Unit VIII Project Comm

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Chapter 13

Informing, Persuading, and Making Special Presentations

Learni ag Objectives

13.1 Describe some of the strategies to enhance the effectiveness of a persuasive message

13.2 Describe how developing leadership skills . are important to developing persuasion skills

When Andrea Jung joined Avon in 1993 as a consultant, the company was in big trouble. With more women in the day- time labor' force, door-to-door cosmetic sales had become much more challenging than in the company's heyday during the mid twentieth century. The company's iconic slogan—"Ding dong, Avon calling"—was no longer a mes- sage for success.

Jung knew Avon could do better. She joined the compa- ny's marketing department in 1994 and, on the basis of her communication talents and sales instincts, rose to CEO in

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13.3 Describe communication strategies for malting special speaking presentations

1999.1 As CEO, she reengineered Avon from top to bob establishing a trendy flagship store and spa on Fifth Ave thereby rejuvenating the brand and helping to shed its time image as aline of cosmetics that housewives boug their homes. She also expanded the company's rear untapped markets throughout the world and enhance( sales force by upgrading the use of online sales tools.

Today, you can still purchase Avon products from vidual sellers, but you also have many more buying opi Avon is now available in its own stylish boutiques, at

cosmetic stores around the globe, and online. Since Jung took over the company's leadership, the stock price has risen 165 percent. Avon was earning $4 billion per year when she became CEO; in 2013 it had grown to a $10 billion company.2 To remind her of the importance of leadership and being number one, Jung has a pillow in her New York office that reads, "If you are not the lead dog, the view never changes."

Andrea Jung not only knows how to sell cosmetics, She also knows how to sell ideas ;that change the culture .of a company. She is an excellent communicator. As we have emphasized throughout this book, leadership and commu- nication are linked—two sides of the same coin. Jung was able to reinvent Avon by articulately expressing her vision to. her executive colleagues. She also knows .something . about how to both present and persuade. Her application of -the five principles for leadership was the prime factor in her success. She became aware of what needed to be done, communicated well both verbally and nonverbally, lis- tened, and appropriately adapted her message to transform a company. When persuading others, it's especially vital that you adapt or customize your message to the listener.

Leading Questions 1. Andrea Jung is a good salesperson. She first had to

sell her new colleagues on the idea that Avon needed a makeover before company salespersons could sell more Avon products. What are the characteristics of a good salesperson?

2. Women have made dramatic gains in serving as corpo- ' rate CEOs and in other top leadership roles; yet they continue to face challenges. What factors contribute to these challenges?

3. What needs to change for more women to serve in top leadership roles?

Your general communication purpose influences how you present your message. In this chapter, we discuss communicating for the two most common business pur- poses: to inform and to persuade. In addition to informing and persuading, there are special occasions when you will be called on to say a few remarks. These special occasions can be informative, such as when you introduce someone before he or she speaks; more often they will be ceremo- nial, such as when, you. are presenting or receiving an award, giving.a toast, or giving a short speech of thanks or congratulations. Throughout the discussion of informa- tive, persuasive, and special occasion speaking, keep in mind the five communication principles for leadership.

13.1: Informing Others 13.1 Describe some of the strategies to enhance the

effectiveness of a persuasive message.

Think of the best teacher you ever had. He or she was probably a great lecturer with a special talent for making

information clear, interesting, and memorable. As a leas you no doubt will be called on in your professional life present information to others. To inform is to share in mation with others to enhance their knowledge or unc standing of the information, concepts, or ideas present When you inform someone, you assume the role c teacher by defining, illustrating, clarifying, or elaborai on a topic. In a professional context, briefs, reports, tures, and training presentations are typical formats informing others.

Skilled leaders are also expected to be skilled edt tors. However, speaking to inform others can b challenging task. The information you communicate someone else is rarely, if,ever, understood exactly as intend it: Simply _presenting information does not m that communication has occurred. Communication h pens when listeners make sense of the information t receive. What do effective leaders/educators do to a municate information to others? They simplify so lister understand the message, pace the information to av information overload, directly address the needs and pi lems of their listeners, and "reinforce their messages r verbally or visually.

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Sometimes You need to Inform and Sometimes You need to Persuade Knowing whether your audience expects you to inform or suade is. important. For example, Roman Stanek, CE( GoodData, doesn't like it when people just bring him infoi tion. He wants to know what the pieces of information m he is looking for the "So what?" of what ha hears. Stanek wants to be persuaded, not just informed: "A manager is r messenger. I don't like my managers essentially talking to people without being able to express their opinion and pos what they're discussing:'3

Of course, not everyone wants a persuasive mes:

from you. It's important to know your audience, even if it'

audience of one (especially if that single audience memb your boss) to determine whether you are expected to prc that audience with information or to also take a position or information that you share, in order to persuade.

