social movement sucess
TEXT require reading chapter 14
Korgen, K. O., & Atkinson M. P. (2019) Sociology in Action (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 14 Changing Society through Social Movements
Wendy M. Christensen
Social movements work to promote social change. In January 2017, an estimated 600,000 people joined the Women’s March in Washington, D.C., andmillions more gathered across the United States and the world to protest the policies of President Donald Trump.
AP Photo/Anonymous
Learning Questions
· 14.1 What is a social movement?
· 14.2 Why do people participate in social movements?
· 14.3 What are the different types of social movements?
· 14.4 How would you use a sociological theory to explain a social movement?
· 14.5 What are the steps a social movement must take to become successful?
· 14.6 What tactics do social movements use to achieve their goals, and what kind of backlash do they face?
· 14.7 How can we create social change
14.1 What Is a Social Movement?
Five people are gathered outside city hall after a city council meeting. Each had attended the meeting to demand that the city address therapidly multiplying feral cat population. Each was involved in helping reduce the feral cat population on their own, spending their own timeand money to trap and spay/neuter cats. Noting the dangers faced by the cats and the smell and noise of the growing feral cat population,these five residents came to the meeting to press the city council to adopt what is known as a TNR program (trap-neuter-return). Acoordinated, citywide program could reduce the population and would get cats fixed and adopted.
Despite the impassioned pleas of the five concerned residents, the council members did not promise to address the feral cat problem. The fiveare agitated as they talk about the council’s disinterested response to their requests. One suggests that they join together to form a neworganization, “Friends of Cats,” to raise awareness and push the city council to act. They exchange numbers and promises to find each otheron Facebook before heading home.
Two days later, the fledging social movement has a Facebook page with over 100 followers. Soon after, membership grows from the originalfive to fifteen individuals. Meeting at a local coffee shop to plan their next steps, they decide to make informational flyers to distribute aroundtown and start a petition demanding the city council adopt their proposed policies.
The next time the city council meets, Friends of Cats has thirty-five people in attendance, all with signs demanding the council take action.They present a petition with 1,500 signatures of local residents and introduce experts on TNR policy from the Animal Protection League tospeak to the council. At that meeting, the council agrees to form a committee with Friends of Cats members on animal control. A few monthslater, it drafts and passes a TNR policy for the city.
Components of a Social Movement
The formation of the social movement organization “Friends of Cats” is typical for social movements. A social movement forms when peoplewho want social change create an organization that is collective, organized, and sustained and challenges authorities, powerholders, orcultural beliefs and practices in noninstitutional ways.
How I Got Active in Sociology
Wendy M. Christensen
I often joke that I began thinking sociologically when I listened to Pink Floyd’s album Animals nonstop as a teenager (Animals is arock album about economic inequality, borrowing from George Orwell’s Animal Farm). But, I was a sociologist long before that.From the time I could read, I devoured books that focused on women’s rights, racism, and social inequality.
I started college as a technical theater major. I took a sociology course as part of my general requirements. I enjoyed the material,and the professor suggested I switch majors. But it took a couple years, including transferring and taking a year off, to finallyswitch to sociology. For the first time, I loved my college courses. I wrote an undergrad thesis on masculinity and schoolshootings. My advisors encouraged me to apply to graduate school.
Since earning my PhD, I feel like I have the best job possible. I study what interests me, which right now is community-basedpolitical activism. My favorite courses to teach are Social Movements and Social Stratification. My work allows me to be active inmy community and contribute to social justice movements. I love teaching social activism in nonacademic settings to carry thelessons of past movements into today’s social movement community.
Friends of Cats is a collective, made up of a group of people cooperating as they work toward a shared goal. Its members discovered theycared about the same issue (feral cats) and had the same goal as the city council (humanely reducing the feral cat population). They decidedthat joining forces and working with city council members would make them more powerful.
Consider This
When you think of a social movement or protest, what comes to mind? Have you ever participated in a protest? Why?
Friends of Cats is also organized; the members coordinate their efforts. They started organizing through email, Facebook, and face-to-faceplanning meetings soon after they met. As with many social movements today, social media tools facilitated their organizing efforts.
The movement members sustained their efforts until their goals were met. Their sustained efforts included passing around a petition,distributing literature, recruiting experts to research and present their case, attending city council meetings, and making themselves visible atthose meetings. Their close work with the council led to the council turning to them when they selected people to place on the city’s AnimalControl Committee.
Friends of Cats mobilized through noninstitutional means. They organized outside established institutions like city government. Theirnoninstitutional protest strategies and activism got them noticed by government institutions, specifically the city council. Eventually, aftertheir noninstitutional mobilizing efforts, members became part of city government by working on the Animal Control Committee.
Together, the Friends of Cats members challenged powerholders with the goal of changing city policy. To be successful, social movementsmust target the institution or authority figure with the power to make the changes they seek. Such target institutions or figures could be a citycouncil, a mayor, a member of Congress, a school principal, or any other group or individual in a position of power.
Protests: The Most Visible Part of Social Movements
When you think of a social movement, what images come to mind? You might picture groups of individuals demonstrating out in the streetwith signs, yelling; individuals sitting with their arms linked, blocking the access to a building; or tens of thousands of people flooding apublic space, singing and chanting for social change. These are all examples of a protest, an individual or group act of challenging, resisting,or making demands toward social change. Protests are often the most visible part of social movements, while the behind-the-scenes work oforganizing and mobilizing is often unnoticed but will be covered in this chapter.
Some movements use civil disobedience in their protests, purposely breaking social customs or laws to make their point. Lunch counter sit-ins during the 1960s civil rights movement are an example of civil disobedience. The 1999 protests against the World Trade Organization(WTO) in Seattle, Washington, provide another example. Protestors disrupted the 1999 WTO meeting by taking over street intersections andpreventing delegates from getting to their hotels.
Check Your Understanding
· What is a social movement?
· Why is organization important for a social movement?
· Why do social movements work outside institutions?
· Who are some of the powerholders that social movements might target for social change?
· How do sociologists define a protest?
14.2 Participating in Social Movements
Social movement organizing takes considerable time and resources. Not everyone has time to spend passing out petitions, marching indemonstrations, and organizing meetings and protests. Individuals who participate in social movements may face other costs, as well. If ademonstration becomes heated or disrupts the routines of others (by blocking traffic etc.), demonstrators risk confrontations withnonparticipants and police, as well as possibly arrest.
So, why do individuals become involved in social movements? Members of the Friends of Cats organization are all individuals committed toimproving the lives of feral cats. They have volunteered their own time and often their own money to rescue feral cats. As individuals, theystand to benefit if the city adopts a TNR program. Their individual efforts and expenses will be replaced by the city’s animal controldepartment. These members are beneficiary constituents, people who stand to benefit directly from the social change being sought. Otherindividuals who are not involved in animal rescue may join the social movement organization because they believe the city would benefitfrom helping animals. These members would be conscience constituents, people who care about the cause but do not benefit directly fromthe changes.
Power and Inequality Issues in Social Movements
While there are social movements focused on animal rights, many social movements fight for people’s rights. In the Black Lives Mattermovement, Black Americans experiencing discrimination are the beneficiaries of the movement. But consider for a minute the role Whitepeople play in the Black Lives Matter movement. They are not beneficiary constituents who stand to directly benefit from the movement’sefforts but instead join as allies, morally committed to the cause as conscience constituents.
