Soc 14

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Chapter 14 Outline - Mooney-2 LECTURE OUTLINE

I. THE GLOBAL CONTEXT: THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION A. Science and Technology 1. Science: the process of discovering, explaining, and predicting natural or social phenomena. 2. Technology: a form of human cultural activity that applies the principles of science and mechanics to the solution of problems in order to accomplish a specific task. 3. Societies differ in their levels of technological sophistication and development. a. In agricultural societies, which emphasize the production of raw materials, the use of tools to accomplish tasks previously done by hand, or mechanization, dominates. b. As societies move toward industrialization and the mass production of goods, automation, the use of self-operating machines, prevails. c. As society moves toward post-industrialization, it emphasizes service and information professions; technology shifts toward cybernation, whereby machines control machines. B. The Global Context: The Technological Revolution 1. The world is a much smaller place than it used to be, and it will become even smaller as the technological revolution continues. a. In 2012, the Internet had 2.4 billion users in more than 200 countries with 245 million users in the U.S. b. Although three-fourths of Internet users live in industrialized countries, Africans, Middle Easterners, and Latin Americans are increasingly “getting online.” 2. The movement toward the globalization of technology is not limited to the use and expansion of the Internet. a. The world robot market—and the U.S. share of it—continues to expand. b. Microsoft’s Internet platform and support products are sold all over the world. c. Scientists collect skin and blood samples from remote islanders for genetic research. d. A global treaty regulating trade of genetically altered products has been signed by more

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than 100 nations. e. Intel computer processing units (CPUs) power an estimated 80% of the world’s personal computers (PCs). 3. To achieve scientific and technological innovations (research and development, R & D), countries need material and economic resources. a. Research entails the pursuit of knowledge; development refers to the production of materials, systems, processes, or devices directed toward the solution of a practical problem. 4. The U.S. leads the world in science and technology although there is evidence that we are falling behind, which is likely the result of several interacting forces. a. The federal government is investing less in R & D due to fiscal deficits. b. Corporations, the largest contributor to R & D, are focusing on short-term products and higher profits as pressure from stock holders mounts. c. Developing countries (esp. China and India) are expanding their scientific and technological capabilities at a faster rate than the U.S. d. There has been a drop in science and math education in U.S. schools both in terms of quality and quantity. 5. Scholars document “unscientific America”—the tremendous disconnect between citizens, media, politicians, religious leaders, education and entertainment on the one hand and science and scientists on the other. C. Postmodernism and the Technological Fix 1. Many Americans believe that social problems can be resolved through a technological fix rather than through social engineering. a. A social engineer might approach the problem of water shortages by persuading people to change their lifestyle: use less water, take shorter showers, and wear clothes more than once before washing. b. A technologists would concentrate of the development of new technologies that would increase the water supply. 2. Social problems can be tackled through both social engineering and a technological fix. a. Social engineering efforts to reduce drunk driving have included imposing stiffer

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penalties for drunk driving and disseminating public service announcements. A technological fix for drunk driving is the development of car air bags to reduce injuries caused by accidents. 3. Postmodernism: an emerging worldwide view which holds that rational thinking and the scientific perspective have fallen short in providing the “truths” they were once presumed to hold. a. During the industrial era, science, rationality, and technological innovations were thought to hold the promises of a better, safer, and more humane world. b. Today postmodernists point to the unforeseen and unwanted consequences of these technologies.

II. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A. Structural-Functionalist Perspective 1. Structural functionalists view science and technology as emerging in response to societal needs—that science was born indicates that society needed it. 2. If society changes too rapidly as a result of science and technology, problems may emerge. a. When the material part of culture changes (i.e., its physical elements) changes at a faster rate than the nonmaterial part (i.e., its beliefs and values), a cultural lag may develop. 3. Robert Merton, a structural-functionalist and founder of the subdiscipline sociology of science, argued that scientific discoveries or technological innovations may be dysfunctional for society and create instability in the social system. B. Conflict Perspective 1. Science and technology benefit a select few. 2. For some conflict theorists, technological advances occur as a response to capitalist needs for increased efficiency and productivity and, thus, are motivated by profit. 3. In the U.S., private industry spends more money on research and development than the federal government; consequently, products are put on the market without thorough safety testing. 4. Science and technology further the interests of dominant groups to the detriment of others. a. The need for scientific research on AIDS was evident in the early 1980s, however sufficient money for AIDS research was not provided until it was discovered that

