Volunteer Risk Management Tutorial

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CHAPTER 14

Risk Management in Volunteer Involvement

Linda L. Graff, BSW, MA Linda Graff And Associates Inc.

All volunteer involvement generates risks. From the introduction of the very firstvolunteer and onward, risks are created that did not previously exist. The degree of risk varies from setting to setting, depending on variables such as the nature of volunteers’ work, the environment in which they perform their duties, the level of vulnerability of the people with whom volunteers work and/or to whom they have access, and the effectiveness of the management systems in place to guide and sup- port volunteers’ efforts.

Risk is defined as a potential loss or harm. The loss or harm may be direct or indirect; it may be personal or organizational; physical, financial, or reputational; it may be large or small, likely or remote. In a nonprofit, risks generally cluster into five categories:

& People (clients such as students, patients, victims, residents, consumers, partic- ipants, and patrons, volunteers, employees, the board, donors, the general public)

& Property (real, financial, intellectual, electronic) & Income (revenue streams, sales, grants, donations, fundraising) & Goodwill (public trust, reputation, stature in community, brand, ability to raise

funds and volunteers) & Liability (criminal, civil, vicarious)

Risks may cause harm to individuals or the organization itself, potentially threat- ening the organization’s future sustainability and mission accomplishment. Any of these may arise from the actions or inactions of volunteers. This discussion focuses largely on the management of risks related to direct service volunteers. There are risks associated with leadership and governance volunteers as well, but they tend to

323 Connors, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). The volunteer management handbook : Leadership strategies for success. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from ashford-ebooks on 2022-05-13 10:25:00.

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be of a different nature and demand different management techniques. The overall process of risk management profiled in this chapter applies equally, however, to all types of volunteers, as well as to paid staff.

This chapter is a primer to risk management in connection with volunteer in- volvement, providing both general information on risk management and “how to” instructions. It merely scratches the surface of the topic, and readers are urged to investigate further and take advantage of the tools, tips, checklists, and worksheets that accompany a risk management model (For example, Graff, 2003).

Context for Risk Management

In this section, four important issues are explored as context for risk management and its application.

Risks arise from three broad directions:

1. From the coordination of volunteer involvement. How the director of volunteer resource management and agency administration organize involvement; how thoroughly volunteer management functions such as screening, training, and supervision, are carried out.

2. From the work itself. Some volunteers perform functions that are inherently risky, including for example, disaster relief, firefighting, back country rescue, political protesting, driving, and so on.

3. From volunteer behavior. When volunteers fail to meet performance standards, act inappropriately, exercise poor judgement, fail to make a correct decision, or in rare cases, cause intentional harm such as harassment, theft, violence, and abuse.

The general rule is that the more demanding the work, and/or the more direct the contact between the volunteer and the client, the greater the potential risk. Vol- unteers are often in positions of significant trust and significant risk. Note that volun- teer status is primarily a reflection of pay status. It does not necessarily indicate competence, professionalism, or reliability. Highly skilled volunteers are frequently recruited to work in their areas of expertise, performing to highest standards. There is no indication that accidents or harm occur to, or because of, volunteers any more than their paid staff counterparts. Risk may be exacerbated however, because the usual personnel, health and safety, and performance oversight functions that normally support paid staff involvement operate at a lower standard or are absent around volunteer involvement.

Not all volunteer roles involve significant risks. Simple chores performed by quali- fied individuals in controlled settings are typically not very risky at all, and risk man- agement in a formal sense may not be necessary. For example, volunteers who come into the organization to help with mailings, copying, collating, and so on are in a rela- tively low risk environment, engaged in a relatively low risk activity. In positions and service opportunities such as these, risk management might absorb very little in time or resources. Still, caution is advised, for significant risks may lurk in seemingly harm- less situations.

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Consider This: Simple Jobs and Sizable Risks

Several years back, I volunteered to do a shift at a fundraising carnival for a local agency, and was placed by the event coordinator in a booth selling lottery tickets. I received a one-minute orientation to the position—“Stand behind the counter in this little booth, here are the tickets, here is the cash box, see you later”—and was left on my own for the three-hour shift. It was a lovely summer evening, and the grounds swelled with hundreds of families and thousands of happy children, and I too was enjoying myself, watching the carnival-goers stream by my little booth. Ticket sales were brisk, and as my shift went on, I began to accumulate a sizable amount of money, all of it cash. There was nothing at my back but an unsecured tent flap standing be- tween me and those thousands of revellers who might decide to make a quick hit and instantly get lost in the crowd. I had no phone. I could not leave my booth as it was impossible to secure the many boxes of unsold tickets piled under the counter. I had no way to reach the coordinator, and no option but to sit out the rest of my shift. That was an important lesson about seemingly simple positions generating sizable risks.

Volunteers are more frequently being asked to perform work that is more com- plex, more sophisticated, and more responsible. While a few organizations have al- ways involved volunteers in risky activities such as volunteer firefighting, coaching children, and volunteer search and rescue operations, it is more recently that large numbers of nonprofits have begun to place large numbers of volunteers in direct-ser- vice work or other positions of ever-higher responsibility and trust. The likelihood of incidents, accidents, and claims has increased with this evolution (Herman, 2009), and the consequence of error is potentially large, if not catastrophic.

When organizations set out to consciously and deliberately look for risks related to volunteer involvement, they find them. Typically, lots of them. In fact, in new risk management initiatives and/or complex volunteer programs, many risks will be iden- tified. It can be daunting, even paralyzing.

To maintain perspective, keep in mind that life is full of risks. If a guarantee of zero risk were necessary, most people would never get out of bed, drive a car, board a plane, invest money, or allow children to leave the house. The mere presence of risks related to volunteer involvement should be neither the focus of attention nor a cause for alarm. What is important is how those risks are managed.

Risks must be identified and controlled, and the earlier in the volunteer involve- ment cycle, the better. The volunteer involvement cycle outlines the main functions, tasks and systems required in the construction of a volunteer program and in the ef- fective engagement and management of volunteers (Graff, 2005). Thorough identifi- cation of risks increases organizations’ capacity to manage risks appropriately.

All volunteer-engaging organizations including nonprofit, government and other public services and even private, for-profit companies (e.g., private nursing homes, medical clinics, corporate volunteer programs) have both a legal and a moral respon- sibility to attend to the safety and well-being of those they serve, those who work for them, and others who come into contact with their operations. As a result, risk management must be integrated into all volunteer program planning, systems, pro- cesses, and decision making. This applies broadly to all aspects of organizational ac- tivities, and includes leadership (e.g., committees, advisors, pro bono consultants) and governance (board) volunteers as well.

Context for Risk Management 325

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Consider This: Risks? What Risks?

A few years ago I was presenting a workshop on risk management at an international conference on volunteering. At the morning coffee break a participant approached me with a question. She was the manager of quite a large national volunteer program in the United States that linked adult volunteers with child participants. The primary program activity involved adult volunteers taking children camping, overnight. The workshop participant asked me if I thought it would be wise for her to set up some kind of screening protocol for her volunteers. She had, until that point, been placing volunteers with nothing more than a bit of demographic information about them, and a sense of where in the country they wanted to volunteer.

Risk Management Assumptions

It is prudent to assume the following principles of risk management:

& There are no absolutes and no guarantees in risk management. The implementa- tion of a risk management system cannot prevent all risks. Things still can, and do, go wrong.

& Ignoring the potential for trouble never makes it go away and often exacerbates the outcome.

& Risk management is not designed just for the extremely risky situation; it should be applied to all volunteer activity.

& Making every reasonable effort to control risks will often avert disaster and/or minimize the magnitude of harm that results should a risk actually materialize.

& If something does go wrong, any attempts that have been made to anticipate and prevent the loss or tragedy constitute proof of diligence, and consequently may reduce exposure to liability.

& To be effective, risk management must be a continuous process rather than a one- time project.

Rising Standards

A few recent high-profile cases of abuse by people in positions of trust in nonprofit organizations have served to dramatically raise legal standards and demands for pub- lic accountability in the nonprofit world. These changes have arisen relatively quickly and many organizations have been caught off-guard. Organizations that have not sig- nificantly increased their attention to risk management in connection with their volun- teers in the last three to five years may well find both their volunteers and their clients exposed to an untenable degree of risk of harm, and the organizations themselves exposed to significant liability. Best practices that were considered adequate just a few years ago could be judged as woefully sub-standard if not wholly negligent in the present. As a consequence, risk management is now an indispensable function in the management of volunteer resources.

Risks and liabilities related to volunteer involvement are exacerbated by three associated trends. First, as resources become scarcer, organizations look to volun- teers to take on increasingly responsible positions. In most volunteer-engaging

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organizations, volunteer involvement has expanded faster than organizational re- sources have been allocated for appropriate volunteer program oversight. The result is that many nonprofit organizations have failed to keep pace with both the complex- ity of their own volunteer programs and the constantly increasing legal and public accountability standards that now apply. Many organizations are in a volunteer pro- gram management deficit position, increasing both the likelihood of trouble and asso- ciated liability exposure.

Second, economic pressures on nonprofit organizations have led to cutbacks and layoffs, and that means fewer supervisory employees to oversee performance stan- dards among volunteers. In economic desperation, some organizations have even cut volunteer program management positions while at the same time inviting more volun- teers into service. Less supervision heightens risk.

Many societies have become significantly more litigious. In a clear pattern no lon- ger confined to the United States, people are suing others more often, and nonprofit organizations are not immune to legal accountability. While not rampant, suits some- times arise from the work of volunteers.

Is This Worst-Case Thinking?

Some critics view attention to risk management as synonymous with being ruled by worst-case thinking, and it is true that some practitioners may feel overwhelmed, or even immobilized, by the potential for disaster. Indeed, it is possible to become para- noid about risks, and/or to take risk management too far. There have been isolated incidents in which the board of directors has pulled volunteers out of service or pro- hibited volunteer involvement in certain rather innocuous activities. These kinds of knee-jerk reactions are always possible, but they are extremely rare.