In this picture, MoveOn.org leaders present petitions calling for a ban on assault weapons. Through this effort, they hope to gain the attention andsupport of members of Congress.
Jim Watson/AFP/Getty Images
The roles conscience constituents take in social movements raise issues of power and inequality in social movement organizations. Somesocial movement organizers argue that the voices of the marginalized—those the movement is fighting for—must be centered in themovement. If the voices of the marginalized are not centered, the movement risks forming goals or mobilizing actions that do not actuallyhelp the individuals they want to help. For example, members of an impoverished community may need better access to affordable grocerystores, instead of another food pantry. White people can be strong allies in civil rights movements, but addressing racism requires listening tothe experiences of people of color who confront racism on a daily basis. By the same token, men can be important allies in the feministmovement, but women must be the ones to decide how the movement addresses sexism. Participating in a social movement can beempowering for community members when they are encouraged to take part in their own mobilization.
Socioeconomic Status and Ability
Participation in social movements can be limited by socioeconomic status and ability. Demonstrations, protests, and marches require physicalstamina, leaving some less able-bodied individuals out. Not every student has the financial support to take off a summer from work andvolunteer, as some students did during the Freedom Summer campaign to register Black voters in Mississippi in 1964. Attending meetingsand demonstrations can be difficult for lower-income workers who often have multiple jobs, inflexible hours, and no childcare. Participatingin a social movement can be empowering, but not everyone has the economic or social security required to take some of the risks associatedwith participation. The potential for confrontation with powerholders or with the police is also not a gamble everyone can take. Manyindividuals cannot risk their jobs, children, public assistance, or education with an arrest record.
Mobilizing and Organizing
The process of mobilizing begins with emergence (Blumer 1995). During this stage, people who share the same grievance get together andfind others who support their goals. This means spreading the word and bringing people together to support the goal of the social movement.The Internet, particularly social media, makes social movement participation easier for a wider variety of people. Online communication alsomakes mobilizing a social movement easier. Mobilizing efforts can be facilitated by social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter.
The next stage of social movement mobilizing is organizing or coalescence, when people come together more formally toward a shared goal(Blumer 1995). Organizing includes coordinating the regular operations of the social movement, which is another key part of socialmovements. Successful social change efforts require both. Social media campaigns can be very powerful for organizing, like the 2014 hashtag#BringBackOurGirls, which over 6 million people tweeted to demand the release of Nigerian schoolgirls kidnapped by Boko Haram. But, thecampaign was criticized as “slacktivism” as the hashtag itself did nothing to further the release of the schoolgirls. Other hashtag campaignshave successfully mobilized activists on and offline. The hashtag #whyImarch worked to mobilize individuals’ participation in the Women’sMarch on Washington the day after the 2017 inauguration of President Trump and fueled the political activism of those marchers after thedemonstration itself was over.
Community-Based Organizing
Social movements can grow nationally or internationally, around an issue that affects people’s lives at any level. Amnesty International, forexample, is an organization focused on issues of human rights around the world. Other social movements are located and organized withincommunities. Through community-based organizing, individual activists become involved in a movement because of an issue directlyaffecting their community. Friends of Cats is an example of a community-based organization.
The Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF) is one of the oldest national community organizations in the United States. Founded in 1940, the IAFwas developed to foster and support community-based groups, by training local-level leaders and organizers so they can make change in theirlocal communities. Some of the organization’s achievements include passing health care reform in Massachusetts, creating green jobs inSeattle, and successfully lobbying for school reform in Texas (IAF 2017). The IAF often works through local religious organizations, as doesPeople Improving Communities through Organizing (PICO), a national network of faith-based community organizations.
Some sociologists also work with organizations to make social change. See, for example, sociologist Professor Alicia Swords’s activism againstpoverty in her community described in the following Sociologists in Action box.
Check Your Understanding
· What are beneficiary constituents?
· What are conscience constituents?
· How can someone’s economic status affect his or her ability to participate in a social movement?
· What is the difference between mobilizing and organizing?
· What is community-based organizing?
Sociologists in Action: Participating in the Movement to End Poverty
Alicia Swords
My teaching and scholarship are grounded in the experiences and knowledge of the people most affected by the inequalities Istudy. For years I’ve been mentored by leaders of the University of the Poor, a national network of poor people’s organizationscommitted to building a movement to end poverty. They helped me answer questions like the following: Why are people poor in aland of plenty? What can be done to unite people across racial and religious lines? Their answers resonated with what I knew andwith the sociologists I was studying. They challenged me to ask questions that deeply matter and develop my accountability as ascholar and a sociologist with the tools to help change society.
My involvement in the University of the Poor gives me evidence of the realities of poverty that I share with my students at IthacaCollege. When we study the history of the organized poor in the United States, students in my classes often say, “Why did I neverlearn about this before?” We analyze “projects of survival”—homeless people organizing tent cities and housing takeovers inPhiladelphia, low-wage workers uniting for decent pay in Baltimore, and rural people resisting mountaintop removal mining inWest Virginia. My students take part in immersion programs where they learn firsthand from those engaged in struggles againsthydro fracking and mountaintop removal. They also participate in action research by interviewing people who get food from foodpantries and pantry volunteers to learn about their experiences and explanations for poverty and hunger.
There are enough resources in the world to end poverty, but it will take political will—a massive social movement—to change thefundamentals of our economic system and make it happen. Today it’s clear such a movement to end poverty has to be global. Iwas part of a University of the Poor delegation of homeless people that met with the Landless Workers movement in Brazil. It wasremarkable to realize the common struggles of the poor around the world and the power of connecting the poor transnationally.
Willie Baptist, an organizer, scholar, and formerly homeless father, has been a key part of building this global movement. He hastraveled tirelessly, meeting and cultivating local leaders, listening to their stories, and helping them see they aren’t alone and theirstruggles are interconnected. Baptist insists that solving the problem of poverty requires combining poor people’s lifeexperiences with rigorous study. “Never in the history of the world has a dumb force risen up and overthrown a smart force,” hesays. That’s one place where the work of sociologists is so important! We can bring perspectives from history and from all overthe world to efforts for social change. Although the movement to end poverty will have to be led by the poor, it also requiresengaged intellectuals, young people, students, and people from all segments of society. I love getting to be a part of this effortevery day through my teaching and sociological research.
Alicia Swords is associate professor of sociology at Ithaca College. She conducts research with social movements in the United Statesand Latin America and enjoys supporting student engagement with grassroots efforts for social change.
14.3 Types of Social Movements
Many people think of social movements as progressive, but in fact, they are active all over the ideological map. Some of the most extremeconservative social movements are racist hate organizations like neo-Nazi groups and the Ku Klux Klan. While some social movements pushfor massive social change, others press for limited changes to society. There are four different types of movements: alternative, redemptive,reformative, and revolutionary.