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heterosexuals and non IV-drug users were at risk. 5. When the dominant group feels threatened, it may use technology as a means of social control. 6. Conflict theorists as well as feminists argue that technology is an extension of the patriarchal nature of society that promotes the interests of men and ignores the needs and interests of women. C. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective 1. Knowledge is relative: it changes over time, circumstances, and between societies. 2. Scientific “truths” are socially constructed and result from interactions between scientists, researchers, and the lay public. 3. The success of technological innovations depends on the social meaning assigned to any particular product (e.g. contraceptive RU486 is popular in France but not in the U.S., where it is opposed by many Americans). 4. Who becomes involved in what aspects of science and technology is socially defined (e.g., men vs. women).

III. TECHNOLOGY AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIETY A. Older technologies have influenced the social world as profoundly as the most mind-boggling modern inventions. 1. The clock was originally developed by Benedictine monasteries of the 12th and 13th centuries who needed a device to provide precise regularity to the routines of the monasteries: the clock could provide precision to rituals of devotion. 2. Paradoxically, the clock was invented by men who wanted to devote themselves to God; it became a technology used by men who devoted themselves to the accumulation of money. B. Technology and the Workplace 1. Some technology lessens the need for supervisors and makes control by employers easier. a. The use of identifying characteristics such as hands, fingers, and eyes is part of a technology called biometrics. b. Technology can make workers more accountable by gathering information about their performance. 2. Technology increases efficiency—e.g., by personal digital assistants (PDAs) and batterypowered

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store-shelf labels. 3. Technology can contribute to worker error (e.g., hospital computer drug-ordering programs may not provide enough information about patient’s allergies and usual doses of drugs). 4. Technology is changing the location of work (e.g., increase telecommuting). a. Telepresencing is a sophisticated technology that allows life-sized participants in the virtual presence of one another to realistically communicate through broadcast quality sound and images. 5. Information technologies are also changing the nature of work. 6. Robotic technology has also revolutionized work. C. The Computer Revolution 1. Although the first PC was developed only 30 years ago, today more than 75% of adult Americans reported having a home computer. 2. Americans are more likely to use a computer at home than at work. 3. Use at either location is associated with demographic variables: higher education and income increase the likelihood of using a computer at home; use at home is lowest for 65 and older and at work is highest for 35-44 year olds. 4. The U.S. has 76.6% of households with a computer. Israel has the highest rate (122/100 people) and Honduras has one of the lowest (2.5/100). 5. Computer education has mushroomed in the last two decades. 6. Computers are big business and the U.S. is one of the most successful producers of computer technology in the world, boasting several of the top companies—Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Apple. 7. In some states, the computer software business is too big. a. In 2000, a federal judge found that Microsoft Corporation was in violation of antitrust laws which prohibit unreasonable restraint of trade. D. Information and Communication Technology and the Internet 1. Information and communication technology (ICT): any technology that carries information. a. Most information technologies were developed within a 100-year span: photography and telegraphy (1830s), rotary power printing (1840s), the typewriter (1860s), transatlantic cable (1866), the telephone (1876), radio (1906), and television (1923).

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b. The concept of an “information society” dates back to the 1950s, when an economist identified a work sector he called the “production and distribution of knowledge.” i. In 1958, 31% of the labor force worked in this sector; today, more than 50% is. 2. The Internet is an international information infrastructure (a network of networks) available through universities, research institutes, government agencies, and businesses. 3. In 2014, 70% of all Americans used the Internet from some location. a. U.S. users are equally likely to be male or female but more likely to be between 18 and 34, to be college graduates, white non-Hispanic, employed and have an annual income of $150,000 or more. b. The most active Internet users are connected to broadband—services that provide highspeed (DSL and cable) access rather than dial-up service—and are high-income young and more educated. 4. The Internet has evolved to what is now called Web 2.0—a platform for millions of users to express themselves online in the common areas of cyberspace. 5. E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet. a. Online retail sales increased by 47% in 2011 despite slowdowns in the economy. b. Most online sales are bargain hunters and convenience shoppers. 6. The Internet is also used in health and medicine. a. The Internet is the third most likely source of health information, preceded by professionals, friends or family. b. Online medical records can help improve medical care by providing decades of patient background information to doctors easily and quickly. c. Technology can help mediate increasing health care costs. 7. The Internet is the foundation of the information society, providing millions of surfers with instant answers to questions. 8. Over half of all Americans play video games, although less than a quarter play video games online. 9. Technology is also changing the world of politics, as approximately 73% of U.S. adult Internet users used the Internet to gain political information for the 2010 midterm election. 10. Social network sites and blogs comprise a sector of the Internet called membership