Risk management, reasonably applied, is not worst-case thinking. It is neither excessive nor incompatible with the work of charities and nonprofit organizations. Rather, it is responsible and contemporary best practice that places due and appropri- ate priority on personal safety, program effectiveness, and organizational well- being. Laird Hunter (1998) puts it this way:

But surely—some of you are bound to say—that’s the wrong end round. Organi- zations need to concentrate on service delivery, on their mission-driven goals to meet the needs of those whom they serve. Being preoccupied about gloom and doom detracts from what should be done…But with discussion about the nature, role and responsibilities inherent in identifying and managing risk, we can put in place techniques for protecting our organizations and ourselves from un- anticipated losses. In doing so we will better achieve our goals and more ably respond to those whom we serve. (p. 1)

Will Risk Management Scare Off Much-Needed Volunteers?

“Won’t all of this risk management rigamarole scare off good volunteers? They’re in such short supply, we can’t afford to turn any away!” This is a comment I hear over and over in my risk management workshops. Fortunately, I never have to answer the question. Other managers of volunteers always jump in to say, “That’s what we

Context for Risk Management 327

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thought too, but we implemented the new protocols and we did not lose a single vol- unteer … volunteers understand that this protects them as well as the agency.” It does not matter where in Canada or the United States this question arises, the experience in the field is the same, over and over: We anticipate volunteer attrition that rarely materializes.

The existence of risks and liabilities in volunteering is no secret. Prospective vol- unteers have read the headlines, listened to the news, and know that risks exist in all kinds of volunteer service. Nothing will scare prospective volunteers away faster than an agency being publicly sued in its community. Volunteers recognize efforts at good management and appreciate being associated with organizations that run their ser- vices well.

No one likes to lose volunteers, and no one wants to see volunteers go away disgruntled or affronted. However, you might consider the possibility that those vol- unteers who cannot see that the organization’s risk management efforts are designed in the best interests of clients, volunteers, staff, and the organization as a whole might not be volunteers you necessarily want to keep on in your program. The repeating theme throughout risk management is “reasonable measures, reasonably applied.”

Risk Management and Liability

Being held liable in the courts constitutes a risk for nonprofit organizations although the fear of liability seems well out of proportion to the actual incidence of lawsuits against nonprofits.

Liability is often of greatest concern among boards of directors who are ultimately responsible for the work of the organization. To understand how volunteers and vol- unteer programs might generate exposures to liability, it is first necessary to under- stand more generally how liability connects to nonprofits. While a full review of liability and related legal concepts is beyond the scope of this paper, several key con- cepts are sketched.

High-Profile Cases

A handful of high-profile cases in Canada, and more recently in the United States and beyond, have received national attention and raised the level of public awareness about accountability in the nonprofit sector. These cases have also captured the atten- tion of nonprofit boards about risks, liability, and how organizations ought to behave both in the presence of risk as well as in the wake of their discovery.

As Shelly Miller (2001) notes, liability is now of growing concern:

In simpler times only a few decades ago, suits against directors and officers of charities, non-profit organizations, and volunteer groups were rare. Those who did volunteer were considered immune from the slings and arrows of those who operated in the corporate business world. Now lawsuits in this area are increas- ing, whether because more persons with an injury or complaint think to consult a lawyer; because more lawyers are prepared to instigate a suit, or people believe that insurance may be in place or because some assets of individuals may be

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available to satisfy judgements. Some lawsuits may have no merit, but you have little control over who sues, whether the suit can be pursued in the absence of real merit, and whether the amount claimed is large or small. (p. 1)

Organizations have a legal and moral responsibility to do everything reasonable to ensure safety in their volunteer program operations. The fear of an allegation of negligence tops the list in most nonprofits.

Negligence

Allegations of negligence are the most frequent form of civil suit among nonprofit organizations (DeWitt, 2010), and connect most directly with risk management.

Negligence is a matter of at-fault liability, meaning the organization is alleged to have done something wrong, or failed to do something that it ought to have done, and an injury or loss has resulted.

For a claim of negligence to be successful, four conditions must be satisfied:

1. Duty of care. A legal duty to exercise care must exist on the part of the organiza- tion toward the injured party.

2. Breach of duty. The organization must be found to have failed to meet its duty of care.

3. Injury or loss. Harm must have occurred to a person or property. 4. Cause. It must be proven that the organization’s actions or inactions caused the

injury in question.

In addition to these four conditions, the courts will also consider the extent to which the harm was foreseeable and the extent to which the organization was in a position to control the circumstances to prevent the incident.

Elusive Standard of Care

Organizations are required to exercise care in their operations, and negligence claims often turn on the determination of the applicable standard of care. That is, how careful was careful enough? How thorough was thorough enough? What does “due diligence” mean in reality?

The standard of care is a fluid concept. It varies from place to place, and from situation to situation. It varies with the nature of the person holding the duty: the more you ought to be able to maintain care, the greater your responsibility for doing so. The standard is also affected by the circumstances of the event: emergencies ver- sus ongoing assistance, for example.

It is difficult to know just how good might be good enough, at least in the eyes of the courts. It would be helpful to have a guidebook that defined terms such as “reasonable,” “reasonable person,” “prudent person,” and “due diligence.” Un- fortunately we are not yet there in the nonprofit management field, and perhaps we never will be.

The concept of standard of care has relevance beyond the level of responsibility that might be assigned by a court of law. Standard of care is also a general concept of

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management. For example, every organization must decide how thoroughly it wants its volunteer program to be managed, and every Director of Volunteer Resource Man- agement must decide how much time and energy to invest in each of the multitudi- nous tasks that fill her or his days. Since resources are limited and finite, and volunteer program staff usually have more to do than can reasonably be accom- plished, the question of how much to invest in any given volunteer management func- tion is a continually recurring dilemma:

& How carefully should volunteers be screened? & What questions should be asked in the interview? & How many reference checks should be conducted? & How frequently should volunteers be supervised? & How thoroughly should each management function be documented?

These are difficult questions when investing more precious resources in any one area means cutting back somewhere else.

A key principle about the standard of care is best kept in mind: the riskier the activity, the higher the standard of care required of the organization. As Ingrid M. Johansen (1997, p. 13) states, “The duty to investigate and supervise a volunteer cor- responds to the risk inherent in the position he or she fills.” Where the activities under- taken by volunteers are, by definition, more dangerous, and/or where clients are more vulnerable, greater precautions ought to be implemented.

How does one know what standard might apply? In the absence of absolutes, two sources can point to relevant and ever-changing standards of care.

INDUSTRY STANDARD The first place to look for a “standard” in volunteer program management is in other like organizations. There are no absolute standards, but whether an organization meets prevailing standards in its field is something the courts may consider. Here are some suggestions:

& Ask similar organizations how thoroughly they screen volunteers whose work is similar to the work of your volunteers.

& Ask colleagues around the lunch table at the next community service conference how thoroughly they train their participants, whether they take attendance at training sessions, and whether volunteers are asked to sign off on the training they have received. Ask questions like these about a range of volunteer program management functions.

& Send a small e-mail-based survey to colleagues about supervision of volunteers in off-site programs.

& If you are part of a provincial/state or national association, encourage the parent body to conduct a survey of volunteer program standards and practices among its members and distribute the results to all. Be sure to include a reasonably broad sample in whatever inquiry is launched.

Volunteer program management is now a profession with a quickly growing body of knowledge and skills, academic and applied research, professional commu- nication forums, and professional associations. Evolving industry standards are

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therefore reflected in the professional literature about—and communicated through courses on—volunteer program management. The lesson is to keep up with changes in the field, integrate new best practices, and stay current with changing thinking and emerging techniques of effective volunteer engagement. Ignorance is not a defense. A plea of “But we’ve always done it this way” is unlikely to fall on sympathetic ears in the justice system.

LEGAL PRECEDENTS Negligence is a matter of civil law. Each case is determined on its own circumstances, guided in large part by precedents set in previous cases—case law. It is critical to stay current with precedent-setting cases of relevance. The services of an attorney (particularly one who specializes in civil litigation), paralegal, law pro- fessor, or law librarian can be contracted on a fee or pro bono basis to provide notice of relevant precedents. Internet sites specializing in nonprofit law provide early warn- ing about changing operational and legal standards.

Because professional and legal standards are continuously changing (generally in an upward direction), and because the standards are changing quite quickly in con- nection with volunteer program management, it is critical to stay vigilant, current, and open to the integration of new thinking and emerging best practice.

Risk Tolerance Zone

Organizations must define the extent of risk they are able and willing to tolerate. This is called the risk tolerance zone. There are two key points to keep in mind about risk tolerance zones. First, there are no absolutes about how much risk is too much to bear. Program leaders must ask themselves, “What risks can we live with?” The smaller risks that are tolerable are judged to be inside the risk tolerance zone. Risks that create sufficient discomfort to warrant some form of risk control are assessed to exist outside the zone. Risk mitigation techniques are applied to reduce the risks to a tolerable level, bringing them back inside the zone.

The degree of risk that one volunteer program is prepared to live with might be assessed by another to be well outside of its own risk tolerance zone.

Consider This: Risk Tolerance Zones

A program that assigns volunteers to help persons who have come into conflict with the law believes deeply in the principle that offenders can be rehabilitated, that they can become trusted and productive citizens, and that they merit second (and third) chances to prove themselves to be so. The mission and philosophy of service in this program promotes the recruitment and acceptance of ex-offenders, even into posi- tions of responsibility and trust. Does this mean that this agency cares less about safety? Not at all, despite the fact that others might judge the practice to be far too risky.