Alternative social movements advocate for limited societal change but do not ask individuals to change their personal beliefs. They oftentarget a narrow group of people and focus on a single concern. Friends of Cats is an example of an alternative social movement. Their goal wasto change animal control policy in their city. The DREAMers movement, for example, advocates for a pathway to citizenship for children ofundocumented immigrants. Many environmental movements—like the antifracking movement—are examples of alternative socialmovements. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) or Mothers for Gun Control are both examples of movements advocating for change tospecific policies and laws. MADD advocates for harsher laws against drunk driving, and Mothers for Gun Control lobbies for stricter guncontrol laws and gun safety.
Doing Sociology 14.1: The Use and Effectiveness of “Slacktivism”
In this activity, you will find and examine the effectiveness of examples of “slacktivism.”
Slacktivism is a term used to describe activism that requires very little time or effort. Usually slacktivism is online (changing aprofile picture, posting a link or a tweet) but could also be offline (signing a petition, wearing a T-shirt).
1. Go online and find at least five examples of slacktivism. Where did you search and what search terms did you use to find theseexamples?
2. Describe the kinds of images and words these examples use. What do they have in common?
3. Have you ever changed your Facebook or Twitter picture to make a political statement? Does this count as social activism?
4. Can online protest actions like “slacktivism” be effective? When and how?
Some social movements can fall into multiple categories. MADD is also an example of a redemptive social movement as they ask individualsto change their behavior and not drive while intoxicated. Redemptive social movements seek radical change in individual behavior. Forexample, the Temperance Movement in the 1800s advocated for individuals to stop drinking alcohol. While People for the Ethical Treatmentof Animals (PETA) is an alternative social movement in that they advocate against animal abuse, they are also a redemptive movement withthe goal of convincing individuals to adopt a vegan diet and lifestyle.
While alternative social movements are focused on social change for a narrow portion of society, reformative social movements work forspecific change across society. In working for an end to racism and racial injustice, the civil rights movement and the more recent Black LivesMatter movement fit this type of movement. The marriage equality movement is another example of a reformative social movement; it aimedto change one aspect of society—the ability for same-sex couples to marry. Reformative social movements can also be conservative, aiming torestore traditional ways of behavior or maintain the status quo. For example, conservative movements like the anti–marriage equalitymovement try to keep traditional gendered family roles. Another movement, the Minutemen Militia, patrol the border of the United States andMexico to stop illegal immigration and may be driven, in part, by fear and status anxiety (Weeber and Rodeheaver 2004). Illegal immigrationspurs fear that immigrants will monopolize limited employment opportunities and take advantage of welfare resources (Stein 2001).
Consider This
What type of social movement would be the easiest to organize, one that focuses on a changing a limited part of society or onethat seeks broader social change?
The goal of revolutionary social movements is a radical reorganization of society. The American Revolution is an example of a revolutionarysocial movement. The Communist Party in the United States and around the world challenges capitalism and government policies that exploitworkers. It advocates for environmental protection, living wages for workers, the rights of labor unions, and shared ownership of resources. U.S. militia organizations (like the Militia of Montana) are paramilitary groups that seek to end the federal government’s power in areas likethe economy, trade, and business, in favor of individual and business rights.
Check Your Understanding
· Describe and give examples of the different kinds of social movements.
· Which type of social movement seeks the most limited kind of change?
· Which type of social movement advocates for the most radical social change?
14.4 Social Movement Theory
Sociological theories help us understand how social movements form, how they act, and whether or not they are successful. Theories aboutsocial movements highlight the different aspects of social movement mobilization, from how they function to the symbolism they use. Socialmovement theories follow the main theoretical approaches in sociology: structural functional theory, conflict theory, and symbolicinteractionism.
Structural Functional Theories
As discussed in earlier chapters, the functionalist perspective focuses on how all the pieces of society function together. In looking at socialmovements, functionalists emphasize how social movements are formed through dysfunction, or a need for social change, and mobilization tocreate social change (Smelser 1962). For example, a social movement may organize in response to widespread pollution in a community andthe lack of government regulation of the polluting industries. The goal of cleaning up the environment ties the movement together, formingthe basis for action.
Collective behavior theory is a classic functionalist theory used to understand social movements. According to this theory, socialmovements begin during times of crisis, when there is social disruption (Oliver 1993). For example, during the Vietnam War (1955–1975),young people protested the war and the draft lottery where young men were selected to go to war, whether willing or not. When peopleexperience a crisis or drastic social change—such as a war and a draft—they are more likely to act collectively in protest. However, this theorytends to assume people behave rationally (Snow and Benford 1988) and have collective needs and ideas that they can act on. During theVietnam War, for example, not all Americans who were against the war identified with young protesters, who were criticized for appearing tonot support service members (Beamish, Molotch, and Flacks 1995; Lembcke 1998). Often people in the same social movements havecontrasting needs and ideas, and those differences can be a source of conflict during mobilization (Porta and Diani 2008).
Doing Sociology 14.2: Locavores as a Social Movement
In this exercise, you will investigate the goals and consider the appeal of a nearby locavore organization.
Locavores advocate eating only foods that are grown and produced locally.
Use the Internet to identify a locavore organization in your state. (If you search for “locavore in [your state],” you should findexamples.) Read about their goals and activism and answer the following questions:
1. What kind of social movement is the locavore movement? How do you know this?
2. Who might participate in this kind of movement? Who might be left out?
3. What kind of individual and structural changes are the locavore movement seeking?
4. Would you be willing to join such a movement? Why?
Pastor Thirkel Freeman wears a hoodie and carries bags of Skittles, two symbols used to counter the image of Treyvon Martin and other young Blackmen as dangerous, at a memorial for Martin in Washington, D.C., on March 23, 2012.
Keith Lane/Tribune News Service/Getty Images
Mass society theory also falls under the functionalist umbrella and understands social movement collective action as a response to socialisolation. Mass society theorists maintain that feelings of isolation and alienation lead people to join a social movement. Mass society theorycould be used to explain the 2015 protests in Baltimore in response to the police killing of Freddie Gray. When Gray’s death was ruled ahomicide, the Black community protested for nearly a month. According to mass society theory, these protests would be a response to notonly Gray’s death but also the social isolation of the community. This theory has been largely discredited, however, as research showsindividuals who have strong connections to others are more likely to join a social movement than those who do not (Gusfield 2009). InBaltimore, the protests centered on the strong feeling of community, not social isolation.
Conflict Theories
Conflict theorists focus on how social movements develop out of systematic inequality. According to conflict theorists, social movements arisewhen goods and services are distributed unevenly. Two of the most well-known conflict theories used in the arena of social movements areresource mobilization and relative deprivation.
Resource mobilization theory focuses on the resources needed to mobilize and sustain a social movement. The presence of resources—followers, money, political connections, and so on—predicts whether or not a movement will be successful. Resource mobilization theoristsbelieve all social movements need resources to mobilize, and without these resources, mobilization is much more difficult, if not impossible(McCarthy and Zald 1977). However, focusing on resources does not help us understand how individuals and groups with little to noresources (poor people, marginalized people) form a successful social movement (Cress and Snow 1996). For example, undocumentedmigrant farm workers have relatively little power to protest their working conditions. They do not have access to typical resources likemoney, politicians, the media, or food distribution companies. However, even without these resources, migrant workers ran a five-year strikeagainst Delano grapes and, by withholding their labor, gained the media coverage needed to spark a consumer boycott. Despite their relativepowerlessness, the farm workers were successful in improving their working conditions and pay.