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communities, which are Internet sites where participation requires membership and members regularly communicate with one another for personal and/or professional reasons. E. Science and Biotechnology 1. Genetics: Molecular biology has led to a greater understanding of the genetic material found in all cells—DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—and with it the ability for genetic screening. a. Researchers are trying to complete genetic maps that will link DNA to particular traits. b. The Human Genome Project, a 13-year effort to map human DNA, is now complete and the conclusion of the project is transforming medicine. i. The ultimate goal is to use this information to develop new ways to treat, cure, or even prevent the thousands of diseases that afflict humankind. ii. The hope is to develop gene therapy: that if a defective or missing gene is identified, it may be possible to get a healthy duplicate and transplant it to the affected cell. 2. Food and biotechnology a. Genetic engineering: the ability to manipulate and alter the genes of an organism in such a way that the natural outcome is altered. b. Genetically modified (GM) food involves this process of DNA recombination--scientists transferring genes from one plant into the genetic code of another plant. i. An estimated 80% of processed foods in U.S. markets contain some form of GM ingredient, most often corn or soy, followed by canola and cotton (in cottonseed oil). ii. A nation survey found that 1/3 U.S. adults felt GMO food was unsafe to eat; 93% believed the government should require labels that said GMO ingredients were in the products. c. Biotechnology companies and other supporters of GM foods, commonly cite the alleviation of hunger and malnutrition as a main benefit, claiming that this technology can enable farmers to produce crops with higher yields. d. Critics of GM foods argue that the world already produces enough food for all people to have a healthy diet. e. Biotechnology companies claim that GM foods approved by the Food and Drug Administration are safe for human consumption, and they even cite potential health benefits such as the use of genetic modification to remove allergens that naturally occur

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in foods such as nuts, making these foods safer to eat for individuals who have allergies to these foods. i. Critics claim that research on the effects of GM crops and foods on human health is inadequate, especially concerning long-term effects. ii. Human health concerns include possible toxicity, carcinogenicity, food intolerance, antibiotic resistance buildup, decreased nutritional value, and food allergens in GM foods. f. Biotechnology skeptics are also concerned about the environmental effects of GM crops. g. Another health and environmental risk is the spread of traits from GM plants to non-GM plants, the effects of which are unknown. h. GM seed contamination is of particular concern with regard to seed sterility technology. i. Biotechnology critics also raise concerns about insufficient safeguards and regulatory mechanisms. j. In 2000, worldwide concern about the safety of GM crops resulted in 130 nations signing the landmark Biosafety Protocol, which requires producers of a GM food to demonstrate that it is safe before it is widely used. 3. Reproductive technologies a. The evolution of “reproductive science” has been furthered by scientific developments in biology, medicine, and agriculture. b. In vitro fertilization (IVF): an egg and a sperm are united in an artificial setting (laboratory dish or test tube) i. Criticisms of IVF are often based on traditional definitions of the family and the legal complications created when a child can have as many as five potential parent ties— egg donor, sperm donor, surrogate mother, and the two people who raise the child, which lead to disputes over who the “real” parents are. c. Abortion: the removal of an embryo or fetus from a woman’s uterus before it can survive on its own. i. Since U.S. Supreme Court’s ruling in Roe v. Wade in 1973, abortion has been legal in the United States. ii. Recent court decisions have limited the scope of the Roe v. Wade decision, and