Should organizations permit volunteers to handle clients’ financial affairs? Some organizations hold that volunteers will, under no circumstance, become involved with clients’ financial affairs. Others deem it acceptable for volunteers to assist clients with some of their financial chores such as bill paying, but prohibit volunteers from knowing a client’s automated teller machine’s (ATM) personal identification number

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(PIN). A third group of organizations establishes risk tolerance boundaries even fur- ther out by allowing volunteers to make ATM transactions for clients (which requires them to know the client’s PIN), provided that all such transactions are agreed to in writing (signed off by client) in advance, and written receipts are issued (signed off) by the client when the transaction is complete or the cash is returned to the client.

Clearly, different programs will draw the boundaries of their risk tolerance zones in different places. There are no absolutes. And this is as it should be.

The second key point about risk tolerance zones is that they must be consciously and deliberately crafted, and the process must be fully informed by realistic, compre- hensive, and current facts. Ideally, many of the risk tolerance zone boundary deci- sions will be taken at the board level since it is the board that is ultimately accountable for organizational risks and liabilities. In practice, many boards of direc- tors create risk tolerance zones by default. That is, they pay little or no attention to the risks the organization faces daily through volunteer involvement, which is tantamount to risk management by luck and happenstance.

Board members can be unpleasantly surprised by the consequences of such a laissez-faire approach when a risk actually materializes. Better to confront risk head- on from the beginning and make well-founded decisions about what is and is not tolerable, and where controls need to be exercised.

Effective Management Affords Protection

Staying current with best practices is no guarantee against liability. Can something still go wrong? Of course. Might there still be a lawsuit? Yes. There is always potential for legal action, frivolous or otherwise. The point is, if the organization does everything reasonable to prevent harm in its volunteer program, then less the likelihood of injury or loss and less the likelihood of legal action. There are never any guarantees in risk management, only probabilities. Do everything reasonable to stack the odds in your favor.

Statutory Obligations

In addition to civil claims, nonprofit organizations are also subject to a range of laws and regulations, including, for example:

& All organizations must act in compliance with their own bylaws. & Organizations engaging volunteers to serve food to the homeless must ensure that

volunteers comply with health and food handling regulations. & Volunteers in medical clinics will be governed by health-related statutes and

safety regulations. & Volunteers in youth serving organizations must scrupulously comply with manda-

tory reporting laws regarding suspected child abuse and neglect. & All organizations that employ paid staff must comply with employment standards

legislation in their jurisdiction(s); some of this may apply to volunteers. & An organization that decides to construct a building is subject to all normal build-

ing code and permit requirements; if volunteers are recruited to help with con- struction, they too must comply with codes.

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& Large organizations that operate in more than one geographic area, or that deliver more than one type of service, may find themselves subjected to different rules in different places.

Legal and Ethical Obligation to Manage Risks

Where volunteers are confined to simple and routine chores, away from direct contact with clients or the public, risk may be of less concern. Where demanding, responsible, and direct-service work is assigned to volunteers, the consequence of error grows, and an obligation arises to responsibly manage volunteers as the real workers they have been asked to become. As the employer, organizations have corresponding eth- ical and legal obligations to ensure that volunteers work in the safest manner possible, in the least hazardous environment that can reasonably be created.

Consider This: Should We Do Something About This Guy?

At one of my workshops on risk management in the mid-1990s, a manager of volun- teers approached me at break with a question. She supervised a volunteer transporta- tion service for the elderly. Volunteers provided rides for clients to the grocery store, medical appointments, and so on. She said one of her most reliable volunteers had called in to her office the previous week to say that he couldn’t do the shift he was booked to do that day. This was unusual, so the manager asked him if he was ill. He replied, no, but his wife was. When she commented on how kind he was to stay with his wife for the day, he said no, that wasn’t it. He just couldn’t drive without her. He was legally blind and he needed her in the car to help keep him on the road. The manager of volunteers wondered if she should do anything about the volunteer driv- er’s continued tenure with the driving program. This may seem like an extreme case, but I continue to hear stories about volunteers facing or generating significant risks that their organizations simply do not recognize or take seriously.

Risk Management

Risk management is a collection of techniques and procedures implemented to re- duce and control risks.

Aims of Risk Management

There are two central and distinct aims of every risk management process.

1. Prevention of harm and loss must be the first priority of every risk manager. It is clearly preferable to keep things from going wrong in the first place than it is to deal with the consequences of tragedies and disasters after the fact. By far the least costly accident in terms of personal well-being, financial resources, and managerial and governance anguish is the one that does not take place.

2. Liability reduction is a second aim of every risk manager. Given that things can and do go wrong, even with the best prevention mechanisms in place, it is

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entirely appropriate to undertake measures that reduce personal and organiza- tional liability exposure.

Risk Management Is Not Difficult or Mysterious

Risk management may sound complicated and highly technical, but in most circum- stances, it is neither. All managers engage in risk management at some point or another. For example, screening and training are both exercises in risk management as much as they are part of an organization’s human resources management system. Every time a repair is made to a facility, a fire drill is conducted, an elevator is re-certified, a health and safety policy is written, equipment is inspected, or a performance review is con- ducted, risk management is at play. While these kinds of managerial functions take place regularly, they are rarely perceived as risk management, and few organizations are as systematic about risk management as is called for in most volunteer programs. Much risk management is straightforward common sense (Herman, 2009).

Tremper and Kostin (1993) make good sense when they say:

At its heart, risk management is not a new trick, and it’s not something mysteri- ous. It’s an orientation to everything you do that is highly consistent with every charitable mission. Risk management is not just looking for trouble, it’s looking for solutions that make your organization more effective. (p. 4)

Risk Management Is More than Buying Insurance

One of the most prevalent and most serious risk-related errors made by nonprofit executives (boards and senior staff) is thinking that risk management is synonymous with buying insurance and that buying insurance somehow manages risks. Not only are these assumptions inaccurate, they actually serve to increase risks rather than decrease them.

Risk management involves identifying risks and then setting about to control them. There are hundreds of ways that organizations can control risks—implementing strate- gies, policies, boundaries, workplace changes, etc., that prevent things from going wrong or lessen their severity if they do. Insurance is merely the financial Band-Aid that is applied after a risk has actually materialized and the organization is facing a financial obligation as a result. A focus on insurance typically diverts decision makers from exer- cising due diligence. To assume that insurance is either the best or only response to risk is foolhardy at best, and negligent at worst.

This is not to say that organizations should not purchase insurance. On the con- trary. It is recommended that organizations sit down with an insurance professional at least once each year to review operations, activities, exposures, and any changes since the last insurance coverage discussion along with recommended types of insur- ance and degrees of coverage.

Establish a Risk Management Team

Some large organizations employ professional risk managers while others contract outside assistance. Because risks come in so many forms, and because risk mana- gement can absorb a significant amount of time, the establishment of a risk

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management team is recommended. The team approach brings more heads and more areas of expertise to the task, so no one carries the entire burden of what can be a fairly weighty initiative. The team approach allows the engagement of those who are directly involved in the activities, programs, and services that actually generate the risks and liabilities under scrutiny.

Ideally, organizations will have agency-wide risk management teams with repre- sentatives from all program areas including governance and administration along with, of course, a representative or two from the volunteer program and/or commu- nity service area. If the agency in general is not convinced of the need for overall risk management, then, at minimum, the volunteer resources department should establish its own risk management team. In small volunteer and community service programs, the manager of volunteers may lead the risk management initiative, but he or she should still recruit others to help with the process.

COMPOSITION OF THE RISK MANAGEMENT TEAM Diversity of skill sets and a wide knowledge base are important ingredients in the composition of a risk management team. They encourage creative problem solving and “out of the box thinking.” The size and composition of the team can vary, depending primarily on workload, the range of activities to be addressed, and the unique risks that volunteers face in the course of their work for the organization.

Core areas of expertise may be represented by membership on the team, and other areas may only require short-term consultancy to the team. Here is an excellent opportunity for the involvement of highly skilled volunteers in clearly defined, time- limited roles. Representation from the following areas may be helpful:

& Volunteer program staff with firsthand experience of the work under review & Service volunteers & Agency staff & Agency administration and/or financial administration & Board member(s) & Client and/or client family member & Insurance professional & Human resources professional & Legal advisor & Agency staff from areas where volunteers work & Emergency response, fire department, police & Health and safety advisor & Investment advisor & Other experts as required to cover off areas such as hazardous materials, facilities

safety, equipment use, events management, security, and so on

The nature of the organization’s business and, in particular, the roles that volun- teers fill will guide team composition. Membership may change over time as new issues are tackled. Specialized advice from outside of the organization can be con- tracted on a paid or pro bono basis from time to time, as new issues arise.

It may not be necessary to have an attorney as a permanent member on the team, but matters related to liability will almost certainly arise, and having an attorney either on retainer or volunteering his or her assistance is a good idea.

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Request that outside opinions be provided in writing so that documentation is available in the future if needed. At minimum, the team should record any advice it receives from experts and outside counsel, and the minutes/proceedings of all risk management team deliberations and decisions should be carefully preserved in a secure location well into the future.

SPECIAL EVENTS RISK MANAGEMENT TEAM For organizations that operate large special events or high-risk activities requiring specialized risk management treatment, it may be a good idea to establish an event-specific risk management sub-committee to focus on the issues and heightened perils particular to the event. For more on this specific topic, see Oliver (2010) and Risser and Herman (2009).

ROLE OF THE RISK MANAGEMENT TEAM The role of the risk management team involves nine main components, listed next. Use this list as the basis for the terms of reference of the risk management team.

& Identify risks and liability exposures. & Sort and prioritize risks. & Develop a risk management action plan that defines who should do what

by when. & Identify costs and develop a financing plan. & Implement the plan, including an integral communications and training plan. & Develop, or recommend the development of, policy related to risk management. & Monitor risk management as it is operationalized, and ensure compliance is

enforced. & Periodically review the overall risk management action plan and revise as necessary. & Prepare regular reports to agency administration on plans, exposures, costs,

effectiveness.

