Indian Health Services- 4pages-APA format- Must use at least four scholarly or governmental sources, two of which must be scholarly that highlight the importance of improving Indian Health Services.
Health care managers must recognize the issues of health disparities and build a framework to link interventions to eliminating disparities despite the fact that much remains to be learned about the most effective interventions. Cultural proficiency requires that organizations and interdisciplinary staff value diversity and manage the dynamics of difference. Health care organizations should pursue initiatives to acquire the awareness, knowledge, and skills in continual pursuit of greater cultural competence and operational excellence. Essential components of a culturally proficient health care organization include:
1. A diverse health care workforce;
2. Management practices including supportive leadership, organizational values and culture, and appropriate human resource policies;
3. Assessment;
4. Education and training for all staff;
5. Effective multilingual services and support materials;
6. System capacities such as evaluation and research data collection for tracking health outcomes; and
7. The ability to adapt to the context of and respond to and engage the community served.
The Health Care Workforce
Approximately 13.5% of physicians identify as Black or African-American, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Hispanic or Latino; only 14% of physician assistants identify as nonwhite; and minority nurses make up only 16.8% of the total nurse population (Association of American Medical Colleges, 2015; Loftin et al., 2013). It is generally recognized that a more diverse clinical health care workforce is an important component in the delivery of quality, competent care throughout the nation. However, moving towards greater diversity is not keeping pace with the nation’s demographic shift, and this includes health care managers and executives. In 1992, the ACHE joined with the National Association of Health Services Executives (NAHSE), an association of African American health care executives, to investigate the career advancement of their members. The study found that minorities held less than 1% of top management positions, although they represented more than 20% of hospital employees. It also documented that African American health care executives made less money, held lower positions, and had less job satisfaction than their white counterparts. A 1997 follow-up study, expanded to include Latinos and Asians, found that, although the gap had narrowed in some areas, not much had changed (Institute for Diversity in Health Management, 2012). A study by Weil (2009) confirmed these findings; however, newer data is certainly needed. A more recent survey by the AHA found minorities comprise 14% of hospital trustees, 12% of executive leadership, and 17% of first- and mid-management positions (AHA, 2014). While positive results are occurring, continued progress is required towards matching clinical and management employees with a diverse community. Given U.S. demographic trends, achieving greater diversity in the health care workforce will continue to be a challenge for leaders. For individuals, organizations, and society, the reported benefits are to better reflect the makeup of increasingly diverse communities; to enhance the patient experience; to become a more culturally competent workforce; to allow greater access to care for the underserved; to foster research in neglected areas; to enrich the pool of talent to meet future needs of society; and to generate cost savings by decreasing turnover, absenteeism, and the number of lawsuits (Cordova, Beaudin, & Iwanabe, 2010). The Institute for Diversity in Health Management (http://www.diversityconnection.org) is a good resource for strategies, programs, and leadership initiatives in the area of workforce diversity. The ultimate goal is to have the entire health care workforce in the U.S. reflect the makeup of the communities served.
Management Practices
Cultural competence needs to be incorporated into many aspects of the health care organization, particularly to be embraced by the leadership, human resource management, administration, and service delivery. It requires cross-disciplinary health care professionals who are sensitive and respectful of others to collaborate and advance the cause of cultural proficiency within an organization. Cultural proficiency means being able to understand the organizational forces that either support or negate achieving cultural sensitivity. Management must ensure that there is not differential access to resources, opportunities, and influence. In order for managers to be change agents, they must understand the implications of power and privilege within the institution.
First and foremost, the leaders of an organization need to be role models in cultural sensitivity and establish a supportive culture for diversity and cultural competence initiatives. Health care executives should incorporate underlying principles into the mission and vision of the organization and place initiatives in the organization’s strategic plan to underscore their importance. Assessing the return-on-investment of cultural proficiency training can be a worthwhile exercise. Researchers have examined the positive business benefits of diversity management in health care (Dreachslin, 2007). Although some benefits can be intangible and others can be long term and difficult to quantify, specific measures, such as better customer satisfaction, enhanced employee productivity, greater market share, or fewer malpractice claims, can be evidence supporting the business rationale. Managers need to be wary of falling into the trap of cultural proficiency training becoming the “fad” project of the month. This important competency development must be a long-term commitment of the management team in order to make progress on the issue.