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additional challenges occur at the state level. iii. Many of the state restrictions on abortion are a result of the pro-life movement’s success in redefining the abortion issue as one concerning fetal rights rather than women’s rights. iv. Most recent debates concern intact dilation and extraction (D&E) abortions, which often take place in the second trimester of pregnancy (referred to by opponents as partial birth abortions). v. Women who have abortions are disproportionately poor, unmarried minorities who say that they intend to have children in the future. vi. Advocates of pro-choice hold that freedom of choice is a central human value, that procreation choices must be free of government interference, and that because the woman must bear the burden of moral choices, she should have the right to make such decisions. vii. Pro-lifers hold that the unborn fetus has a right to live and be protected, that abortion is immoral, and that alternative means of resolving an unwanted pregnancy should be found. d. Cloning, therapeutic cloning, and stem cells i. In 1996, scientist Ian Wilmut of Scotland successfully cloned an adult sheep named Dolly, and since then cattle, goats, mice, pigs, cats, rabbits, and horses have also been cloned. ii. This technological breakthrough has caused worldwide concern about the possibility of human cloning, leading the United Nations to adopt a declaration that calls for governments to ban all forms of cloning that are at odds with human dignity and the preservation of human life. iii. Those in favor of human cloning argue that it may potentially allow everyone to have their own reserve of therapeutic cells that would increase their chance of being cured of various diseases, such as cancer, degenerative disorders and viral or inflammatory diseases, and that human cloning could provide an alternative reproductive route for couples who are infertile and for those in which one partner is at risk for transmitting a genetic disease.

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iv. Arguments against cloning are largely based on moral and ethical considerations, stating that human cloning is a threat to human dignity and that cloned humans would be deprived of their individuality v. Therapeutic cloning uses stem cells from human embryos, which results in opposition from many conservatives.

IV. SOCIETAL CONSEQUENCES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A. Social Relationships, Social Networking, and Social Interaction 1. Technology affects social relationships and the nature of social interaction. a. Development of telephones has led to fewer visits with friends and relatives. b. With DVRs and cable television, the number of places where social life occurs (e.g. movie theaters) has declined. c. Even the nature of dating has changed as computer networks facilitate cyberdates and “private” chat rooms. 2. Technology makes it easier for individuals to live in a cocoon—to be self-sufficient in terms of finances, entertainment, work, recreation, shopping, communication, and many other aspects of social life. 3. Although technology can bring people together, it can also isolate them from each other, through less outdoor play and face-to-face interaction. 4. Some technological innovations replace social roles (e.g., answering machines replace secretaries). B. Loss of Privacy and Security 1. Schools, employers, and government are increasingly using technology to monitor individuals’ behavior. a. A 2005 study reports that 36% of companies use “keystroke monitoring so they can read what people type as well as track how much time they spend at the computer.” b. 55 percent of companies retain and review email-messages. 2. Identity theft a. In 2010, identity theft was the number one complaint filed with Federal Trade Commission for the seventh year in a row. b. Unauthorized disclosure is potentially devastating, as in the release of medical records of

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an individual who is HIV-positive. 3. Technology has created threats also to the security of entire nations, as in its use in terrorism. C. Unemployment, Immigration, and Outsourcing 1. Some technologies replace human workers— robots replace factory workers, word processors displace secretaries, and computer-assisted diagnostics reduce the need for automobile mechanics. 2. Unemployment rates can also increase when companies “outsource” their information technology operations to lower-wage countries. 3. Technology also changes the nature of work and the types of jobs available. D. The Digital Divide 1. One of the most significant social problems associated with science and technology is the increased division between the classes. 2. Several theorists hypothesize that as technology displaces workers, most notably the unskilled and uneducated, certain classes of people will be irreparably disadvantaged—the poor, minorities, and women. 3. There is even concern that biotechnologies will lead to a “genetic stratification,” whereby genetic screening, gene therapy, and other types of genetic enhancements are available only to the rich. 4. The wealthier a family is, the more likely that family is to have broadband access. 5. There are also racial and ethnic disparities in Internet access. a. Inner-city neighborhoods, disproportionately populated by racial and ethnic minorities, are less likely to be “wired”—to have the telecommunications hardware necessary for access to online services. b. Cable and telephone companies are less likely to lay fiber optics in these areas, a practice called “information apartheid” or “electronic redlining.” 6. Net neutrality advocates hold that Internet users should be able to visit any website and access any content without Internet service provider interference. E. Problems of Mental and Physical Health 1. Youth between the ages of 8 and 18 spend an average of 7 hours 38 minutes per day consuming some type of media.