According to relative deprivation theory, people join social movements when they feel dissatisfied with their current position in society(Gurney and Tierney 1982). When individuals see that others have rights they do not have, they feel deprived and are likely to join amovement advocating for those rights. This theory explains why, for instance, gays and lesbians started and joined the marriage equalitymovement—others had marriage rights that they, too, wanted. But relative deprivation theory does not explain the presence of conscienceconstituents who do not benefit directly benefit from a movement’s goal.
Symbolic Interactionist Theories
As you know, symbolic interactionists focus on how people interactively construct meaning through shared symbols and language. The peacesign, for example, is a shared social movement symbol calling for an end to war. Symbolic interactionists theorize that collective behaviordevelops when established institutions no longer provide meaning that aligns with the views of a majority of its constituents (Benford andHunt 1992). For example, if the state defines marriage as an institution only male-female couples can participate in but society is largely openand accepting of same-sex couples, a social movement will organize to redefine the meaning of marriage to include same-sex couples.
Symbolic interactionists look at how people create meaning, goals, and shared culture within their collective action. The powerful use ofsymbols during the collective actions carried out after Trayvon Martin, a seventeen-year-old African American male, was killed in 2012 inSanford, Florida, by neighborhood watchman George Zimmerman provides an example. Martin was walking home from a local conveniencestore, but Zimmerman was suspicious of what the teen was doing in the neighborhood and followed him. Zimmerman and Martin got into analtercation, and Martin was shot. Zimmerman claimed self-defense, but Martin was unarmed (Blow 2012). The killing started nationwideprotests against racism and the perception that young Black men are dangerous.
Doing Sociology 14.3: Framing the Gay Rights Movement
In this exercise, you will apply the idea of framing to slogans associated with the gay rights movement over the past several decades.
Go online and find images from the gay rights movement (1970s to current). Look for images of signs, buttons, and T-shirts thatactivists use to advocate for equality. If you are not working on your computer in class, print at least three of these images andbring them to class.
Working with a group of other students, compare framing in early slogans like “Come out,” “We’re here, we’re queer, get used toit,” and “queer pride,” with more recent slogans like “love is love,” and “freedom to marry,” and “love makes a family.”
1. What master frames are being used?
2. What do these changing frames tell you about shifts in the strategy of the gay rights movement?
3. How did this framing shift lead to marriage equality in 2015?
When Zimmerman confronted him, Martin was wearing a hoodie and carrying Skittles candy and an Arizona iced tea. These items becamesymbols of Martin’s innocence at the time of the shooting, and the innocence of all young Black men stereotyped as dangerous. To make thispoint at antiracism demonstrations, protesters held up Skittles and iced tea. Protesters wore hoodies to mock the idea that a hoodie makes aBlack teenager look dangerous.
Consider This
What symbols, objects, and phrases can you think of that have helped mobilize people for social action? Why do you think theywere so powerful?
Social Movement Framing
The framing approach is another way to understand social movements under the symbolic interactionist umbrella. Sociologists who use theframing approach focus on how social movements use images and language to frame their causes. Through framing, leaders influence howpeople think about an issue by highlighting certain facts and themes, while making others invisible (Snow et al. 1986). For example, whenmaking their pitch to the city council, the Friends of Cats organization would frame the issue around how the city can save money with a TNRprogram. In their meeting with other organization members, however, they would use the frame of love for animals to make a case for TNRpolicy. Context matters for framing. The same frame that works in one context will not necessarily be successful in another.
In U.S. culture, there are frames that appeal nearly universally. These master frames include ideas like “freedom,” “democracy,” “love,” and“choice” and can be used by movements with different goals. Think about both sides of the abortion rights debate. The “pro-life” movementchose that name to center the issue on a master frame everyone values: life. The “pro-choice” movement similarly framed their movementaround the universally valued idea of choice. But on bumper stickers, the “pro-life” movement evokes the same master frame to declare“fetuses don’t have a choice.” This is an example of frame competition, when organizations use another group’s frames to discredit orridicule their position (Oliver and Johnston 2000).
The cover of the first edition of Betty Friedan’s book, The Feminine Mystique (1963), that helped spark the second wave of the women’s movement.
Granger, NYC—all rights reserved
New Social Movement Theory
Before the 1950s, social movements tended to focus on economic concerns and workers’ rights. New social movements (NSMs), however,tend to mobilize around issues of rights and collective social identities. For example, the civil rights movement organized around a sharedracial identity and experience. The women’s movement brought women together as women to fight for rights and equality. New socialmovement theory aims to explain this phenomenon.
Organizing around a shared identity can be empowering for movement members, especially when that identity has been marginalized. But,collective mobilization around a shared identity can also exclude individuals who do not fully fit that identity. For example, the women’smovement of the 1960s and 1970s is often criticized for mobilizing around the collective identity of White, heterosexual, middle-classwomen, whose experiences of oppression are not the same as those of other women.
When Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique came out in 1963, it helped start this new women’s movement in the United States. But herbook spoke largely to middle-class, straight, White women and excluded low-income women, lesbian and bisexual women, and women ofcolor. Concerned the movement would be perceived as “anti-male” and that lesbian women would threaten the image of feminists, Friedandescribed lesbian women within the movement as the “Lavender Menace.” While the term was meant to be derogatory, lesbians in themovement made “Lavender Menace” T-shirts and wore them to a protest—which showed just how many lesbians were a part of themovement.
Consider This
Is it possible to mobilize around a shared identity and also be inclusive of differences?
Check Your Understanding
· How do functionalist theorists understand the origins of social movements?
· According to conflict theorists, why do social movements arise?
· What do symbolic interactionists tend to focus on when studying social movements?
· What is a master frame? Provide an example of a master frame.
· What does it mean to organize around a shared identity?
4.5 The Six Steps of Social Movement Success
Social movements tend to be successful when they can identify a goal they can rally others around, form a group, create an effective strategy,mobilize enough resources, organize effective actions, and build power. Those that can’t do all of these will not reach their goals. Much alsodepends on the social and historical context and the forces that muster for or against the movement. Social movements are more likely todevelop in political climates where people have the freedom to organize and mobilize for their cause.
The first wave of the women’s movement focused on attaining the right to vote for women. It began in 1848 and culminated with the ratification of theNineteenth Amendment in 1920.
Granger, NYC—all rights reserved
Social movements occur in every country all over the world. This section covers primarily U.S.-based social movements, with an emphasis onactivism and organizing in the twentieth- and twenty-first-century civil rights and women’s movements.
Identify an Issue
The first task of any social movement is to identify an issue that needs to be addressed. This could be a widespread change in culture or aspecific change to policy or an institutional practice. The goal must be described as necessary to improve people’s lives or make the worldand/or community a better place. The context leading up to a social movement matters a great deal.
The Women’s Movement
Identifying an issue to organize around also means making a case for why change should occur. The women’s movement in the United Statesfollows four distinct waves of collective action—1848 to 1920, the 1960s and 1970s, the 1990s, and from 2000 on. Each wave had its owngoals. The first wave, the suffrage movement, focused on women gaining the right to vote. In arguing for this right, suffragists asserted thatwomen were fundamentally different from men and would bring their unique qualities to government if they could participate. Thisargument of difference feminism used images of women as caring, nurturing mothers to argue that women would bring an end to war andpoverty if they could vote and serve in office (Fox-Genovese 1994).