Human resource policies play a key role in addressing diversity in the workforce. Health care managers must ensure that salary, benefit, recruitment, and promotion practices are fair to all regardless of age, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or ethnic background. Racially and ethnically diverse employees represented a small percentage of the health care management workforce in one study, but the author suggested that organizations offer residencies and fellowships, embrace mentoring, encourage transparency in organizational decisions, develop programs that diversify managerial ranks, and promote professional societies’ policy statements on equal employment (Weil, 2009).
Structural barriers to care sometimes arise when patients are facing a complex, bureaucratic organization. Even relatively simple changes like expanding hours of operation to match work schedules or adding questions about gender identification and sexual orientation to intake forms can bring greater access and acceptance. The clinical patient–provider encounter must be appropriately cross-cultural. Studies have shown communication between providers and patients is directly related to patient satisfaction, adherence to treatment regimens, and ultimately outcomes (Betancourt et al., 2005). Organizations should design and implement patient services that offer equal access and are nondiscriminatory, tailored to match the needs of the community they serve, and determined by client-preferred choices. Managers must monitor the impact of these programs; developing reports to examine inequalities in care may be a good management practice. The National Center for Cultural Competence translates policy into specific practices and provides helpful advice for programs and personnel in health care delivery.
Assessment
To address disparities and work toward cultural sensitivity in a health care organization, assessment must occur on several personal and organizational levels. The first step is self-reflection. Health care leaders should examine their own personal biases in order to become role models. Informal self-assessment of one’s own attitudes and behaviors should include questions such as: What is my worldview and what are my biases? Am I aware of my prejudices toward other cultural groups? Do I seek out encounters with individuals who are different from me? How do I react when someone does not speak English? An online assessment tool has been designed by the National Center for Cultural Competence (n.d.) for health care practitioners. Although not designed for health care managers, the tool can be used as part of the learning experience for all individuals working in the health care system, as well as another tool designed for clinical investigators (O’Brien et al., 2006). An easy-to-use assessment tool for executives, staff, and providers has been prepared by a health educator in her textbook (Rose, 2011). Other assessment tools are often used in conjunction with consultants in this field. These instruments and their results should be interpreted with care, as they provide a snapshot of an individual at that particular moment in time on a test and may not reflect the individual’s real-world application of the needed information. After examining these issues on a personal level, the organization must also reflect on and assess whether it appropriately reflects and serves its community.
On an organizational level, assessment in terms of tracking patient data on race, ethnicity, and language is currently being performed by 78% of hospitals in the U.S. Although some cite limitations due to self-reporting or observational reporting, the data are a starting point. Sadly, less than 20% of surveyed hospitals report tying patient race and ethnicity information to patient outcomes and quality improvements (Armada & Hubbard, 2010). If health care organizations want to be top-notch, then they need to keep racial, ethnic, and language assessment data at the forefront of management’s attention. After all, how can an organization deliver best practices in clinical care if they don’t know who their patients are? Toolkits and guides are available for collecting racial and ethnic data in a culturally competent manner (Martin, 2007).
The ACHE partnered with three other national organizations to develop a Diversity and Cultural Proficiency Assessment Tool for Leaders (AHA, 2004). This tool helps organizations address the issue of cultural competence and presents case studies of successful diversity and cultural proficiency programs from America’s hospitals. Action steps are presented as well. Other assessment tools are available for health care organizations (Andrulis, Delbanco, Avakan, & Shaw-Taylor, n.d.).
An assessment can provide a tool to understand what an organization does well in delivering care to diverse populations, where there are gaps, and how it can determine an agenda for improving services. Most importantly, assessment can lead to a dialogue on diversity and cultural proficiency within the organization. The very act of conducting an assessment indicates to the workforce that the organization values diversity and wishes to increase its cultural competence.