Use a Risk Management Model

When an organization looks for risks related to volunteer involvement it usually finds them of various types and degrees. The sheer number and magnitude of risks related to most volunteer programs can be staggering, particularly where volunteer program management systems and infrastructure have not been recently updated. The tempta- tion is to rush madly off in all directions, tackling risks in a chaotic manner, a knee-jerk response which can actually generate even more risks and exposures.

A deliberate and systematic approach works best, and the application of a risk management system (model, process) prompts one through a series of steps in the proper sequence, resulting in more thorough and effective risk identification and management. Use of a model cannot be recommended too strongly.

There are several risk management models available to guide and support organi- zational risk management activities. A favored model is a relatively simple four-step process that offers practical guidance to risk control. Since it can be described only briefly here, readers are urged to learn more about systematic risk management, and to select and follow a model, including the application of its associated tools.

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Risk Management Model

The risk management model presented in Exhibit 14.1 is a four-step planning process that leads the team systematically through a series of steps, allowing and encouraging consideration of a range of action and decision alternatives. This model works equally well with paid and unpaid workers, and at every level in the organization, including governance, administration, support services, maintenance, and delivery of services to clients.

There are four steps in this risk management model:

1. Identify risks 2. Sort and prioritize risks 3. Develop and implement risk control measures 4. Review

Steps of Risk Management

This section profiles the four main steps of the risk management model, including a rudimentary overview of how the model operates.

Step 1: Identify Risks

Start the risk management process by choosing a subsection of the volunteer program to work on: Select any specific service, job description, task, or location. Apply the model to one segment at a time. The smaller and more defined the function being explored, the more specific and helpful—and therefore the more effective—the risk management exercise will be.

Identify Risks

Sort and Prioritize Risks

Develop and Implement Risk Control Measures

Review

EXHIBIT 14.1 Risk Management Model

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All risk management processes start with the question: What could go wrong here? Ask this of each segment of the volunteer program in turn. All reasonable possi- bilities should be noted. The aim is to create the master list of risks without editing at this point.

APPROACHES TO RISK IDENTIFICATION Identifying risks requires equal measures of brainstorming, foresight, and fantasy.

& Brainstorming is a free-flowing, unedited, uncensored exercise of idea generation.

& Foresight is about anticipation, about thoughtful and prudent regard for the future, and about being open to what might be.

& Fantasy requires imagination, creative visioning, and a willingness to consider the improbable.

A combination of all three approaches decreases the likelihood of missing risks that, without appropriate management, may have a much greater chance of material- izing into actual loss or harm.

HOW TO IDENTIFY RISKS Look for risks of all five types:

1. People (volunteers, clients and their family members, paid staff, the board of di- rectors, the general public if they intersect with volunteers’ work)

2. Property (real, e.g., furniture, buildings, equipment, vehicles, computers, etc.; elec- tronic, e.g., anything computerized; financial e.g., all financial assets; intellectual, e. g., trademarks, copyrights, training programs, manuals, models of service, etc.)

3. Income (all revenue streams from funders, donors, events, etc.) 4. Goodwill (agency reputation, stature, public trust) 5. Liability (criminal, civil, vicarious)

See Exhibit 14.2 for a host of sample risks and probing questions to prompt the identification of risks.

Invite participation from others who are familiar with the volunteer department and the various roles and responsibilities assigned to volunteers. Ask for input from those who are completely unfamiliar with the operation of the organization. They will notice different things.

Review both current and past operations and occurrences, as well as existing pol- icies, procedures, personnel, and operating manuals. These should comply with all relevant legislation, regulations, codes, licensing agreements, and so on, and need to be considered from the perspective of risk and hazards.

Examine each aspect of service delivery and all job descriptions, disassembling them into component parts and considering what might go wrong in the various pieces, steps and functions.

Send risk identifiers to volunteer work sites. Have them walk the premises and try to pinpoint risks and dangers, considering the safety of the working environment and the state of working conditions. Equipment should be

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EXHIBIT 14.2 Risk Identification Worksheet

Risk Areas Margin Notes � In Place � Needs Work � Comments

1. Previous Harm or Loss What losses have actually been experienced in connection with volunteer activities?

& Accidents, injuries to persons (clients and/or their family members/ friends, volunteers, staff, event participants, general public)

& Financial losses: theft, fraud, misappropriation, inadequate record keeping

& Material losses: equipment, vehicles, buildings, property & Public Trust: erosion of goodwill, reputation, public profile & Liability: lawsuits—won, lost, or settled, or threats of legal action re-

lated to the work of volunteers & Other:

2. Potential Losses Where might accidents, abuses, losses or substandard behavior occur? Have there been any near misses (incidents that could have turned out worse) that could possibly have a less-than-okay outcome at some point in the future?

& Other:

3. Fundraising Events What volunteer-involving fundraising events and activities have been undertaken to raise money for the organization?

& Is the planning adequate? & Has someone considered the risks involved before the event is

launched? & Has the safety and well-being of all persons (organizers, participants,

volunteer and paid staff workers, the general public, sponsors) been considered?

& Are contingency and disaster plans in place, including recruitment of on-call or on-site emergency medical personnel; triage protocols; arrangements for speedy access to closest emergency medical facili- ties; arrangements for airlifts where necessary?

& Have facilities, equipment, routes, etc. been checked out well in ad- vance? Is a trained volunteer on call to do the last-minute route check if weather conditions are in flux?

& Are contracts in place that specify who is responsible for what, includ- ing contracts with the providers of security, medical, and other volun- tary emergency services?

& Are contracts with vendors and suppliers all in place, including agree- ments with third party volunteer groups? Are the agreements and con- tracts explicit, current, reviewed recently?

& Have authorities been notified and have all necessary licenses and permits been obtained?

(continued )

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& Is there an effective financial management system in place, including collections, bank deposits, receipts, tracking of outstanding funds, etc.? Have the volunteers who will have access to cash been appropri- ately screened? Security guards (armed?) to monitor cash counting, de- posit preparation, transport? Double signatures on all tallies?

& Are backup systems in place for volunteer no-shows? & Are communication systems, reporting systems, authority hierarchy,

and decision trees in place and communicated to all? & Are criteria in place for event cancellation should the potential arise? & Are clear policies and procedures about serving alcohol and/or pre-

paring/handling food in place and communicated to volunteers? & Is all necessary event-related insurance coverage in place? Does it

include rented and borrowed property? Does it name volunteers as insured?

& Other

4. Volunteer-Delivered Client Services Think about direct volunteer-delivered client services. Where might things go wrong?

& Is there a client-agency service agreement in place that specifies what volunteers will and will not provide? Are the boundaries clear? Does the client’s family understand and agree to the boundaries and condi- tions of the agreement?

& Are there any limits or controls placed on what volunteers do, or do not do, when they are having direct contact with clients?

& Where do volunteers go, with whom do they work, and what services do they provide?

& What hazards might they encounter where they go (e.g., in the home environment, contact with body fluids or other biohazards, other health and safety issues such as back care and environmental hazards, pets, illegal drug use, client friends/family members)?

& What equipment might they be working with/around; prescription drugs or used syringes by the bedside?

& What information are they authorized to provide? & Where might they be stepping beyond their role, skills, authority? & What confidential information might they gather (and store), or come

in contact with? & Do they have an opportunity to gain access to, or control over, clients’

property or financial assets? Do they do banking for clients? Do they know clients’ credit card numbers or bank account PINs?

& Is it acceptable for volunteers to receive gifts from clients? Of any sort or value?

& Are volunteers in a position to influence the disposition of a client’s estate? Is it acceptable for volunteers to be named in the wills of clients? Is it ac- ceptable for a volunteer to become the executor of a client’s estate?

EXHIBIT 14.2 (Continued )

Risk Areas Margin Notes � In Place � Needs Work � Comments

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& Is it acceptable for volunteers to develop personal, intimate, and/or sexual relationships with clients? If this happens, is there protocol in place to guide the agency’s response?

& What kinds of issues are appropriate for discussion at support group meetings, and what issues are referred elsewhere? Do support group leaders have backup and referral information?

& Have support group leaders dealt with their own issues sufficiently be- fore they start leading others?

& Other:

5. Other Volunteer-Based Programming What other programs do volunteers run or assist with? What can go wrong there?

& Transportation: Who drives whom, where? Is the driver actually li- censed, insured, driving a reliable vehicle, a good driver? Has the driver had any serious driving offenses recently? Are there any rules about suspending driving services in inclement weather?

& Equipment loans: What equipment? Is it checked frequently, and properly maintained by a qualified professional? Is it replaced when necessary? Is it appropriately sanitized when it comes back from loan? Is it appropriately prescribed? Is it sized, fitted to each client? Do the clients know how to use the equipment? Are our volunteers suffi- ciently knowledgeable to be training clients?

& Telephone reassurance, information provision, advice giving, crisis re- sponse, peer helping, family support, client-client linkages: Are quali- fied volunteers answering the line? Are they trained? Do they know their boundaries? Do they have backups? Are they supported? Are they allowing their own baggage to get in the way of their work for the organization? Are they reliable, trustworthy?

& Physician and other health professional referral programs: Does infor- mation ever become advice? Is advice giving within the boundaries of the position? Is the information unbiased, current?

& Support groups: Who is leading what kinds of groups, on what kinds of issues, with what kinds of qualifications? Do they have guidelines about boundaries, topics, process? Do they have backups? Does any- one ever check on their performance?

& Child care/supervision: Are volunteers ever granted access to young children as part of their work for the organization? Have volunteers who have access to young children been screened to an acceptable standard for this kind of work? Are young children in the home or at the camp during respite care provision? Is there opportunity for the volunteer to spend time alone with the children? Have boundaries and codes of conduct been developed and communicated to volun- teers about working with children? Is intimate care involved? If yes, is there a rule about always having a second adult present during its provision?