The antisuffrage movement also emphasized gender differences by arguing that women would be taking on men’s roles in public, at theexpense of taking care of the household. Antisuffrage postcards depicted women in pants, demonstrating on street corners, while husbandssuffered at home trying to take care of crying children. Despite opposition, the suffrage movement won women the right to vote throughoutthe United States with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.
On May 16, 1976, approximately 10,000 supporters of the Equal Rights Amendment marched to the state capitol building in Springfield, Illinois.
AP Photo/Anonymous
The second wave of the feminist movement started in the 1960s and peaked in the 1970s. After working in factories during World War II,women were expected to go back to being full-time wives and mothers once the war ended. During this time, women had few rights and wereexpected to become wives, mothers, and full-time homemakers. In 1963, Betty Friedan released her book The Feminine Mystique, in which shecriticized the 1950s image of the modern, suburban housewife. The book recognizing the discontent housewives felt and became widelypopular as a result, sparking the second hwave of the feminist movement, which advocated for an end to gender discrimination in workplace and reproductive rights for women. Some feminist leaders established the National Organization for Women (NOW) to lobbyCongress for women’s rights.
Form a Group
The next step in a successful social movement is to form an organization of both beneficiary and consciousness constituents who will worktoward the movement’s goals. Beneficiary constituents and consciousness constituents must believe the change is necessary.
The Civil Rights Movement
The civil rights movement consisted of individuals joining together to fight racial injustice. You have probably heard of the importance ofBlack churches during the civil rights movement, but did you know that students played an important role in the civil rights movement? Fromparticipating in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to planning large-scale actions like Freedom Summer in 1964, students wereessential to the movement’s success. During that summer of 1964, college students and other young people—Black and White—from all overthe United States volunteered to join groups traveling to Mississippi to register Black voters. Because of various means of racialdiscrimination, only 7 percent of the state’s eligible Black voters were registered. While many participants were beneficiary constituents,White students participated as consciousness constituents. Partly because some of these students were White, they were able to gain nationalmedia attention as they traveled through the South (McAdam 1990).
The Women’s Movement
By title, it would seem the women’s movement comprises entirely women. But movement membership has varied over the years. When youthink of a feminist, what kind of person comes to mind? Do you think of a young woman burning her bra in the 1970s, demanding equal payfor equal work? A radical lesbian, refusing to shave her legs and screaming against the patriarchy? A member of a men’s antirape group? Acollege woman marching in a Take Back the Night event on her campus, advocating for women’s safety?
A feminist is someone who is committed to gender equality. A feminist organization is an organization working to end women’s oppression.
As noted earlier, the women’s movement has not always been inclusive of all women. The needs of poor women and women of color werelargely excluded from the second wave of the movement as activists focused on issues such as professional opportunities and salary equity—and largely ignored issues related to classism and racism (hooks 1984). During the 1980s, feminists faced a backlash, with headlines like the Time Magazine cover asking “Is feminism dead?” (Faludi 1994).
Doing Sociology 14.4: Who Counts as a Feminist?
In this activity, you will consider the impact of public figures’ statements on mainstream views of feminism.
Celebrities, particularly women, are often asked if they consider themselves feminists. Some agree that they are, some say theyare not, and others try to redefine the term. Using an Internet search, find recent examples of public figures (celebrities,politicians, etc.) who have identified as feminist and answer the following questions:
1. Do you think celebrities or politicians influence how individuals perceive the cause of feminism? Why or why not?
2. Based on the information you have read in this text, do you think feminism is still necessary? Why or why not?
By the 1990s, however, a new, third wave of feminism was well under way. Instead of assuming all women experienced oppression in thesame ways as White, middle-class women, the third wave focused on inclusiveness and intersectionality. Third-wave feminists drew from adiverse group of women to advocate around various issues, including sexual violence, gay rights, and reproductive justice. One of the mostvisible groups in third-wave feminism were the Riotgrrrls. The Riotgrrrl movement developed out of the feminist hardcore punk music scene,and activists published and sold self-made ’zines (magazines) on feminist issues. Activists, musicians, and writers in the movement coveredeverything from body-positive messages to surviving sexual violence. ’Zines used images and commentary to empower young women to feelgood about themselves and speak up against patriarchy (Rosenberg and Garofalo 1998).
Challenges to Forming a Group
Convincing beneficiary constituents and consciousness constituents to join a group is not without challenges, however. Beneficiaryconstituents must believe their situations will improve based on their participation. Consciousness constituents must be willing to seesomething as a problem even when it does not directly affect them. Social movements also face issues such as keeping participants engagedover long periods of time, especially when there are stretches without clear victories. Social movement organizations must keep beneficiaryand consciousness constituents engaged by fostering a shared sense of purpose and achievable small goals.
Marginalization of Members
Social movements can limit participation by marginalizing some members within the organization. For example, despite playing importantroles in civil rights efforts, women were marginalized in the civil rights movement (Barnett 1993). Women in organizations like the NationalAssociation for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and the SouthernChristian Leadership Conference (SCLC) found they were often assigned clerical work instead of on-the-ground organizing work. While maleleaders placed themselves on the front lines of demonstrations and marches, women like Diane Nash and Ella Baker did much of thebackstage work of organizing.
Cultural Differences
Organizing becomes more difficult when social movements are global and cross-cultural. The women’s movement, for example, ran into aproblem trying to alleviate the perceived oppression of women in other countries (Rupp 1997). The 1984 U.S. book Sisterhood Is Global: TheInternational Women’s Movement Anthology by Robin Morgan is an example of how some movements can have a culturally biased perspective.The phrase “sisterhood is global” implies all women experience oppression in the same way, and they are equal to one another in oppression,as sisters. The book was criticized for glossing over the different ways women are oppressed and for not addressing how oppression andempowerment may mean different things in different contexts. For example, wearing a hijab might seem like oppression from a Westernperspective, when in fact a woman may see her hijab as a personally empowering choice to honor her religion (Read and Bartkowski 2000).
Joan Jett plays with singer Kathleen Hanna and drummer Tobi Vailfrom of Bikini Kill at Irving Plaza in New York on 14th July 1994. Jetts’ collaborationwith Bikini Kill helped bring the punk extension of the third wave, Riot Grrrl, into the mainstream media.
Ebet Roberts/Redferns/Getty Images
The idea that “sisterhood is global” also ignores inequalities among women. Now global feminist movement organizations strive tounderstand that not all women face the same types and extent of oppression and that some women (poor women, women of color) are morevulnerable than others. These organizations must consider how oppression and empowerment look different across contexts as they strive tocreate groups that can work together effectively.
Create a Strategy
To be successful, social movements must identify a strategy for making social change. Doing this requires consulting with experts and withthe affected community to find solutions to the problem. Often the best strategies for social change are the result of careful research into whatthe problems are and what the best solutions might be. While creating a strategy, social movements must also identify the powerholders theyneed to target. These powerholders are people, institutions, voters, or lawmakers who have the power to enact the change the movementmembers want to see happen.