Whether informing or persuading, be aware that s audiences don't like or have time to process long messa Stanek, for example, candidly admits, "People know that I long a-mails and that all of the a-mails they send me, w few exceptions, should always be short enough to fit or screen of my_ iPhone. If you send me an e-mail, and I nee scroll down to read it all, you've lost me."

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Again, not all of the people you communicate with will like bite-size messages; some will want more detail. What's impor- tant is to remember that some people have very specific expectations about. the messages they receive. As we've said throughout this book, assess your audience to determine the goal of your message as well as the best format for communk cating it.

USE SIMPLE IDEAS Mark Twain told a story about a Missouri farmer who ran for the state legislature five times but lost each election. He didn't lose because he didn't practice his campaign speeches; he gave his speeches to his cows each morning. The problem was, according to Twain, that he used "high-falutin"' words when he should have used shorter terms. He described his audience as "my enlightened constituents" and suggested he was trying to "obtain a mandate" for his "legislative mission." During one of his morning rehearsals, one of his cows knocked out his front teeth in such a way that the farmer could only use one-syllable words. The result: He won every election in his career from that day on.4

When you inform others, your job is to get your ideas across to your audience, not to see how much information you can cram in. The simpler your ideas and phrases, the greater the chance that your audience will remember them. We don't mean you should. talk down to your audience. Listeners can sense a speaker's superior know-it-all atti- tude, and they won't like it. Simplify your message, but don't be condescending.

PACE INFORMATION FLOW Organize your talk so that you present an even stream of information, rather than bunch up a number of significant details around one point. If you present too much new information too quickly, you may overwhelm your audience, and your listeners' ability to understand may falter.

USE ADULT LEARNING STRATEGIES If your audience consists of adult listeners, you will need to ensure that you deliver your message in the way that adults learn best. Adult learners prefer .-5

• To be given information they can use immediately

• To be actively involved in the learning process

• To connect their life experiences with the new informa- tion they learn

• To know how the new information is relevant to their busy lives

• To know how the information will solve a problem

• To receive information that is relevant to their needs

Most people who work in business have in-baskets on their desks to hold work that must be done. Similarly, each of us has a kind of mental in-basket: an agenda of what we

want or need from a presentation. Remember the chara, teristics of adult learners and the importance of adaptin your message to others. You will hold your audience interest, and also have more success in informing them, you tailor your information to address what is in yoi audience's literal or metaphorical in basket.

REINFORCE IDEAS NONVERBALLY Gestures serve tl purpose of accenting or emphasizing key phrases, as itali do in written communication..A well-placed pause cE emphasize or reinforce a point. Raising or lowering yoi voice can also reinforce a key idea. Movement can he emphasize major ideas. Moving from behind the lectern tell a personal anecdote can signal that something sped and more intimate is about to .be said. Finally, photo images, charts, and other visual information may be jL what your listeners need to better understand your k ideas, rather than you piling on more words.

13.1.1: Presenting Briefings Abriefing ( or a brief), as you might guess from the name. a short talk that provides information to an audience. briefing can focus on what has happened in the past, wl is currently happening on a given project or topic, or wl may happen in the future. The military, public saf( organizations (police departments, security departmen medical organizations, and other organizations that nE clear, short summaries of information almost exclusiv, rely on briefings to ensure the exchange of information

Briefings are short (from 5 to 15 minutes), so they ty cally don't have an extended or formal introduction. should still be mindful of catching your listeners' attenti but not with a lengthy story or illustration. Just get to yl points after a very short overview. Listeners expect a b: to be quick.

Because several briefs are often presented one a: another, the first brief may provide a longer introdutitioi introduce the briefings that will follow. For examplE you're giving a briefing about the income-and-loss st ment for the past quarter and you're part of a four-per team, each of whom is sharing information, provide a sl overview of your message, present your key ideas, sum rize them, link to what the next person will say, and sit do

The organizational pattern for briefings is usually t cal or chronological. It's still appropriate to use transi phases and signposts .('7 have three points to make. First:. but the transitional phrases are shorter and less pronour than in a more extended informative presentation.

Some briefings can be quite formal, and listeners i expect a no-nonsense delivery style with little use of hu and lots of information.. In other organizational cults however, a briefing is expected to be informal and ca: It's important to be aware of your audience as you n decisions on how to customize your briefing content.