& Other:

6. Volunteer Program Management Issues Think about the full range of functions required to keep a volunteer program operating. This set of tasks, called the volunteer involvement

(continued )

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cycle, usually involves some measure of each of these: position planning, job design, recruitment, screening, orientation and training, placement, supervision, recognition, performance management, discipline and dismissal, program evaluation. In chapter-based and local all-volunteer branches, the activities related to finding and keeping volunteers are typically not so formal. Nonetheless, a prudent organization can supply guidelines to its chapters about some of the basic systems that will help local groups to mobilize and organize volunteer participation in a safe, productive, and satisfying manner. How are local or regional chapters doing in this regard? Where are the risks?

& Does someone consider the risks and liabilities associated with a ser- vice or a volunteer job before volunteers are recruited?

& Do written position descriptions exist for every position? Are they updated regularly? Do codes of conduct, boundaries, and backups exist, and are they clearly communicated to volunteers to ensure that volunteers do not get in over their heads?

& Are volunteers adequately screened for every position? Volunteers who do not meet minimum requirements or who are otherwise not appropriate: Are they turned away?

& Do all volunteers receive the necessary orientation to the organization and the necessary training to complete their assignments safely?

& Are volunteers supervised appropriately? Does someone check in with them with sufficient frequency? Are they required to report back on their activities?

& Is there a system in place to elicit feedback about volunteer perform- ance? Does anyone check in with the client or the client’s family to make sure the volunteer is delivering appropriate and acceptable services?

& Does the organization reserve the right to ask a volunteer to stop volun- teering? Is that communicated to the volunteer in advance? Does anyone in the organization know how to do this respectfully and legally?

& Are there information and tracking systems in place in the volunteer program? Is sufficient documentation being created so that the organi- zation can prove its diligence and defend itself in the event of some kind of legal action?

& Are there policies in place to guide both the deployment of the volun- teer workforce (e.g., “hiring,” remuneration, budget, discipline and dismissal, etc.) as well as all of the activities that volunteers do? Are all policies in writing, and have they been communicated to volunteers? Are they enforced? Are they consistent with agency mission and val- ues? Are they in line with all relevant legislation? Are they reviewed regularly and updated as necessary?

EXHIBIT 14.2 (Continued )

Risk Areas Margin Notes � In Place � Needs Work � Comments

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examined, buildings inspected, staff-client and collegial relationships observed. Questions to ask include:

& Do people know where the emergency exits are? & Do people know where the fire extinguishers are? & Do people know where the first aid supplies are? & Do people know who to call in an emergency? & Do people know what priorities should prevail (for example, always the safety of

persons first) in the event of a threat or disaster? & Do volunteers know that they have the right to protect themselves and others

when in danger, and equally, what the limits of their authority are?

& Are there sufficient, knowledgeable volunteer program management staff in place to plan, operate, supervise, and monitor volunteer activi- ties and the costs of involving volunteers (e.g., sufficient training resources, appropriate materials, and equipment, staff training in how to work effectively with volunteers)?

& Is there adequate insurance coverage in place to protect volunteers themselves as well as people they work with and the organization?

& Other:

7. Material Resources Review all volunteer-related documentation that has the effect of creating control systems around any of the things volunteers do for the organization. Think about operations, events, and other fundraising activities, and client services. Here are some examples:

& Communication or reporting forms, systems, flowcharts, hierarchies & Contingency plans & Incident report forms & Waivers, informed consents, hold harmless agreements & Volunteer or participant registration forms & Volunteer screening interview or reference checking forms & Sample contracts with third party suppliers, facility providers,

vendors, or other kinds of partners & Client assessment forms, equipment loans forms & Service agreements (for when volunteers work with clients) & Volunteer job descriptions or training materials or agency volunteer

contracts that identify boundaries around volunteer positions & Codes of conduct or other documents that might help to define

appropriate/inappropriate volunteer behavior & Sample policy manuals, volunteer handbooks, branch operating

guides & Event planning guides & Financial management guidelines for chapter operations and money

tracking forms for fundraising events

8. Other

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Try to imagine the setting in emergency situations and ask: “What would need to be done and who should do it?”

Safety records, workers’ compensation claims, and serious incident occurrence reports are good sources of past dangers that may need additional attention.

These techniques will assist in the creation of the master list of risks. At this stage all risks are recorded. Even risks that are currently assessed to be “under control” should be included on the list.

Step 2: Sort and Prioritize Risks

Risk identification processes typically turn up more risks than an organization can re- spond to at any given time. Indeed, the list can be daunting if not paralyzing. It is important for the risk management team to proceed without delay to the second step in the risk management process, which involves sorting and prioritizing the risks on the master list. The objective is to identify the most urgent risks that demand immedi- ate attention, and further prioritize the remaining list by degrees of urgency. Focusing on the smaller number of most urgent risks can lessen the sense of panic, and prioriti- zation allows the risk management team to work systematically, attending to the most urgent risks at any given time.

Step 2 is accomplished by the application of two critical questions to each risk on the list. They are:

1. Likelihood of occurrence. What is the likelihood that this risk will materialize into actual loss or harm?

2. Magnitude of harm. If the risk does materialize how significant might the conse- quences be?

Each of these questions is explored more fully in the next sections.

LIKELIHOOD OF OCCURRENCE Consider the probability of each risk materializing into actual loss or harm. The planning horizon for this question should be limited, perhaps to five to seven years. That is, how likely is it that this risk will become reality in the next five to seven years? Statistical precision is not the aim. A three-point scale is rec- ommended, as follows:

1. Low. A rare event; has not occurred, or very unusual; very unlikely that this risk will materialize into harm, loss or liability, but not impossible

2. Medium. Risk has occurred, but infrequently; somewhat likely that this risk will materialize into harm, loss, or liability

3. High. A recurrent risk or one very likely to materialize into harm, loss, or liability; future incident(s) should be expected

Take into consideration what is known about each risk and the circumstances around it. Research frequency of previous occurrences in your setting and elsewhere.

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ASSESS LIKELIHOOD OF OCCURRENCE IN RELATION TO EXISTING RISK MITIGATION STRATEGIES Assess risk in the context of risk management techniques already in place—strategies and circumstances that diminish likelihood of occurrence. For example, using a power saw is a dangerous activity, but a well maintained device in the hands of a skilled builder significantly reduces the risk of injury. Random spot checks and thorough supervision boost compliance with policies and procedures. Good training reduces the likelihood that a volunteer will not meet performance standards.

Assign a rating of low, medium, or high likelihood to each risk. Results can be entered in Exhibit 14.3.

The “Comments” column on the Risk Assessment Worksheet allows the team to record additional information or rationale for its assessment of likelihood of occur- rence. Likelihood of occurrence can be assessed by the risk management team as a whole, or individually by team members who then come together as a group to dis- cuss their ratings. As at any point in the risk management process, the committee may decide to invite the input of others more directly involved in the activity or position under review.

There are no absolute acceptable occurrence rates. What one program might judge to be frequent, and therefore intolerable without some form of mitigating action, could be judged by another program to be a normal part of doing business and well within tolerable levels. In general, however, risks that have a high or medium likeli- hood of materializing will need some form of risk control treatment. Risks that exist, but that are unlikely to materialize may, at first, seem to require no further attention. The team might be tempted to dismiss them as “nothing to worry about.” However, even risks that are rated at the lowest end of the “likelihood” scale must be examined from the second risk evaluation perspective before being dismissed.

MAGNITUDE OF HARM For each risk on the master list, rate the magnitude of harm of the consequences should the risk materialize. Ask questions such as these:

& How significant might the injuries, losses, or harm be? & How many people could be involved? & Should secondary consequences such as lawsuits or reputation damage be

expected? & Are the potential consequences something the organization should pay attention

to, or are they something that can be lived with?

EXHIBIT 14.3 Risk Assessment Worksheet

Risk ID # Risk Likelihood of Occurrence �

Magnitude of Harm �

Comments

� Rate on a scale of low, medium, or high.

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A three-point scale is recommended, as follows:

1. Low. Consequences are inconsequential and easily recovered from, e.g., minor injury, small financial loss.

2. Medium. Consequences are substantial but not ruinous, e.g., significant personal injury, appreciable financial loss, substantive property damage, some media cov- erage possible.

3. High. Consequences are severe, potentially jeopardizing organization’s ability to recover (e.g., loss of life, immense financial loss, catastrophic property damage, loss of public trust unlikely repairable).

ASSESS MAGNITUDE OF HARM IN RELATION TO EXISTING RISK MITIGATION STRATEGIES In assessing magnitude of harm, consider harm reduction strategies already in place. For example:

& Volunteers handling chain saws may experience injuries, but they wear special protective gear that significantly reduces the seriousness of injury.

& Abuse detection and reporting strategies are in place to ensure that inappropriate behaviour is recognized and dealt with immediately.

& Volunteers doing home visits call in to log the impending visit including antici- pated return time; a designated watcher immediately reports failure to return to the appropriate authorities.

& Emergency medical facilities are identified and notified along the route of the fundraising bikeathon, speeding medical response.

& Evacuation and crisis communication and response protocols are in place, ready for immediate initiation as needed; leaders are identified, know their roles, and perform drills as needed.

Assign a rating of low, medium, or high likelihood to each risk. Results can be entered in Exhibit 14.3.

ASSIGNING RELATIVE PRIORITIES When the likelihood of occurrence and magnitude of harm have been rated, the team begins to assign relative priority rankings. The respective degree of urgency is calculated for each risk. A higher degree of urgency suggests the need for more immediate action. Risks of lesser urgency must wait. Prior- itizing can be very helpful to an organization faced with decisions about how to allo- cate scarce risk management resources. It sets the risk management “to do” list for the foreseeable future.