The Civil Rights Movement
Strategic research and planning was a key part of the civil rights movement. For example, before they began sit-ins at lunch counters inNashville, Tennessee, activists collected data on how the lunch counters were run and how customers and employees responded to incidentsof integration. Using this information, civil rights organizer James Lawson trained student activists to use nonviolent responses to the openaggression and hostility they expected to receive. They carefully rehearsed and prepared for their actions. In 1960, after their four-monthcampaign, Nashville became the first city to desegregate department store lunch counters (Morris 1981). This successful campaign todesegregate lunch counters through sit-ins became a model, and activists in many other the cities carried out similar actions.
Mobilize Resources
A successful social movement needs resources. Constituents are every social movement’s most important resource. Other resources includemoney, access to media, and supplies. Organizations must assess what resources they have and organize to gain those they need.
The Women’s Movement
Women are a key resource for the women’s movement. To mobilize women to join, women’s organizations during the second wave of thewomen’s movement in the 1960s and 1970s held consciousness-raising circles where women could share their experiences of oppression in asafe space. This helped connect more women to the movement.
As noted earlier, third-wave feminists used ’zines and music as resources to distribute their message. The Internet is a vital resource for thefourth wave of the women’s movement (post-2000). Today, feminists use blogging and social media (Facebook and Twitter) to organizeprotests and rallies, as well as raise awareness about issues of rape culture, consumerism, beauty standards, and sexuality. Hashtagcampaigns like “#EverydaySexism” and “#RapeCultureIsWhen” spread across the globe, generating conversations about key feminist issues(Clark 2014).
Organize Actions
Social action is the lifeblood of social movements. Specific actions, or tactics, might include protesting, marching, boycotting, and so on. Goalsof actions include raising awareness, building constituents, and/or directly asking for change. As symbolic interactionists argue, sharedcultural symbols and language are powerful parts of social movement action and used by movement leaders to organize and inspirefollowers. It is also important to remember that actions, no matter how well planned, organized, or eloquently inspired, come with risks.
The Civil Rights Movement
Before going to Mississippi in 1964, the Freedom Summer activists were taught how to talk to people about voting and how to register voters.They planned summer-long Freedom Schools to educate Black Mississippians on voting, politics, Black history, and other topics. All theirpreparation could not always keep them safe, however. When they went to Mississippi, the activists were threatened and lived with familieswho faced hostility for hosting the volunteers. One of their buses was burned, and many endured beatings and jail time. Three activists wereabducted and brutally killed in Neshoba County, Mississippi. The murders of James Earl Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwernersymbolized the connection between brutality and racism and brought national attention to Freedom Summer (McAdam 1990).
Not everyone in the civil rights movement agreed on which tactics were best for the movement. We frequently learn about peaceful civilrights protests and marches but do not learn that some participants in the movement broke the law (through civil disobedience) and usedviolence to fight for civil rights. The Black Panther Party, for example, rejected the nonviolence of Martin Luther King’s followers, believinginstead that Black people needed to defend themselves against state-sanctioned violence (Bloom and Martin 2013). They often went toprotests and events openly armed, to symbolize the seriousness of their intent to defend their community.
Diane Nash, a key but often unsung civil rights leader, was a creator and chair of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
Granger, NYC—all rights reserved
Gaining Power and Success
Every social movement must gain power to be successful. If they successfully complete the steps above, movements will gain power and thesubsequent ability to achieve their goals. Both the civil rights movement and the women’s movement were able to reach many of their keygoals. Movement success arrives when the problem is solved or the goal achieved.
Consider This
Under what conditions is violence (against property or people) ever justifiable in a social movement? If never, why not?
A sit-in at a Whites-only, racially segregated lunch counter in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1960. These successful protests sparked others across the South.
Granger, NYC—all rights reserved
The Civil Rights Movement
The successes of the civil rights movement included the following:
· Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin;
· Voting Rights Act of 1965, which made it illegal for states and local governments to block individuals from voting and created a system tomonitor counties with low voter turnout among minorities; and
· Civil Rights Act of 1968, which prohibits discrimination in renting, selling, or financing housing based on race, color, religion, sex, ornational origin.
Thanks to the civil rights movement, the United States largely dismantled Jim Crow legislation that enforced racial segregation and otherforms of discrimination (such as in employment and housing) and prevented millions of Black Americans from voting.
The Women’s Movement
The women’s movement won victories like the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade, granting womenlegal access to abortion. The women’s movement also became an influential part of mainstream political institutions. Started as anorganization targeting politicians for social change, the National Organization for Women now has hundreds of thousands of members,chapters in every state (including on many college campuses), and a strong lobbying presence in Washington, D.C.
Why Social Movements Fail
Social movements may fail to reach their goal for a variety of reasons. Failure may come from organizational issues (disagreements andinfighting), a lack of resources, or an inability to mobilize supporters. Social movements may also be repressed. Repression takes place whenpeople and/or institutions with power use that power to control or destroy a movement. Countries that ban any form of public protestinclude Russia, the Ukraine, and Egypt. Making a social movement’s activities—like distributing flyers—illegal is another example ofrepression. During the Arab Spring in 2011, the Egyptian government shut down the Internet to impede the ability of activists to coordinatetheir efforts and broadcast their protests to the world.
Social movements can also be co-opted. Co-optation can happen when the leadership of the movement begins to identify with the targets ofsocial change and starts to work more for them than for the original movement goals. Social movements can also end up taking on the valuesand actions they are trying to change. For example, the environmental movement seeking corporate responsibility in growing and sellingcoffee found their language of “fair trade” co-opted by some coffee sellers to appeal to a high-end niche consumer, without much concernabout whether or not the coffee was actually fairly traded. Social movement goals—like fair-trade coffee—may become watered down orchanged to accommodate the corporation’s needs.
Check Your Understanding
· List the steps social movements must take to become successful.
· What kinds of strategies did the civil rights movement use in planning actions?
· What is a feminist?
· What is the most important resource for all social movements?
· What are some of the key achievements of the civil rights movement and the women’s movement?
·
14.6 Success Can Bring Backlash: The Marriage Equality Movement
The marriage equality movement is one of the most successful movements in recent history. As Figure 14.1 indicates, public approval forsame-sex marriage rose dramatically in a single decade, with 35 percent supporting it in 2006 compared to 55 percent in favor in 2016 (ayear after the Supreme Court ruling legalizing it).
Successful Tactics of the Marriage Equality Movement
The movement used a variety of tactics to achieve marriage equality, including increasing numbers of gay and lesbian public figures comingout. By the late 1990s, there were openly gay and lesbian main characters on primetime television shows like Ellen, starring Ellen DeGeneres.Today, television shows with gay characters and gay married couples are commonplace. This changed public perception of gays and lesbiansand of same-sex couples, paving the way for marriage equality (Fetner 2016).
Direct action and protests were other tactics that helped the movement become successful. The gay rights movement in the United States, ofwhich the marriage equality movement was an offshoot, began with the Stonewall riots on June 28, 1969. During the 1950s and 1960s, it wasillegal for bars to serve gays and lesbians, and they could lose their liquor licenses for letting gay people congregate. The riots broke out in theStonewall Inn, a bar in New York City frequented by gay men and lesbians. Police raids on known gay and lesbian bars were commonplace,but when police raided the Stonewall Inn, patrons decided they had enough and fought back (Carter 2005). The riots served to galvanize thegay and lesbian community to organize into activist groups and push for equal treatment. The following year, to commemorate theanniversary of the riots, gay and lesbian rights activists held a march in New York City running from the Village up Fifth Avenue to CentralPark. This was the first Pride March, now an annual event held on the last Sunday of June in New York.