Education and Training
Workplace education centers on building knowledge, skills, and attitudes surrounding cultural competence. Currently, there is no consensus on how cultural competence should be taught even among medical school faculty; considerable variability exists in the design and implementation of cross-cultural education. Building awareness and changing behaviors are recognized as crucial, regardless of the approach. (Curtis, Dreachslin, & Sinioris, 2007). Interactive and stimulating courses can be employed to train all health care personnel about health disparities and cultural competence. Learning about cultural competence is not easy. Culture happens within a context; memorizing simple facts about disparities can lead to stereotyping. Health care professionals who have typically been trained in the absolute of scientific methodology sometimes have a difficult time learning how to tolerate gray areas, particularly in human interactions. Cultural proficiency implies being open and accepting ambiguity. Training can include watching videos or having speakers present on health disparities or cultural competence. Former patients who have encountered situations of intolerance or professionals who have participated in health care for underserved groups make for interesting presentations. In addition to the didactics, opportunities should be provided for self-reflection, practicing cross-cultural communications through role playing, and developing conflict resolution skills with observation and feedback. Some institutions embrace mentoring as a way to encourage cultural sensitivity or use consultants to introduce new training programs. The training should be documented and evaluated for effectiveness using outcome measurement tools. Cultural proficiency training in health care should be for everyone regardless of an individual’s background.
Multilingual Services
According to the AHA, 80% of members frequently encountered an individual with limited English proficiency, 43% reported daily encounters, and 20% weekly encounters (Armada & Hubbard, 2010). To understand an organization’s starting place in terms of competency in this area, the American Medical Association (AMA, n.d.) has developed a self-assessment tool for patient-centered communications called the C-CAT, the Communication Climate Assessment Toolkit. The goal is to help physicians and hospitals assess their organizations to determine how well they communicate with diverse patient populations. It focuses on those groups at risk of poor health outcomes because of vulnerability to ineffective communication during patient encounters.
Health care professionals need to be able to effectively communicate and convey information in an easily understood manner to a diverse audience, including people of limited or no English proficiency; those who are illiterate or disabled; and those who are deaf or hard of hearing. Linguistic competency requires staff to be able to interact with and respond to the community they serve. AHRQ (2014) released explicit standardized instructions for taking medications in six languages that improve patients’ understanding and medication adherence and possibly reduce errors. Two publications that may be helpful to health care managers are the AMA’s (n.d.) Office Guide to Communicating with Limited English Proficient Patients and Bridging the Language Divide: A Pocket Guide to Working Effectively with Interpreters in Health Care Settings (Grey, Yehieli, & Rodriguez-Kurtovic, 2006). Health care organizations must have the policies, practices, and resources to support this capacity. Services need to be delivered in the preferred language of the population served. Those qualified to be medical interpreters should be bilingual with superior language proficiency, have studied medical vocabulary, have training in interpreting techniques, and be culturally sensitive. Written materials need to be modified to meet the needs, reading abilities, and preferences of the community. When necessary, they should be translated from English into other languages. Interpretation and translation services need to comply with federal, state, and local mandates as well as the requirements of accrediting agencies. In addition to meeting compliance standards, language services may improve the outcome of the patient/provider encounter, decrease medical errors, equalize health care utilization, and increase patient and provider satisfaction. Consumers of health care services should be engaged in evaluating language and communication services of the health care organization to ensure quality and satisfaction. An organization should monitor its performance regularly using structure, process, and outcome measures, and make appropriate adjustments as needed.
Evaluation
Interventions addressing health disparities and fostering cultural proficiency should be evaluated for their impact. Questions to be addressed include: Did the intervention achieve its goal? Did it affect the process of care? Was utilization improved? Did it affect patient behavior or satisfaction? Was practitioner, manager, or patient satisfaction improved? How were the patient health outcomes impacted? Was the cost-effectiveness of delivery altered? What were the tangible and intangible benefits to the organization? The evaluation of interventions can provide managers with insights about how to address health disparities and improve cultural proficiency within their organizations.