The risk priority map in Exhibit 14.4 is a simple and useful tool for calculating and displaying the relative urgency of risks. It provides a quick way to consolidate the likelihood of occurrence and magnitude of harm assessments, and portray their re- spective ratings in a single visual representation.

The Risk Priority Map is a two-way matrix in which the vertical axis represents likelihood of occurrence on the three-point scale. The horizontal axis represents the three-point scale of magnitude of harm. To complete the matrix, place the ID number of each risk in the cell which represents its relative likelihood of occurrence and magnitude of harm ratings. Risks that are very likely to occur will be plotted higher

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on the map; those that are less likely to occur will be plotted lower. Risks that are likely to generate significant harm will be plotted further to the right of the map; those likely to cause minimal harm will be plotted closer to the left of the map.

Each of the nine cells in the risk priority map represents a unique combination of likelihood of occurrence and magnitude of harm. While circumstances vary, the following is a suggested order in which risks should be tackled, based on their place- ment on the map:

1st Priority. Urgent action: Cell C 2nd Priority. As soon as possible: Cells F, B, and E 3rd Priority. Work through when time permits: Cells A, I, D, and H 4th Priority. Not urgent: Cell G (these may already have been dropped from

the list.)

Step 3: Develop and Implement Risk Control Measures

A wide range of risk control mechanisms exists. Few risks are satisfactorily mitigated by just one strategy. It is a combination of risk control strategies that typically brings best results. The recommended selection process involves brainstorming a wide array of strategies, making decisions about implementation only after all apparent options have been listed and considered. See the section “Risk Management through the Volunteer Involvement Cycle” later in this chapter for a wide range of risk control strat- egies around volunteer program management. Following are four broad approaches to risk control.

A B C D E F

G H I Magnitude of Harm

L ik

e li

h o

o d

o f

O c

c u

rr e

n c

e

L o

w M

e d

iu m

H ig

h

Not Urgent Third Priority Second Priority Urgent

Scale of Urgency

Low Medium High

EXHIBIT 14.4 Risk Priority Map

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STOP ACTIVITY Certain risks are best controlled by simply stopping, or ceasing in- volvement in, the risk-producing activity. This may sound like a radical solution, but it need not mean cancelling the service, withdrawing volunteers, or closing the organi- zation’s doors. Stopping the activity might mean terminating single action or function in a larger service area or administrative function. For example:

& Children are not allowed to spend considerable time in the company of just one person in an isolated setting; overnights are cancelled and alternate methods are developed to instill the aims of the cancelled activity.

& The volunteer application form is revised to comply with human rights legislation.

& Client eligibility criteria are refined, allowing refusal of service to any client who poses a danger to staff and volunteers.

Stopping the activity might mean postponement to a safer time or place. For example:

& Postpone the picnic when it begins to storm; cancel the ski trip in the presence of freezing rain.

& Wait until a second camp counselor is present before conducting tent checks after lights out.

& After the tree in the backyard is damaged in a windstorm, all personnel and clients remain inside until the debris can be cleared away and the stability of what re- mains is assessed.

& Adult literacy tutors meet their students in the public library.

Stopping the activity might mean cutting out a function that is most dangerous, leaving the remainder to operate within risk tolerance boundaries. For example:

& Palliative care volunteers do not involve themselves in clients’ financial affairs. & Friendly visitors are prohibited from driving their clients & Crisis response volunteers provide support and referral but do not counsel or give

advice.

From time to time, a volunteer position, or a specific service or activity may be identified as too risky to be sustainable. When the magnitude of the risk warrants it, radical action should not be avoided.

DECREASE LIKELIHOOD This approach to risk mitigation involves a wide range of pos- sible strategies that could reduce the likelihood of a risk materializing into actual loss or harm. This step, in essence, is about prevention. For example:

& Change procedures, update equipment, implement new rules, set additional boundaries to keep volunteers safe.

& Pay closer attention to personnel requirements, increase minimum position quali- fications, upgrade to new screening protocols.

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& Hire security guards or off-duty police officers to guard fundraising events where there is a lot of cash on hand (e.g., bingos, carnivals, walkathons, bikeathons, charity casinos).

& Have staff, rather than volunteers, feed those patients who are at greatest risk of choking.

& Insist that volunteer activity take place on site or only in the presence of others. & Increase training and supervision for volunteers. & Remove the skateboards from the equipment boxes at the after-school program. & Install handrails on all stairs and grab bars in all showers. & Move the petty cash box from the shelf in the main office and lock it in a cabinet

to which only two people have a key. & Partition databases and institute a password system to limit access to sensitive or

vital agency records.

Following is a quick checklist to prompt risk mitigation thinking.

Four Ps of Risk Elimination

1. Position. Are there changes to the volunteer position that could be made to pre- vent or reduce harm?

2. Person. Are there changes related to the person in the position or to the personnel complement of the program that could prevent or reduce harm?

3. Physical environment. Are there alterations to the environment in which the posi- tion takes place that might prevent or reduce harm?

4. Performance management. Is it possible to supervise, support, or work more closely with the volunteer in such a way as to enhance prevention?

In reality, it is virtually impossible to eliminate all risk, but this step in the risk management model encourages consideration of all reasonable mechanisms that will reduce the likelihood of loss, injury, or liability.

MINIMIZE HARM Even where all reasonable risk elimination mechanisms have been implemented, it is likely that some measure of risk will still be present. The next risk control approach directs attention to reducing the degree of harm that might result if the risk materializes. For example:

& Train fundraising staff and volunteers thoroughly. If the event is subject to robbery, the protocol is “hit the dirt and let ‘em have the cash!”

& Insist on protective clothing, special equipment, safety boots, protective eyewear, etc. where appropriate.

& Install extra-sensitive smoke detectors throughout the facility & Keep no more than $50 in the petty cash box at any given time; if it does sprout

legs and take a walk, the loss is minimized. & Keep detailed files on all risk management deliberations, and maintain up-to-date

agency policies and procedures—if legal action is launched, the organization has tangible proof of all it has tried to do to control risks and prevent harm.

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& Allocate responsibilities in such a way that only staff and volunteers who are calm, stable, and reliable are assigned to positions of first response in the event of a calamity.

& Regularly and frequently back up all sensitive and vital data so that little is lost in the event of a power failure, fire, flood, or other peril.

& Implement a performance review system that promotes early detection of errors or other substandard performance.

& Prepare a disaster response plan including, for example, emergency chain of command, an evacuation plan, crisis communications strategy, and critical inci- dent stress debriefings.

TRANSFER LIABILITY Increasing numbers of charitable organizations across the United States, and more recently, in Canada and beyond, are facing legal action be- cause of accidents, injuries, and abuse, and the allegations of negligence that typi- cally follow. When all other risk mitigation strategies have been considered and every reasonable effort has been made to reduce risks and minimize harm, when the organization believes that it has met its ethical obligations and satisfied its duty of care, then it is appropriate for the organization to consider its own liability in connec- tion with its operations. Note, however, that it is neither legally nor ethically defensi- ble to identify a risk and then move directly to liability reduction, thereby bypassing all attempts at prevention and control. Everything reasonable should be done to pre- vent and reduce harm before attention and resources are devoted to liability reduction.

This is not to say that responsible organizations are not obliged to tend to their own liability exposure. On the contrary, this fourth approach to risk mitigation— transfer liability—directs the organization to move remaining liability to another party. Suggestions for transferring liability include:

& Implement memoranda of agreement with partners and collaborators that identify who is responsible for what.

& Implement hold harmless agreements, waivers. & Contract the most risky activities to another organization or company that is better

qualified, better prepared, or a specialist in that field—transport the really ill client by ambulance, not by volunteer driver; hire a moving company when the agency moves.

& Fully investigate insurance needs; research insurance types, and consult an insurance advisor concerning insurance requirements; purchase recom- mended instruments; review operations and changing insurance needs annually.

& Implement a call-in process whereby volunteers facing uncertainty while on duty call for advice and direction, effectively transferring much of the responsibility and liability back to the organization.

& Ensure that risks and exposures are reported to supervisory staff and agency lead- ers, with notification of the greatest risks being reported to the board on a routine basis; this transfers responsibility and liability up the organizational hierar- chy with the largest exposures resting at highest echelons of organizational leadership. Memoranda and briefing papers outlining risks and recommended

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actions create a trail of proof of due diligence in the handling of risks throughout the organization.

When an organization transfers a liability, it must do so responsibly. It should be certain the other entity or individual is appropriately screened, licensed, insured, bonded, or whatever other qualifications are fitting.

Risk Management through the Volunteer Involvement Cycle

Following is a list of risk management tips structured to follow the volunteer involve- ment cycle (Graff, 2003). Most of these risk management tips are simply good volun- teer management practices.

VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT Planning

& Think through what volunteers will be asked to do in your chapter, department, program, agency; how will their work interface with the work of paid staff?

& Ensure that sufficient resources are allocated to the volunteer program to ensure safe and effective operation.

& Hire professionally qualified volunteer program management staff who have experience in coordinating volunteers in your organization’s line of business.

& Research federal, state, and local laws that might apply to volunteers in your orga- nization, e.g., laws pertaining to privacy and confidentiality; volunteer immunity; labor laws; human rights; workers’ occupational health and safety; legal obliga- tion to report, in particular, offenses related to abuse of children, elder abuse, etc.; be sure that all aspects of your volunteer program are in compliance with all relevant legislation.

Position Design

& Consciously consider the potential for risk, harm, and loss in the development of all volunteer positions.

& Develop minimum qualifications for each volunteer position and be certain that they are directly related to the requirements of the position.