13.1.2: Presenting Reports A report is a summary of what has been accomplished in the past or an update on a project. In contrast to a briefing, a report is often a longer, more detailed summary of a past, present, or future event. For example, a briefing could pro- vide a summary of reactions to the new employee-training program; a report on the same topic could include infor- mation about the rationale for the new training, a sum- mary of the training content, and a review of methods of assessing the training. Briefs are brief; reports are longer. Some organizations, however, use the terms report and briefing interchangeably. You may be asked to report on how to increase sales in the next quarter or to present-the findings of a market survey your division has conducted in the past several months. Whatever the specific objective of the report, the general purpose is to communicate infor- mation or policy; some reports include a persuasive appeal to try some new course of action. Consider the following when preparing a report:

• ADAPT TO YOUR AUDIENCE. When you are pre- senting your report, keep in mind that your audience is there to hear you address a particular need or prob- lem. Begin by briefly acknowledging.that situation..

• PRESENT CONCLUSIONS, THEN EXPLAIN HOW YOU REACHED THEM.. If you are reporting on a particular project or study, first discuss what your research group decided to do to explore the problem. Then explain how you gathered the information.

• END A REPORT WITH SOLUTIONS OR IDENTIFY WHAT HAPPENS NEXT. Most listeners want to know what the bottom line is. The most important part of some reports is a summary of new courses of action or changes in present policy. When your report proposes changes, tell your audience what's in it for them— what benefits will accrue to them directly as a result of the new proposal. One business consultant suggests this report technique:

'rune your audience into radio station WIIFM—What's In It For Me: Tell your listeners where the benefits are for them, and they'll listen to everything you have to say.6

In addition to listening to a report, audience members usually expect to receive a hard copy or email version of the report, or at least a summary of the report's key conclusions.

13.1.3: Presenting Public Relations Presentations In a public relations presentation, the speaker is specifically providing information to promote a positive public image for the person or organization the speaker is represerlting.. People who work for professional associations, hospitals,

utility companies, government agencies, universities, reli- gious organizations, or charitable institutions, as well as those employed by commercial enterprises, are often called on to speak to an audience about what their organi- zation does or about a special project the'organization has taken on. Although the purpose of many public relations (PR) speeches is to present information, there is often a persuasive edge to public relations messages, too. The speaker may be trying to maintain a positive general impression of the organization, or, because a particular program or situation has raised some questions or concerns, to convince listeners of the positive features of the organization.

Here are some suggestions for developing PR presentations:

• NOTE HOW THE COMPANY, ORGANIZATION, OR POLICY HAS SIGNIFICANT BENEFITS FOR THE LISTENER. Often a PR speech describes the virtues of the policy or program the. speaker is promoting.

• IF A SPECIFIC PROBLEM OR ISSUE HAS PROMPTED THE SPEECH, IDENTIFY AND ACKNOWLEDGE THE. CONCERNS. Then go on to explain how the company or organization can meet the need, solve the problem, or why there really is no problem.

• ANTICIPATE CRITICISM AND OBJECTIONS. Especially if the primary purpose of your speech is to change opinions or address a controversial issue, be sure to acknowledge the listeners' points of view. Then, counter potential problems or objections with your explanation of how the company or organization has carefully worked through potential pitfalls and drawbacks. Demonstrate that what may look like a problem actually can easily be addressed.

13.1.4: Presenting Training Sessions Business and professional organizations invest billions of dollars each year in training their employees .7 Training is a special type of informative speaking through which the trainer seeks to develop specific skills in listeners to help them perform a specific job or task more effectively.s Many organizations have extensive training departments whose function is to orient new employees to the organization and teach specific job skills, including communication skills. The goal of a training session is for listeners not only to be. able to recall information but also to perform specific tasks. Compared to traditional classroom education, train- ing focuses more on behavioral learning, whereas educa- tion emphasizes the cognitive. domain. Broadly speaking, training emphasizes doing, and education emphasizes knowing. Since the goal of training is to implement behav- ior change, training presentations also seek to persuade or

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motivate listeners to perform the skill or task being taught r as well as to provide them with information.

. Presenting training is similar. to any presentation; it's essential to focus on the needs, interests, and backgrounds of your listeners. Training that does not address a trainee's needs or specific job functions is not effective training. Because the primary purpose of any training program is to respond to the learning needs of the trainee, Figure 13.1 presents a needs-centered model.