Figure 14.1 Percent of Opposition and Support for Same-Sex Marriage, 2006–2016
Source: Hannah Fingerhut, Support Steady for Same-sex Marriage and Acceptance of Homosexuality, Pew Research Center, May 12, 2016,http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/12/support-steady-for-same-sex-marriage-and-acceptance-of-homosexuality.
The first Gay Pride Day (then known as Gay Liberation Day) parade in New York, New York, June 28, 1970.
Fred W. McDarrah/Premium Archive/Getty Images
Beginning in 2000, the marriage equality movement turned to the court system to advocate for equality, strategically suing states for the rightof same-sex couples to marry. In 2004, they enjoyed their first major victory. As the result of a discrimination case brought to theMassachusetts Supreme Court, gay and lesbian couples won the right to marry in Massachusetts.
After Massachusetts, individual states passed either marriage equality laws or “marriage protection” laws (defining marriage between a manand a woman). Each state presented a challenge for activists. For example, in early 2009, Maine’s legislature passed a marriage equality law.People around the state then organized against marriage equality and were able to get the issue on the ballot. In November 2009, Mainersvoted to keep marriage “between one man and one woman.” In response, the marriage equality movement changed its organizing strategy.Activists surveyed people around the state, particularly in rural areas, to discuss the importance of marriage and family. When marriageequality was put on Maine’s ballot again in 2012, activists went door-to-door explaining that gays and lesbians in Maine wanted the samethings everyone else did—lifelong love and commitment. Commercials by organizations like Maine Equality depicted very few actual gayindividuals, instead depicting families and loved ones who believed love and marriage should be accessible to everyone. In 2012, marriageequality won in Maine.
By 2015, all but fourteen states had marriage equality laws. Then, the Supreme Court decided that the Fourteenth Amendment requires statesto issue marriage licenses to couples, regardless of sex. Marriage equality became the law of the land. Individuals and institutions used socialmedia to show their support of the ruling. Facebook made it possible for people to superimpose a rainbow flag over their profile picture—some 26 million users showed their support (Dewey 2015).
With Success Comes Backlash
Sometimes successful movements face backlash. As support for a movement grows, fear and resentment of this change among those mostardently opposed to the movement also grow. This can lead to increased acts of discrimination. Same-sex couples seeking marriage licensesafter the Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) decision have sometimes faced local officials who refuse to follow the law. Interracial couples trying toget married shortly after the Loving v. Virginia (1967) decision, which made interracial marriages legal, faced similar obstacles. Also, as notedin Chapter 8, in a majority of states in the United States, employers still have the legal right to fire employees simply for being gay, lesbian, ortransgender. Most horrifyingly, LGBT people have also faced violent attacks. When gay and lesbian people gain equality through policies,social acceptance increases and hate crimes also decrease overall. But we also see an increase in the more extreme and violent hate crimes(Levy and Levy 2017).
On June 12, 2016, Omar Mateen opened fire at Pulse, a gay night club in Orlando, Florida. He killed forty-nine people and himself. It was thedeadliest shooting the United States has seen up until that time and drew national mourning and outrage. As a result of the shooting, the gayand lesbian movement has joined forces with the gun control movement. It remains to be seen what these two movements can accomplishnow that they are working together (Carlson and Pettinicchio 2016).
Check Your Understanding
· What were the tactics of the marriage equality movement?
· Why can successful movements face backlash?
· What are some examples of discrimination the LGBTQ community still faces?
14.7 How Can We Create Social Change?
The success of a social movement depends on everything from the number and commitment of activists, the kinds of actions planned, theresources available to the movement, to the symbolic power of the movement to grab media and public attention. Money certainly makes iteasier to exert influence. But civil rights protesters who changed Jim Crow laws did not have large amounts of money behind them. Instead,they had large numbers of people and careful planning. Their power came from organizing effectively and successfully mobilizing people andinfluencing public opinion through their carefully planned actions.
Francis Fox Piven’s (2006) concept of interdependent power helps explain how social change can come from the organized efforts ofrelatively poor and powerless individuals due to the ties that bind institutions and individuals together. Individuals are connected to oneanother through institutions that organize our lives. Teachers rely on having students in their classrooms, just as students rely on access to ateacher for their educations. These same institutions depend on the actions of their members—teaching, learning—to survive. Take, forexample, the growing problem of student loan debt. Individuals who owe student loans can do little alone to change the system of financinghigher education. They relied on the loan company to pay for school, and the loan company relies on them to pay that loan back. Asindividuals, they would face negative consequences for not paying their student loans back. But, as part of a large group (40 millionAmericans), they have power. If all 40 million people stopped paying their loans, they would be exercising interdependent power andaffecting all the players. That kind of mass action would be difficult to organize, but the concept of interdependent power does explain someof the ways social change can happen from below.
Participatory Action Research
Sociological research skills can help foster social change and organize social movements effectively. Participatory action research (PAR)starts with the idea that people are the experts in their own lives and can participate in the research process. Instead of the typical model of aresearcher coming into a community to study it, the people who live in that community participate in the research process and help producethe knowledge collectively (Greenwood and Levin 2006).
PAR is an especially useful technique in disadvantaged communities where members may not trust outsider researchers and are more likelyto talk to one another. Take, for example, the Friends of Cats organization described in the beginning of this chapter. If Friends of Cats foundthe community was reluctant to support outside solutions for the feral cat problem, PAR could be a solution. Using PAR, sociology researchersmight work with Friends of Cats and community leaders to better understand the community members’ views on the issue. They woulddesign a research plan together. They might distribute a survey they created together. With the information they gathered, they would be ableto construct an animal control policy likely to gain the support of the community. In PAR, the act of gathering information is communitybuilding and can lead to meaningful social action.
The White House on June 26, 2015, following the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in favor of same-sex marriage.
AP Photo/Drew Angerer
Books and Documentaries about Social Movement
Books about Social Movements
· Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail by Frances Fox Piven
· Social Movements 1768–2004 by Charles Tilly
· Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, the Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties andSeventies by Jeremy Varon
· The Autobiography of Malcolm X by Malcolm X
· The Next American Revolution: Sustainable Activism for the Twenty-First Century by Grace Lee Boggs
· Democracy in the Making: How Activist Groups Form by Kathleen Blee
· The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America by Ruth Rosen
Social Movement Documentaries
· Eyes on the Prize (PBS, 1987)
· Berkeley in the Sixties (Kitchell Films, 1990)
· Freedom on My Mind (Clarity Films, 1994)
· This Is What Democracy Looks Like (Big Noise Films, 2000)
· Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin (PBS, 2003)
· This Black Soil: A Story of Resistance and Rebirth (Bullfrog Films, 2004)
· The Billionaire’s Tea Party (Larrikin Films, 2011)
· The Black Power Mixtape 1967–1975 (Story AB, 2011)
· How to Survive a Plague (Independent Lens, 2012)
· American Revolutionary: Grace Lee Boggs (PBS, 2013)
· Disruption: Climate Change (PF Pictures, 2014)
· She’s Beautiful When She’s Angry (Music Box Films, 2014)
· Stay Woke: The Black Lives Matter Movement (BET, 2016)
Empowerment, Responsibility, and Making Social Change
Being a part of a social movement can be very empowering. Social movements bring individuals together in a kind of collective solidarity, orsense of social bonding, that strengthens our ties to one another (Oliver 1993). When social movements bring victories—no matter how small—members are empowered to see they can take part in social change. For this reason, individuals who take part in social movements aremore likely to take part in other protests and to be politically active.