& Develop clear boundaries around all volunteer positions, e.g., how much physical and/or intimate care is acceptable for a volunteer to provide to clients? Are there some kinds of limits that volunteers should maintain in their relationships with clients? Are personal, social, and/or intimate relationships acceptable? What kinds of in-home household help is acceptable/unacceptable for volunteers to provide to clients? Is it acceptable for volunteer support group leaders to give out their home phone numbers and addresses? Is it acceptable for adult volunteers who have met child clients through in-house or online programs to arrange additional in-person meetings with those children?

& Clarify all position boundaries in position descriptions, and explain them fully in volunteer training sessions.

& Support all volunteer position boundaries in agency policy and monitor regularly through volunteer supervision.

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& Review volunteer job descriptions regularly; identify any changes in working environment, position demands, volunteer capabilities, client needs, or supervi- sion and/or supports around the position that might be generating new or bigger risks since the previous review.

& In the design or review of volunteer positions, consider all of the things that might be done to reduce inherent risks such as: have volunteers work on-site, in groups, or as teams; move the service from behind closed doors into a more public envi- ronment or at least have a window cut into the door; reducing risks inherent in volunteer positions is usually easier and more cost-effective than screening more intensively or training more thoroughly.

Recruitment

& Make sure that recruitment efforts are targeted at the kinds of volunteers who meet minimum position requirements.

Screening

& Acceptance should never be automatic—screen all volunteers as carefully as the requirements\of the position demand.

& Where positions are more demanding or involve a higher degree of trust, screen volunteers more thoroughly.

& Establish automatic disqualifiers for positions of trust (e.g., a history of child molesta- tion would be an automatic disqualifier for any position involving direct (and maybe even indirect?) contact with children; a relatively recent drunk driving offense would be an automatic disqualifier for the position of camp bus driver, etc.).

& Establish uniform mechanisms for rating the suitability of candidates, and be sure that all\rejections are clearly based on a fair assessment of the candidate’s in- ability to perform the job as outlined.

& Ensure that all volunteers meet minimum position requirements. & Do not lower your screening standards because volunteers are hard to find, or

you are desperate to place someone right away, or you have clients on a waiting list; do not skip any steps in the screening protocol because the interview went really well, you know the candidate, everybody knows the candidate, or the can- didate is the parent of one of the children in the program.

& Ensure that all screening processes are in compliance with relevant human rights legislation.

& If volunteers are to be asked to perform work that requires significant physical exertion, the organization might, at minimum, ask about physical strength/ability/ stamina in the personal interview and ensure that the physical requirements of the position are well spelled out on the position description; in extreme cases, the organization might consider requiring volunteers to submit a medical certificate of fitness to perform the work in question.

& When volunteers cannot be screened to the same standard as other volunteers (youth, recent immigrants, etc.), supplement the screening process with other sources of information, reduce risks in the position, place in a less risky position, or increase supervision.

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& Ensure that all persons conducting screening understand relevant legislation and agency policy, particularly where the screeners are volunteers screening other volunteers.

& Keep thorough records of screening procedures and the basis for screening deci- sions; store them in a secure location for a reasonable duration, keeping in mind that screening decisions may be challenged by a rejected candidate alleging dis- crimination, defamation, or breach of privacy, or by a claimant seeking damages for negligent hiring; in any event, the challenge to a screening decision might not arise for some time in the future.

Orientation

& All volunteers should be oriented to the mission of the organization, the require- ments of their position, and the culture of the worksite.

Training

& Adequately train all volunteers in the performance of their duties. & Consider making all of the critical components of the volunteer training program

mandatory, and refuse to place volunteers until they have satisfied the mandatory training requirements.

& Take attendance at training sessions to ensure compliance with mandatory requirements.

& Consider requiring volunteers to sign off on the training content they have received. & In high-risk positions, consider testing volunteers to ensure they have grasped the

fundamentals of the training program and understand the boundaries of their positions.

& Be certain that training is refreshed for non-regular or special events volunteers who may not have served, for example, since last year’s event.

& Periodically review the volunteer training program, position by position, to ensure adequacy, currency, relevance.

& If working conditions, client needs, project goals, or any other pertinent work- related elements have changed, or even if it’s just a matter of significant time hav- ing passed since the last volunteer training session, consider offering/requiring an updated volunteer training session.

Placement

& Prospective volunteers should understand that placement is at the organization’s discretion.

& There should be a good fit between the volunteer’s abilities, and the requirements of the position.

& Volunteers should be required to sign a volunteer-agency contract (memorandum of understanding, mutual agreement, etc.) through which they certify that they have read, understood, and agree to comply with agency policies and procedures (See Graff, 2003, Appendix G for a sample contract).

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Supervision and Performance Management

& Remember that no matter how thoroughly you screen, inappropriate or deliber- ately harmful volunteers can still slip through; thorough screening is no substitute for thorough supervision.

& Produce a small and user-friendly handbook for volunteers; include in it impor- tant rules, behavioral expectations/boundaries, prohibitions, who to contact in the case of an emergency.

& Designate a specific supervisor for every volunteer. & Ensure that supervisors check in regularly with volunteers. & Implement a system of random, unannounced spot checks in all positions where

volunteers work with vulnerable people in unsupervised settings. & Include in all program and event evaluation programs an assessment of volunteer

performance; the results should inform which volunteers are retained or invited back to work at the next event.

& Ensure that a volunteer discipline and dismissal policy is clearly articulated and enforced; include in the policy clear grounds for disciplinary action, and be sure that supervisors understand and comply with documentation requirements.

& Periodically review the staff-volunteer ratio to ensure that volunteers receive ade- quate supervision and support.

& Recognize and manage the increased risks that are associated with volunteers working off-site; add regular check-ins and supports to volunteers working off- site; use random, unannounced spot checks to monitor the appropriateness of interactions and compliance with boundaries; in high-risk situations, be sure to check in with service recipients as well.

& Make certain that the program evaluation and volunteer performance manage- ment systems include input from the clients with whom volunteers work.

Evaluation

& Ensure that the volunteer program is evaluated on a regular basis and that the results of the evaluation program are integrated into ongoing volunteer program planning.

Volunteer Program Infrastructure

& Develop and implement operational policies to guide all aspects of volunteer in- volvement; review them regularly and keep them current.

& Develop additional policies that guide volunteer behaviour of all sorts, including, for example, dress code, dependability, compliance with boundaries, and prohi- bitions for actions such as discrimination, harassment, sexual harassment, use of drugs/alcohol on or before the volunteer shift, etc.

& Implement a volunteer-agency agreement that spells out the mutual obligations of both parties.

& Implement an agency-wide risk management policy that has received input from, and approval by, the board of directors.

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& Create a clear chain of command to ensure that each level of decision making is managed by those who are appropriately screened, skilled, experienced, and authorized.

& Review insurance needs, and purchase whatever insurance coverage is necessary. & Consult the risk management specialists or legal department at head office for ad-

vice on risk management and insurance questions. & Think about premises security, e.g., develop a system for tracking all keys (to

buildings, desks, file cabinets, storage units and supply cupboards, and hazardous materials storage areas); monitor who has keys to what, and replace as necessary as volunteers leave the organization.

& Develop a volunteer dress code that ensures that volunteers dress appropriately for the work they are going to do, including, for example, for special events and camp positions, the requirement that volunteers wear sturdy shoes, and appropri- ate protective clothing for the weather conditions, as well as for insects, sun expo- sure, poisonous plants, and other environmental perils.

& Implement a sexual harassment policy; train your staff and volunteers about what constitutes inappropriate behavior; make sure the policy applies to clients as well, and communicate boundaries clearly to everyone.

& Develop and implement a universal precautions policy (infectious disease) that covers all staff and volunteers.

CLIENT SERVICES Working with Clients

& Articulate clear limits on the kind and extent of physical/intimate contact volun- teers may have with clients.

& Establish clear service contracts which specify what will and will not be provided; ensure that both the client and any relevant family members know and under- stand the limits of the contract before service delivery is initiated.

& Review all documentation protocols; ensure that volunteers receive training on how and what to record.

& Review the status of clients on a regular basis and be certain that it is still safe for volunteers to be delivering services as outlined in the service agreement.

Money and Other Assets

& Limit the opportunity for volunteers to handle clients’ money; if volunteers must handle clients’ money, implement limitations and sign-off procedures to prevent theft and mistaken allegations of theft.

& Volunteers who have access to clients’ or organization funds should be screened thoroughly, including a police records check, references, and possibly a credit bureau check.

Confidential Information

& Develop a confidential information policy which defines what is recorded/kept and where; who can gain access to records, for what purpose; how long materials are retained; how they are destroyed.

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& Develop a clear client confidentiality policy and train volunteers thoroughly in compliance.

& Caution all volunteers that no sensitive documents should be removed from the premises without authorization, and no sensitive material should ever be reviewed or discussed in public places.

Volunteers in Events

& A (paid or unpaid) supervisor should be trained and appointed to circulate at all special events to ensure that volunteers following procedures have the mate- rials and equipment they need to do their work, etc.; the supervisor is autho- rized and equipped (e.g., with transportation, communications devices, etc.) to pursue (within reasonable boundaries) solutions to the problems s/he might encounter.

& Keep in mind that major shifts in weather conditions or the impact of storms can make previously safe activities and settings perilous and even life-threatening; these possibilities should be part of the “what if” scenarios reviewed in the risk identification stage of risk management.

& Establish, well in advance of the event, the criteria that will be applied in the de- termination of whether an event should be postponed/cancelled; make certain that the decision-making process is not impaired by the amount of work, invest- ment, and anticipation that has built up through the preparation process, and that key values such as safety and prevention are kept in sharp focus.

& Check your agreements with third party groups that help with your organization’s events and activities: Is there an agreement in writing about what they will and will not do? Whose insurance covers their volunteers at your event? Have their volunteers been appropriately screened and trained to do the work? Whose polic- ies, standards, rules apply to them? To whom are they accountable when they are working for your organization?