Research
Research findings are used to justify evidence-based practice in health care. In the area of culturally competent interventions, the research has not kept pace in terms of documenting disparities and the outcomes of implementing new measures. Greater collection and reporting on patient data related to race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and culture are needed, particularly identifying sources of disparities. The Office of Minority Health and AHRQ both support investigations on how cultural competency initiatives affect health care delivery and health outcomes. Other organizations, such as the National Center for Healthcare Leadership, are investigating the impact of improved culturally competent health care leadership on patient safety and other measures of organizational performance. This additional research is required to document the impact of culturally competent health care interventions and their outcomes. In 2006, the federal government established the Federal Collaboration on Health Disparities Research in the Office of Minority Health, with the purpose of supporting and disseminating research aimed at reducing or eliminating disparities (Rashid et al., 2009). Organizations on national and local levels must continue to pursue research to support an evidence-based approach for cultural competency interventions in health care and eliminate inequities in health.
Community Outreach and Engagement
The environment in which people live and work, as well as their lifestyles and behaviors, can influence the incidence of illness within a population. A community can achieve health improvements when people work together to effect change. Involving members of the community is a cornerstone of public health improvement, particularly on important issues such as obesity and smoking cessation. Consequently, a health care organization should demonstrate inclusivity with the community it supports. Community engagement is the process of working collaboratively towards well-being with and through groups of people affiliated by geography, special interest, or a common cause. It includes exchanging information, ideas, and resources between individuals, community members, nonprofit organizations, and corporations. Participation is essential for community engagement including education, input, advisory, and partnership. To pursue community engagement, health care managers may put into action a network of concerned individuals, a public health promotion campaign, the use of a focus group or an advisory panel, a community health fair, or employment of community health workers (NIH, 2011).
14.4 ADDRESSING HEALTH DISPARITIES BY ENHANCING PUBLIC POLICY
Public health experts would contend that a public discussion among policy makers is needed to address whether health inequalities can be reduced or eliminated. Many would argue that improvements in social determinants may significantly affect health outcomes in the nation. By working to establish policies that positively influence social and economic conditions such as eliminating toxic exposure, creating safe spaces for recreation, or enabling access to nutritious foods, we can improve health for many people in ways that can be sustained over time. Improving the conditions in which we live, learn, work, and play through sound public policy will create a healthier workforce, population, and society. One organization that works to influence the public discourse on health disparities and social determinants is the American Public Health Association (APHA). This member-driven organization develops statements on key public health topics to shape policy for legislation and regulation. For example, in 2014, a policy statement was developed on the reduction of bullying to address health disparities among lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) youth (APHA, 2014). Freudenberg and Olden (2010) have proposed specific public policies to decrease disparities, including:
Improve access to primary care—Lack of access to primary care has been reported to contribute to health disparities. A change in the U.S. health care system toward greater investment in primary care, including screening and counseling, could address the burden of chronic disease in underserved populations.
Enforce consumer and environmental protection laws—Consumer and environmental policies leave vulnerable populations more exposed to risks. For example, manufacturers of unhealthy products like tobacco or high-fat fried foods have directed their marketing efforts at vulnerable populations, contributing to chronic disease and exacerbating health disparities.
Policy is an important component of resolving health disparities and so is the obligation of health care providers, nonprofit associations, and government agencies to be responsive to the communities they serve. Even relatively simple steps can be taken, such as ensuring hospitals have respectful visitation policies and that visitation rights are not denied based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability. Health for all is a complex and complicated undertaking, and it can only be achieved by creating a culturally proficient workforce within these organizations. The interrelationships are illustrated in Figure 14-2. Health care managers can help the nation move toward the long-term goal of health equity for all Americans.
CONCLUSION
Major gaps exist in understanding the causal relationships in complicated health disparities, and more research is needed to support the cost and quality improvements from cultural competency initiatives. Health care managers who are committed to the issues of diversity, equity, and equality need to be aware of and implement best practices in cultural competency. Health care managers must take leadership roles within their institutions to facilitate developing cultural proficiency within their staffs. Although cultural proficiency alone may not solve the problems of health disparities, managers who understand the diversity of their communities will be better able to serve diverse patient populations and ensure that their organizations both reflect and support the communities they serve.