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Adolescence: Psychosocial Development

The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence

Kathleen Stassen Berger | Eleventh Edition

Chapter 16

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

Why might a teenager be into sports one year and into books the next?

Should parents back off when their teenager disputes every rule, wish, or suggestion they make?

Who are the best, and worst, sources of information about sex?

Should we worry more about teen suicide or juvenile delinquency?

Why are adolescents forbidden to drink and smoke, but adults can do so?

Identity

Psychosocial development during adolescence is often understood as a search for a consistent understanding of oneself.

Erikson:

Identity is the consistent definition of one’s self as a unique individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations.

Identity versus role confusion

Erikson

Identity versus role confusion

Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “Who am I?”, but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt.

Identity achievement

Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans.

Role Confusion

Identity Achievement

Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans.

Role Confusion

A situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity or role diffusion.)

No Role Confusion: For many youths who cannot afford college, the military offers a temporary identity, complete with haircut, uniform, and comrades.

Identity: Not Yet Achieved

Marcia described and measured four specific ways young people cope with adolescence:

Role confusion (identity diffusion)

Foreclosure

Moratorium

Identity achievement

How do these agree with and

differ from Erikson?

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation (part 1)

Religious identity

Most adolescents accept broad outlines of parental and cultural religious identity.

Specific religious beliefs may be questioned.

Same Situation, Far Apart: Religious identity

Awesome devotion is characteristic of adolescents, whether devotion is to a sport, a person, a music group, or as shown here a religion. This boy praying on a Kosovo street is part of a dangerous protest against the town’s refusal to allow building another mosque. This girl is at a stadium rally for young Christians in Michigan, declaring her faith for all to see. While adults see differences between the two religions, both teens share not only piety but also twenty-first-century clothing. Her T-shirt is a recent innovation, and on his jersey is Messi 10, for a soccer star born in Argentine.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation (part 2)

Political identity

Most adolescents follow parental political traditions.

They tend to be more liberal than their parents.

Fanatical political religious movement participation is rare.

Most adolescents identify with their ethnicity.

Apolitical identity may emerge with weakening parental party identity.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation (part 3)

Vocational identity

Vocational identity takes years to establish.

Early vocational identity is no longer relevant.

Part-time work during high school is often related to negative outcomes.

Vocational identity originally meant envisioning oneself as a worker in a particular occupation.

Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation (part 4)

Gender identity

Gender identity that begins with the person’s biological sex and leads to a gender role

It often begins with biological sex but may be questioned

Gender roles changing everywhere

DSM-5: Gender dysphoria

Erikson’s gender intensification no longer fits adolescent development.

A VIEW FROM SCIENCE Teenagers, Genes, and Drug Use

In experimental parent education intervention study, Brody found differential susceptibility of inherited genes (short 5-HTTLPR versus long %HTTLPR allele).

For youths without genetic risk, usual parenting was no better or worse than parenting that benefited from special classes.

The risk score was a simple one point for each of the following: had drunk alcohol, had smoked marijuana, had had sex. As shown, most of the 11-year-olds had done none of these. By age 14, most had done one (usually had drunk beer or wine) — except for those at genetic risk who did not have the seven-session training. Some of them had done all three, and many had done at least two. As you see, for those youths without genetic risk, the usual parenting was no better or worse than the parenting that benefited from the special classes: The average 14-year-old in either group had tried only one risky behavior. But for those at genetic risk, the special program made a decided difference.

Relationships with Adults (part 1)

Conflicts with parents

Parent–adolescent conflict typically peaks in early adolescence and is more a sign of attachment than of distance.

Bickering

Bickering involves petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing, especially between mothers and daughters.

Parent-child relationships usually improve with time.

Relationships with Adults (part 2)

Cultural differences

In cultures that value harmony above all else, adolescent contradiction is not apparent.

Does this mean that adolescent rebellion is a social construction? Why? Why not?

Keys to Family Closeness

Family closeness is more important than family conflict or individual autonomy.

Communication: Do family members talk openly with one another?

Support: Do they rely on one another?

Connectedness: How emotionally close are family members?

Control: Do parents restrict autonomy?

Parental monitoring: Mutual, close parent-child interaction is the most effective monitoring.

Parental monitoring: a parent’s ongoing awareness of what their children is doing, where, and with whom.

Positive: part of a warm, supportive relationship

Negative: cold, overly restrictive, controlling relationship

Peers

Adolescents rely on peers to mitigate and manage developmental challenges.