Being a part of collective efforts for social change is also a responsibility. Many of the social movements you have read about in this chapterhave struggled with issues of inclusion. Organizing around a shared identity can be a powerful experience but can leave others out. Feministorganizations committed to intersectionality work to make sure that all voices within the organization are heard, especially the voices andneeds of those women who are most vulnerable.
Men in the feminist movement and White people in the Black Lives Matter movement have also raised questions of how to be a good ally. An ally is a conscience constituent who is committed to the cause (Porta and Diani 2008). While allies can be important parts of a movement,they need to make sure they do not speak for those they are fighting for or take advantage of their own privilege by being in the spotlight ortaking credit for activism. Being a good ally means listening to the needs of beneficiaries and working together to plan a course of action thatwill bring about change.
How You Can Help Bring about Social Change
· Be aware of inequalities and oppression. Find out which groups are the most marginalized in our society and why. Learn about theirmarginalization from their perspective.
· Learn the history of social movements. There are fantastic books and documentaries about social movements. Find causes that matter toyou and learn the history of that movement.
· Examine inequality and oppression from an intersectional perspective. Race, class, gender, sexuality, age, and ethnicity are all intertwined.Consider how your activism may include some while excluding others.
· Raise awareness. Share links and news on Facebook and Twitter. Follow social movements you care about online. Sign online petitions.Engage in discussions with friends and family. But do not stop at “slacktivism.” Think about how you can become a more active activist.
· Engage in the political process. Learn who your representatives are and communicate with them through letter writing and social media.Follow political campaigns at the local, state and national levels. Vote.
· Go to a local political meeting. Attend city council or school board meetings in your community. Find out what issues matter and whatdecisions are being made.
· Work to not make assumptions about oppression and privilege. What might look like oppression to you may mean freedom to someoneelse. Listen to people’s experiences and goals.
· Speak out about issues that matter to you. Sometimes speaking out means taking risks, and only you can decide what risks you arecomfortable with.
· Work with others who share your concerns. Organized people have more power.
Consider This
What social or political issue are you concerned about? How would sociology and sociological theory help you to understandthis issue? Brainstorm some ways you could become involved in addressing this issue.
Check Your Understanding
· What is interdependent power and how can it help individuals without much power alone effect change?
· What is participatory action research?
· What can you do to help bring about social change?
· Why should you work with others when seeking social change?
Conclusion
Studying social movements helps us understand what matters in our society and where we might be heading. Sociological tools can also helpsocial movements work more effectively. For example, being able to conduct surveys and interviews with community members about theirneeds and goals is an essential skill for mobilizing and organizing people. Understanding how to gain power and effect change are invaluableassets for social movement leaders.
Knowledge of social movements can also come in handy in a variety of careers. Knowing how to mobilize people to action can help anyonewho works with people—in any field. Professionals in fields from community organizing to nonprofit management to education to marketinguse these skills. Think of how you can use them in your chosen career.
As we have seen in this chapter, social change can come from the top (from people with resources and influence) or from the bottom (fromcommunity action and exercising interdependent power). Social change can also come through education—informing people about activism,equality, and independence. While social movements usually begin outside of established institutions, participating in the political process(by voting, campaigning, etc.) can also bring about social change. Individuals, like you, can use all these avenues to help create social changeand make an impact on society.
Want a better grade? Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video andmultimedia at edge.sagepub.com/korgen
Review
14.1 What is a social movement?
A social movement is a collective, organized, sustained effort to make noninstitutional social change.
14.2 Why do people participate in social movements?
People participate in social movements when they feel passionately about an issue. They may participate as beneficiaryconstituents, who will directly benefit from the goals of the social movement (i.e., same-sex couples who would like marriageequality). Or, they may participate as contentious participants, who will not benefit directly but feel strongly about the cause.
14.3 What are the different types of social movements?
While some social movements push for massive social change, others press for limited changes to society. There are four differenttypes of movements: alternative, redemptive, reformative, and revolutionary. Alternative social movements advocate for limitedsocietal change. Redemptive social movements seek more radical change in individual behavior. Reformative social movementswork for specific change across society. The goal of revolutionary social movements is a radical reorganization of society.
14.4 How would you use sociological theory to explain a social movement?
Sociologists use theories to understand different aspects of how social movements work. Structural functionalist theories focuson how people come together during a time of crisis to accomplish an agreed-upon goal. Conflict theorists look at how socialmovements develop from inequality. When a group of people feels deprived of something they believe they should have access to(rights, money, power, etc.), they will protest. Symbolic interactionists are interested in the shared language and symbolism—likethe peace sign—that hold social movements together and help spread their message.
14.5 What are the steps a social movement must take to become successful?
Social movements that succeed follow the following steps:
1. Identify a social change goal
2. Form a group of likeminded people committed to the goal
3. Create a strategy (a plan of action to achieve the goal)
4. Mobilize resources
5. Organize actions
6. Build power
Movement success arrives when the problem is solved or the goal achieved.
14.6 What tactics do social movements use to achieve their goals, and what kind of backlash do they face?
Some organizations stay within the limits of the law, protesting with permits and cooperating with police and officials. Otherorganizations may decide to participate in civil disobedience—blocking roads or buildings—to make their point heard. Othermore radical organizations might break into buildings, destroy property, and further disrupt people’s lives. Each of these tacticshas positive and negative aspects the movement must consider. Organizations often do research and work with communities tofind the best tactics for social change. Effective tactics build support for a movement, but this growth in support can inspire fearand resentment of change among those most ardently opposed to the movement. This can lead to increased acts ofdiscrimination.
14.7 How can we create social change?
Social change can come from the top or the bottom, but it requires getting involved. Examine inequality and discrimination froman intersectional perspective. Raise awareness about the things that matter to you and engage in the political process. Speak upwhen you disagree with what you see around you, but be sure to listen to people with other perspectives and consider theirviews.
Key Terms
· ally 314
· alternative social movements 299
· beneficiary constituents 297
· civil disobedience 296
· collective solidarity 314
· co-optation 310
· coalescence 298
· collective behavior theory 301
· community-based organizing 298
· conscience constituents 297
· difference feminism 305
· emergence 298
· feminist 306
· feminist organization 306
· frame competition 303
· framing 303
· interdependent power 313
· mass society theory 301
· master frames 303
· mobilizing 298
· new social movement theory 304
· organizing 298
· participatory action research 313
· protest 296
· redemptive social movements 300
· reformative social movements 300
· relative deprivation theory 302
· repression 310
· resource mobilization theory 302
· revolutionary social movements 300
· social movement 295
· women’s movement 304