Other

& Develop a protocol by which volunteers document and report to their supervisors any unusual incidents or circumstances they have encountered in the completion of their volunteer duties.

& Develop an agency-wide corporate culture which encourages and rewards risk awareness, risk identification and reporting, and active participation in risk con- trol strategies.

& Maintain frequent communication with others in your organization who are re- sponsible for health and safety issues.

& Establish and enforce a system of routine checks of equipment, vehicle safety, and health and safety supplies; repair, replace, restock as necessary (PP. 182–190).

Step 4: Review

Review is the fourth step in risk management. The process should be continuous with risk management integrated into other systems (Institute of Risk Management, 2002). Herman says it is an approach to problem identification and solving (2009,

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p. vii), and Tremper and Kostin (1993) say it should be an orientation to all other vol- unteer program management functions. Here are a few suggested review and ongoing risk management strategies:

& Build a review of the risk management system into the annual evaluation, policy review, and personnel appraisal systems.

& Monitor changes in legislation, bylaws, community standards, and legal prece- dents that may alter organizational responsibilities and/or liabilities.

& Contract the (pro bono if you can) services of an attorney who agrees to monitor legal decisions that might have an impact on the standard of care.

& Perform annual position reviews to ensure that conditions have not changed, or new hazards emerged.

& Check all equipment and facilities regularly, make repairs and update procedures accordingly.

& Consider the effectiveness of risk control strategies currently in place. Are they working? Are risks controlled to an acceptable level? Is residual risk within the organization’s tolerance zone?

& Re-implement the risk management process, looking at successively lower-prior- ity lists until the master list of risks is dealt with, all the while scanning for new and emerging risks that demand attention.

Supporting the Risk Management Process

There are many things an organization can do to support and facilitate risk manage- ment connected to volunteer involvement. In this section, three key strategies are discussed.

Create a Risk-Aware Culture

Enlisting help in the risk identification and management process is critical to early de- tection and effective control of risks. Best practice involves the development of a posi- tive organizational culture that both empowers and rewards all personnel for risk identification, reporting and control initiatives.

HOW TO CREATE A RISK-AWARE CULTURE Communicate. Create opportunities to talk about risk. Help volunteers understand that risk is a normal part of doing business. Urge them to be conscious of risks in their day-to-day environment. Encourage identi- fication and reporting of risks wherever volunteers work throughout the organization. Make sure that employees feel comfortable reporting risks related to volunteer in- volvement. Communicate that risk management creates a safer working environment for all.

Educate. Enhance risk identification skills through ongoing training, case confer- ences, in-service sessions, supervisory meetings, performance reviews, etc. Help vol- unteers to understand the full range of risk control options available in their own area of the workplace, including the small things that everybody can do to increase safety. Help them to know what issues should be reported, and to whom.

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Appreciate: Reward everyone who identifies and reports risks. Make risk manage- ment a competency area and build it into the volunteer performance management system. Announce successes, publicly acknowledge and reward volunteers’ efforts to make the workplace and the organization’s services safer for everyone. Attention to risk management and good risk reduction ideas could become the basis of a special annual volunteer recognition award.

Implement. People need to see that their efforts bring results. Follow up on all suggestions. Implement risk control strategies and report back to the risk identifier on actions that have been taken.

Connection Between Risk Management and Policy and Procedure Development

Policies and procedures are indispensable in all risk control steps. Policies identify “what” is to be done. They establish standards and expectations. They are like rules and laws (Graff, 1997), establishing the boundaries beyond which volunteers ought not stray. They define what is and what is not acceptable, and specifically what to do in the event of trouble. Policies and procedures are therefore critical to risk manage- ment as a preventive device. They are equally important to reducing liability exposure since they are concrete proof of all the agency has done to try to identify risks and prevent harm—evidence of attempts at due diligence. For more on policies, see the author’s “Policy Development For Volunteer Involvement,” Chapter 7 in this volume.

But We Can’t Afford to Do Risk Management—Allocating Sufficient Resources to Support Risk Management

There are hard costs involved in the implementation of risk management. Most will be related to personnel because risk management can be time consuming. The cost of the risk management strategies that flow out of the risk management process is diffi- cult to estimate. For organizations that involve only a few volunteers, or have them performing relatively low-risk work, and for organizations that already have many of their risks well under control, the costs of implementing minor risk management upgrades may be relatively minimal. For other organizations, the costs could be higher.

Unfortunately, there are still many agency administrators (boards and senior exec- utives) who fail to see the wisdom and profitability of investing in volunteer program infrastructure. There is often a sense in the sector that volunteer work is unpaid work and so the volunteer program should run without cost as well. To be fair, operating nonprofit organizations is becoming evermore complex and onerous. Increased de- mands, a constantly changing environment, and too-small budgets have become the norm. But opting for short-term savings from volunteer program infrastructure cuts (without fully understanding the potential longer-term risks of whopping legal bills, fatal damage awards, and more importantly, possible harm to people) is at minimum, nearsighted, if not unethical and negligent.

Herman (2009) says it is an irony of effective risk management that it is impossible to document the losses avoided due to precautionary efforts. Without trying to fear- monger, it is advisable to consider from time to time how a serious loss or harm could damage the organization’s public trust or make operational recovery impossible.

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The degree of responsibility, fiscal and otherwise, that an agency demonstrates for its volunteer program must be commensurate with the magnitude of responsibility it delegates to its volunteers. At present, many agencies are “out of sync” in this regard. This is a hard line, but it must be said: If the costs of implementing appropriate risk management techniques are judged by an organization to be too high, then perhaps this is a signal to think through whether it is wise for the organization to be operating such a volunteer program, or at least whether placing volunteers in positions of signifi- cant risk is the prudent thing to do. It is unlikely that the courts will absolve an organi- zation of responsibility for harm, based on the defense that the organization could not afford to do a good job of managing the volunteers it mobilized.

Conclusion

Risk management may sound like a lot of work, and it can be. Remember that organiza- tions and their personnel are actually doing much of it all the time anyway, just not systematically. Following the risk management model outlined in this chapter prompts managers to ask the right questions in the right order, generating risk management so- lutions throughout the volunteer program and throughout the organization.

Remember that very few programs involve no risks, and very few risky situations are managed with only one risk control mechanism. Fully evaluating the range of risks that prevails and then systematically exploring all risk reduction mechanisms can gen- erate a properly tailored constellation of mechanisms for each situation. The process will help organizations set and operate within their own risk tolerance zones. The kind of comprehensive program review that a risk management process necessitates generates more productive and satisfying volunteer involvement, and more effective services to clients and communities as well.

Not engaging in risk management will not make the risks go away. Not managing and controlling risks increases the likelihood of a risk materializing into real loss or harm, thereby increasing liability and the probability of losing a legal action if, or when, one is launched.

References

Cloutier, R. (2000). Legal liability and risk management in adventure tourism. Kamloops, British Columbia: Bhudak Consultants.

DeWitt, J. D. (2010). A legal handbook for nonprofit corporation volunteers (9th ed.). Retrieved from www.iciclesoftware.com/vlh7

Gammon & Grange. (2011). NonpProfit alerts. Retrieved from www.gg-law.com/CM/ Publications/Nonprofit-alert-news.asp

Graff, L. L. (1997). By definition: Policies for volunteer programs. Dundas, ON: Linda Graff And Associates.

Graff, L. L. (1999). Beyond police checks: The definitive volunteer and employee screening guidebook. Dundas, Ontario: Linda Graff And Associates Inc.

Graff, L. L. (2003). Better safe…Risk management in volunteer programs & community service. Dundas, Ontario: Linda Graff And Associates Inc.

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Graff, L. L. (2005). Best of all: The quick reference guide to effective volunteer involve- ment. Dundas, Ontario: Linda Graff And Associates Inc.

Herman, M. L. (2009). No surprises: Harmonizing risk and reward in volunteer man- agement (5th ed.). Washington DC: Nonprofit Risk Management Center.

Hunter, L. (1998). Absolutely, probably, possibly, maybe…but what if? Edmonton, AB: LawNow. Retrieved from http://au.vlex.com/vid/probably-possibly-but-what- 53659105

Institute of Risk Management. (2002). A risk management standard. Retrieved from www.theirm.org/publications/documents/ARMS_2002_IRM.pdf

Johansen, I. M. (1997). Legal issues in school volunteer programs, Part 2. Retrieved from www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/97sum.pdf

Miller, S. (2001) Volunteering for trouble. LawNow. August/September. Retrieved from: www.law-nonprofit.org/261-trb.htm

Oliver, B. B. (2010). Swimming with sharks and other perils of special events. Non- profit Risk Management Center. Retrieved from www.nonprofitrisk.org/library/ articles/workplace-safety0502.shtml

Risser, J., and Herman, M. L. (2009). Managing special event risks: Ten steps to safety (2nd Edition). Washington, DC: Nonprofit Risk Management Center.

Tremper, C., and Kostin, G. (1993). No surprises: Controlling risks in volunteer pro- grams. Washington, DC: Nonprofit Risk Management Center.

Web Sites for Information on Risk Management

www.carters.ca/charity/php_accountID-2839955_login_hash_6XlWWkTk2OQniCvA_ action_change_charitylawupdate.php

www.charity-commission.gov.uk/ www.iciclesoftware.com/vlh7/ www.charitycentral.ca/site/ www.nonprofitrisk.org www.theirm.org/index.html www.volunteerlawyers.org/

Ingrid M. Johansen’s excellent four-part series of articles entitled “Legal Issues in School Volunteer Programs” has general information on legal issues relating to volunteer involvement. They are available:

Part I: www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/slb97sp.pdf Part II: www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/97sum.pdf Part III: www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/wtrslb98.htm Part IV: www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/slb98sp1.pdf

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