Healthy, early parental relationships enhance later peer friendships.

Peers are especially helpful in early adolescence or in times of stress.

Peer influence is affected by genes and early experiences.

Peer support is needed by minority and immigrant groups in ethnic identity achievement.

Selecting Friends

Peers can lead one another into trouble and collectively provide deviancy training.

Peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms

Developmental progression from problem behavior to violent behavior; involves selection and facilitation

Social Networking

Technology usually brings friends together.

Technology users are usually as extroverted and socially connected as other adolescents.

Social networking may be a lifeline for isolated adolescents.

Social or Solitary?

Adults have criticized the Internet for allowing teenagers to keep friends at a distance. By contrast, sitting around an outdoor fire is romanticized as a bonding experience. Which is more accurate here? Are these two girls about to talk about what they are reading?

Romance (part 1)

First love

First romances typically appear in high school and rarely last more than a year.

Girls claim a steady partner more often than boys do.

Not all romances include intercourse.

Breakups and unreciprocated crushes are common.

Adolescents are crushed by rejection and sometimes contemplate revenge or suicide.

U.S. High School Students Who Have Not Had Intercourse (by Grade)

For 30 years, all over the United States youth answer dozens of confidential questions about their behavior. As you can see, about one-fourth of all students have already had sex by the ninth grade, and more than one-third have not yet had sex by their senior year, a group whose ranks have been increasing in recent years. Other research finds that sexual behaviors are influenced by peers, with some groups all sexually experienced by age 14 and others not until age 18 or older.

Romance (part 2)

Same-sex romances

Sexual orientation refers to the direction of a person’s erotic desires.

Currently in North America and western Europe, not just two but many gender roles and sexual orientations are evident.

Variants (via research) reflect culture, cohort, and survey construction.

Some cultures accept and others criminalize LGBTQ youth.

Changing U.S. Attitudes on Same-Sex Marriage (by Birth Year)

Everyone knows that attitudes about same-sex relationships are changing. Less well known is that cohort differences are greater than the shift over the first decade of the twenty-first century.

Sex Education (part 1)

From the media

Internet is a common source for sex information.

Controversial correlation between exposure to media sex and adolescent sexual initiation

From parents

Many parents wait too long, avoid specifics, and are uninformed about adolescent’s relationships.

About 25 percent of adolescents receive any sex education from parents.

Warm, open communication is effective.

Sex Education (part 2)

From peers

Adolescent sexual behavior is strongly influenced by peers, especially when parents are silent, forbidding, or vague.

Only about half of U.S. adolescent couples discuss issues such as pregnancy and STIs, and many are unable to come to a shared conclusion based on accurate information.

Sex Education (part 3)

From educators

U.S. parents want up-to-date sex education for their adolescents.

Timing and content vary by nation, state, and community.

HIV/AIDS crisis prompted sex education for most U.S. adolescents.

Abstinence-only programs are not successful.

Current recommendations suggest sex education should begin earlier and contain more practical information, not just abstinence and male-female marriage.

Sadness and Anger

Self-esteem

Self-esteem declines across children of every ethnicity and gender; higher in boys, African Americans

Universal trends are also apparent; familism is protective for some.

Level of family and peer support is influential.

Major depressive disorder

Deep sadness and hopelessness disrupts all normal, regular activities.

Varied causal factors: biological and psychological stress; genes; rumination with peers

5-HHTLPR

Suicide

Suicidal ideation

Thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones

23 percent seriously thought about suicide.

Parasuicide

Any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death

Parasuicide is common; completed suicide is not.

Cluster suicides

Several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period

Suicidal Ideation and Parasuicide Among U.S. High School Students, 2015

Sad Thoughts

Completed suicide is rare in adolescence, but serious thoughts about killing oneself are frequent. Depression and parasuicide are more common in girls than in boys, but rates are high even in boys. There are three reasons to suspect that the rates for boys are underestimates: Boys tend to be less aware of their emotions than girls are; boys consider it unmanly to try to kill themselves and to fail; and completed suicide is also higher in males than in females.

Parasuicide can be divided according to instances that require medical attention (surgery, pumped stomach, etc.) and those that do not, but any parasuicide is a warning. Among U.S. high school students in 2015, 11.6 percent of the girls and 5.5 percent of the boys attempted suicide in the previous year (MMWR, June 10, 2016). If there is a next time, the person may die.

Delinquency and Defiance (part 1)

Behaviors

Externalizing and internalizing behavior are more closely connected in adolescence than at any other age.

