Human Development Chapters

Chapter 17 Later Adulthood and Old Age Physical and

Cognitive Development

The average lifespan expectancy for individuals has increased dramatically since 1900, particularly in countries with sufficient medical care. The primary reasons people are living longer than ever before are attributable to more effective public health measures, with support from health care improvements and reductions in infant and child mortality (Olshansky et al., 2005). In this chapter, statistics were provided related to aging, taking into account the intersection of race/ethnicity, nationality, socioeconomics, sexual orientation, and gender, among other cultural characteristics. While aging, accompanied by declines in bodily functioning, is inevitable, many people who are living longer are living better. Older adults who have successfully navigated the developmental tasks outlined throughout this text are more likely to have established a firm foundation for successful aging (Baltes, 1997).

Physical changes that occur in later adulthood were reviewed; many of these are affected by environmental factors and genetics. The remarkable ability humans have to adapt to age- related changes was highlighted, as were different physiological and evolutionary theories of aging, including the wear and tear theory, systems biology concepts, and damage-based theories of aging. Although the theories differ, each is supported by research.

Next, the focus shifted to health, illness, and functionality in later life. As adults age, they often experience one or more chronic illnesses. However, because of the increased emphasis on prevention and wellness, older adults are much more likely to experience healthy, active lifestyles than ever before. With this in mind, we realize that aging has its physical drawbacks. Changes in body systems associated with aging include changes in blood pressure, vision, hearing, and skin elasticity. The senses of touch and taste tend to decline, and numerous age-associated changes occur in the body’s structural support framework: bone

mass, muscle strength, and connective tissues. Hormonal levels, which begin changing during middle adulthood, continue to decrease. Additional changes in the cardiovascular system, cognition, and ambulatory skills can be limiting. The effects of these limitations vary depending on older adults’ coping skills and support systems (Yancu, 2011). Cognitive development and decline are important considerations when studying later adulthood. The aging brain is characterized by both structural and functional changes. Variations in cognitive functioning depend on a range of lifestyle and health-related factors. Many older adults may not show evidence of cognitive decline, whereas other individuals may demonstrate pronounced decline (e.g., individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease or various forms of cognitive dementia). Cognition is complex, and factors such as crystallized and fluid intelligence, processing speed, and memory changes are all components of cognition that may be affected by the aging process. In general, education, mental engagement, nutrition, and levels of physical activity can influence cognitive performance in later adulthood. However, when organic factors destroy brain cells, the resulting cognitive deficits are medical in nature and are unlikely to be influenced by the above-mentioned preventive factors.

Although many do not want to think about the end of life, death is universal to the human experience. Death may come expectedly, at the end of a long life, or it may come as a result of illness, trauma, or other unexpected events. Though death is associated with aging, readers were challenged to think about their own views of death and dying. For example, when does “death” actually occur? In some instances, a person may be kept alive by medical intervention, even though he or she has experienced permanent, irreversible brain damage and the person is living in what is called a persistent vegetative state. It is important for older adults to engage in advanced care planning, giving them choices in making decisions regarding whether or not they want life-sustaining treatment when they are no longer able to speak for themselves.

In sum, laughter, wine, and chocolate; these were three things to which Madame Jeanne Calment attributed her longevity when at the age of 120 years and 164 days, she passed into the Guinness

Book of World Records as the world’s oldest human in 1995 (Guinness, 2014). Regardless of the cause, Mme. Calment’s lengthy existence shows that humans have the potential to live more than 120 years. (She lived to see her 122nd birthday.) Now that we know how long we can live (longevity), it’s time to focus on how we live (vitality) for a very long time!