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2. Consuming technology just before bed is disruptive to sleep patterns 3. Multi-tasking is linked to distraction, a false sense of urgency, and the inability to focus. 4. Some technologies have unknown risks: biotechnologies can create technology-induced diseases. 6. The production of new technologies may also place manufacturing employees in jeopardy (e.g. use of hazardous chemicals in the electronics industry). 7. Technological innovations can have unknown risk. a. Many people report being technophobes—fearful of technology. They believe that technology has never helped them. F. Malicious Use of the Internet 1. Internet piracy entails illegally downloading or distributing copyrighted material (e.g., music, games, or software). 2. Malware is a general term that includes any spyware, crimeware, worms, viruses and adware that is installed on owners’ computers without their knowledge. a. Malware costs billions of dollars per year ($10 billion worldwide in 2012). 3. Cyber-bullying is the use of electronic devices (e.g., websites, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging) to send or post negative or hurtful messages or images about an individual or a group. G. The Challenge to Traditional Values and Beliefs 1. Technological innovations and scientific discoveries often challenge traditional values and beliefs, because they enable people to achieve goals that were previously unobtainable. a. Reproductive technologies that allow postmenopausal women to conceive and give birth challenge societal beliefs about childbearing and the role of older women. b. Medical technologies that sustain life cause us to rethink the issue of when life should end. c. Use of computers challenges the traditional value of privacy. 2. Future shock: the confusion resulting from rapid scientific and technological changes that unravel our traditional values and beliefs.

V. STRATEGIES FOR ACTION: CONTROLLING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A. Technology and Corporate America

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1. As philosopher, Jena-Francois Lyotard notes, knowledge is increasingly produced to be sold. 2. Like the corporate pursuit of computer technology, profit-motivated biotechnology creates several concerns. a. There is concern that only the rich will have access to many life-saving technologies, such as genetic screening and cloned organs, as many companies have already been patenting human life. i. These patents result in gene monopolies, which could lead to astronomical patient costs for genetic screening and treatment. ii. At present, more than 20% of human genes are privately owned. b. The commercialization of technology also causes several other concerns, including issues of quality control and the tendency for discoveries to remain closely guarded secrets rather than collaborative efforts. c. Although profit acts as a catalyst for some scientific discoveries, other less commercially profitable but equally important projects may be ignored. B. Science, Ethics, and the Law 1. Science and its resulting technologies alter the culture of society through the challenging of traditional values. 2. Genetic exception laws require that genetic information be handled separately from other medical information, leading to what is sometimes called patient shadow files. 3. Are such regulations necessary? a. In a society characterized by rapid technological and thus social change—a society where custody of frozen embryos is part of the divorce agreement—many would say yes. b. Should the choices that we make, as a society, be dependent on what we can do or what we should do? c. It is likely that the issues surrounding the most controversial of technologies will continue into the 21st century with no easy answers. C. Runaway Science and Government Policy 1. Public policy decisions address concerns about the safety of nuclear power plants, the privacy of e-mail, the hazards of chemical warfare, and the ethics of cloning, among other issues. 2. What controls, if any, should be placed on science and technology and are such controls

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consistent with existing law? 3. The government, often through regulatory agencies and departments, prohibits the use of some technologies (e.g., assisted-suicide devices) and requires others (e.g., seatbelts). a. Through financial support or lack thereof, the government promotes or discourages certain technologies. i. For example, the 2009 economic stimulus package included funds to help ameliorate the “digital divide.” b. The federal government has also instituted several initiatives dealing with technologyrelated crime, such as child pornography and NSA cyber-attacks.

VI. UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A. Technological dualism 1. In sum, research indicates that science and the resulting technologies have both negative and positive consequences—a technological dualism. 2. Technology saves lives, time, and money; it also leads to death, unemployment, alienation, and estrangement. 3. The choices we make about technology should be fair and just: a. Science and technology should always be prudent. b. No technology should be produced unless all affected groups have some representation. c. Means should not exist without ends.