Breaking the law

Prevalence and incidence of criminal activities are more common in adolescence.

About one-fourth of young lawbreakers are caught.

Most adolescents obey the law.

Delinquency and Defiance (part 2)

An angry adolescent can be both depressed and delinquent because externalizing and internalizing behavior are closely connected during these years.

Some psychologists suggest that adolescent rebellion is a social construction, an idea created and endorsed by many Western adults but not expected or usual in Asian nations.

This may explain suicide in jail: Teenagers jailed for assault (externalizing) are higher suicide risks (internalizing) than adult prisoners.

Breaking the Law

Prevalence and incidence of criminal actions are higher during adolescence.

30 percent of African American males and 22 percent of European American males arrested at least once before age 18.

Most adolescents self-report law-breaking at least once before age 20.

Two kinds of teenage lawbreakers

Adolescent-limited offenders

Life-course-persistent offenders

Arrest statistics in every nation reflect this fact: adolescents remain more likely to break the law than adults. The arrest rate for 15- to 17-year-olds is twice that for those over 18. The disproportion is true for almost every crime except fraud, forgery, and embezzlement, which fewer adolescents commit (FBI, 2015).

Pathways of Adolescent Delinquency

Stubbornnessdefiancerunning away

Response: Social supports that channel or limit rebelliousness

Shopliftingarson and burglary

Response: Stronger human relationships and moral education

Bullyingassault, rape, murder

Response: Action stopped in childhood; assistance is developing other ways to make connections

Variations in Drug Use: Age Trends

Adolescence is sensitive time for experimentation, daily use, and addiction.

Prevalence and incidence increase from ages 10 to 25 then decrease.

Use before age 15 is linked to escalation to negative behaviors and outcomes.

Cohort differences

Inhalant use most likely with youngest adolescent; less understanding of risks and graver consequences

Cigarette smoking down but vaping up

Easy access noted

Both prevalence and incidence and then decrease when adult responsibilities and experiences make drugs less attractive.

U.S. High School Seniors Reporting Drug Use in the Past Year

By asking the same questions year after year, the Monitoring the Future study shows notable historical effects. It is encouraging that something in society, not in the adolescent, makes drug use increase and decrease and that the most recent data show a continued decline in the drug most commonly abused — alcohol.

*Includes use of amphetamines, sedatives (barbiturates), narcotics other than heroin, or tranquilizers — without a doctor’s prescription.

Harm from Drugs (part 1)

In general

Pre-maturity drug use may harm body and brain growth.

Unlikely an adolescent will notice the path from use to abuse to addiction.

Tobacco

Slows down growth (impairs digestion, nutrition, and appetite)

Reduces the appetite

Causes protein and vitamin deficiencies

Can damage developing hearts, lungs, brains, and reproductive systems

OPPOSING PERSEPCTIVES: E-Cigarettes: Path to Addiction or Healthy Choice?

Some fear that adolescents who try e-cigarettes will become addicted to nicotine and be harmed by some other ingredients.

Distributers of e-cigarettes argue that their products are a healthier alternative to cigarettes, that people should be able to make their own choices, and that the fear of adolescent vaping is exaggerated.

What do you think?

U.S. Adolescents Using Tobacco in the Last Month

The fact that more than one in five high school students (that’s 3 million people) use tobacco — even though the purchase of any kind is illegal — in the past month, is troubling. That means that more that 3 million students are at risk for addiction and poor health. The surprise (not shown) is that all these rates are lower than a year earlier. Is that because laws are stricter or are teenagers getting wiser?

Harm from Drugs (part 2)

Alcohol

Most frequently abused drug among North American teenagers

Heavy drinking may permanently impair memory and self-control by damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

Alcohol allows momentary denial of problems  when problems get worse because they have been ignored, more alcohol is needed.

Denial can have serious consequences.

Genes and neighborhoods are in part the cause of addiction and rebellion.

Harm from Drugs (part 3)

Marijuana

Adolescents who regularly smoke marijuana are more likely to drop out of school, become teenage parents, and be unemployed (correlational data).

Habitual use of marijuana also results in decreased brain connections and lower intelligence (neurological evidence).

Preventing Drug Abuse

All psychoactive drugs are particularly harmful in adolescence.

Adults who exaggerate harm or who abuse drugs themselves are unlikely to prevent teen drug use.

Antidrug programs may cause a backlash (generational forgetting).

Price, perception, and parents are influential.