army War College ‘Uni- fied Quested’ earlier cited, which employ the use of tools and processes similar to requirements for the Crisis Simulation Games of the NIPSS leadership training mod- ule. This aspect of eParticipation within the NIPSS Crisis Game component signifies the application of principles and practices of eParticipation in simulation exercise in leadership training in Nigeria. In theoretical sense, therefore, such processes also deal with how ways of doing things affect the way they are done, as seen in the NIPSS Crisis Game.

19.6 Leadership Training in Nigeria at the NIPSS

19.6.1 The NIPSS

The NIPSS is the premier leadership training institution in Nigeria with dual mandate of policy research and training of senior executives. It was born out of the need to improve government service delivery, or public administration. Its emergence as a government ‘think tank’ was also associated with the need to coordinate the ever-increasing complexity in government activities (Eleazu 1978, pp. 5–7).

The Institute conducts policy research for government and trains senior executives in policymaking and implementation skills. It serves as a centre where representa- tives from all walks of the Nigerian national life could come together. Its activities include research, lectures, workshops, seminars and other action-oriented courses, studies and conferences, to analyse and exchange views on long-term national goals. Its aims and objectives include the conduct of courses for top-level policymakers and executors; and research into social, cultural, economic, political, scientific, techno- logical, security and other problems for their solutions. Additionally, the Institute conducts seminars, workshops and other action-oriented programmes for leaders and potential leaders.

Participants going to NIPSS include professionals at the apex of their various careers spread across public and private sector. For example, the NIPSS senior ex- ecutive course No. 33 of 2011 consisted of 65 participants drawn from the military, security agencies, diplomats, federal and states civil service, academia, trade unions, associations, professional bodies and the organized private sector. The participants were subjected to rigours of leadership training module on strategic studies, pol- icy analysis, public administration, fieldwork and crowned with a Crisis Simulation Game.

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19.6.2 The NIPSS Crisis Simulation Game

The NIPSS Crisis Simulation Game is conducted by an expert as convener and assisted by a Planning and Monitoring Committee supported by a logistics secretariat. The game is not a drama, so no script is necessary, but players are briefed on a theme, rules, roles and units’ allocation and scenario. Participants are encouraged to show commitment and dedication in making the event as real as possible. To accomplish all these, both organizers and players are encouraged to employ equipment, particularly electronic gadgets for enhancement of performance.

At its initial stages, the NIPSS Crisis Game was supported with primary electron- ics like microphones, cameras, television sets, recorders, video players and public address systems. The trend in electronic advancement and easier access to services and processes brought in new equipment like mobile or smart phones, computer platforms, social media and the Internet capable of enhancing eParticipation. An assessment of the NIPSS Crisis Game 2011 on application of principles and practice of eParticipation would determine its level on the global digital divide architecture and the way to bridge it.

19.6.3 An Assessment

Computer literacy and skills, the knowledge and ability to utilize computers and re- lated technology efficiently, are critical to eParticipation application. Calfee (1982) describes computer literacy as the starting point for knowledge required for partic- ipation in the computer age or eParticipation. The global digital divide architecture portrays developed countries with higher and more advanced computer literacy than developing countries. It is on this basis that the application of eParticipation prin- ciples and practice in bottom-up structure, as seen in the NIPSS Crisis Game, is assessed.

Equipment and applications used in the NIPSS Crisis Game are inferior to the more advanced Web 2.0 employed in similar exercises in developed Europe and America. The US Army War College ‘Unified Quest’ game, for example, employs the best, highest and most efficient means for achieving desired effect (Gardner 2008). Also, in a Focused Group interview with the NIPSS ICT Unit the following facts were revealed:

a. Course participants and staff were excited with the roles, tempo, and process of the game, but lack computer skills;

b. The game could have been better if adequate equipment and practices are provided;

c. No deliberate effort was made to provide higher equipment and special skills for upgrading of the Crisis Game programme;

d. Those in charge of budgeting do not take computerization of the institute very critical; and