Figure 13.1: A Needs-Centered Training Model

. Drawing on adult learning theory, a trainer should view himself or herself less as a lecturer and more as a facilitator. Adult learners bring their own experiences to the training session; they want to focus on real problems that are in their literal or metaphorical in-baskets or on their to do lists. A trainer follows the steps in Figure 13.1 in order to draw on those experiences. and equip trainees to address problems.

ANALYZE ORGANIZATIONAL AND TRAINEE NEEDS. You may notice that Figure 13.1 closely resembles the audi- ence-centered model of presentations that we introduced in Chapter 11. At the center of the model in Figure 13.1--m- and the first and crucial ongoing step in any training=is the process of identifying the needs of the organization and those of the specific trainees who will attend the. train- ing session: the audience. Every other aspect of designing and delivering a training presentation depends on the needs of the trainees.

The process of identifying trainee needs is quite simi- lar to analyzing your audience when delivering a

presentation. For example, many trainers determine their audience's needs by asking them—using surveys, ques= tionnaires, or interviews—what they need. In addition to analyzing the. needs of individuals, it's also important to consider the needs of the organization. What does it need employees or volunteers to do?

ANALYZE THE TRAINING TASK Viewing the model in Figure 13.1 as a clock, begin at the top and work your way .around clockwise to explore the steps of designing and delivering a training presentation. After you've figured out what trainees need (for example, skill in listening or conflict management), an early critical step in designing a training program is to thoroughly analyze the specific task you want the trainees to perform. You conduct a task analysis. A task analysis is a detailed, step-by-step descrip- tion of precisely what a trainee should do and know in order to perform a particular skill. As the trainer, if you are going to teach someone how to prepare and deliver a sales presentation, you first need to know what the steps in that process are before you teach them to others. Most likely, you will have only limited time to teach a skill, so you may have to focus only on the most critical steps. A task analysis lets you discover what the essential ele- ments of a task are. (Our needs-centered training model is itself a simplified task analysis of how to train someone. Each piece of the model represents an essential step in the process.)

DEVELOP TRAINING OBJECTIVES After you have fig- ured out the steps in teaching a particular skill, it's impor- tant to develop objectives or learning outcomes that you want your trainees to achieve. It's important to specify the precise behavior you want trainees to perform at the end of the training. We begin each chapter in this book with a list of learning objectives. Reviewing those objectives will give you an idea of the format and style for training objectives. Training objectives are also similar to the specific purpose statement for a presentation, discussed in Chapter 11. Training objectives specify what you want trainees to be able to do following the training presentation.

ORGANIZE TRAINING CONTENT Once you have your. precise training objectives in hand, you can begin drafting the information that trainees need to know and describing in more detail the behaviors that they will be expected to perform.. The most typical organizational patterns for training content include (1) chronological (a .step-by-step sequence of what someone does first, second, and so on), (2) by complexity (from simplest or easiest to learn to more complex or more detailed information), and (3) topical (identifying the natural divisions in a topic).

DETERMINE TRAINING METHODS To train someone, you don't just talk to them. Adult learners are not inter- ested in hearing a three- or four-hour lecture; that's not

good training. So you'll need to develop effective methods of presenting information to your trainees. You may decide that, rather than presenting a lecture, it would -be better to have trainees participate in role-playing situations, discuss a case study, or brainstorm solutions to a problem that you pose. A typical training session may involve a mix of meth- ods, including the following.

Training Session Methods

A trainer's job is to facilitate rather than to lecture. Demonstrating a skill and then having trainees practice performing it is much more effective than merely describing the skill.

SELECT TRAINING RESOURCES Perhaps you've dis- covered an excellent video that masterfully illustrates the skill you want to teach in the training session. Or, maybe you've decided to use a small-group method and you want trainees to respond to discussion questions. Whether it's a video, a list of discussion questions, PowerPoint presenta- tion slides, or some other type of resource, you'll need to decide what materials you'll need to prepare for the train- ing presentation.

COMPLETE TRAINING PLANS After you've developed your objectives and settled on the content of the training, . the methods you will use to present your message, and the resources you need, it is important to develop a compre- hensive written plan that describes how you will present your session: a training plan (sometimes called a lessor. plait in educational settings). There are many different formats.

Some training plans are simply detailed outlines of ttie training content and methods. Other plans offer a complete narrative transcript of the training lesson. Most training plans include a description of the objectives, methods, training content, and training resources needed, along with an estimate of how much time each part of the training will take.

DELIVER TRAINING After developing a well-crafted plan, you are now ready to, bring the training presenta- tion to life. You deliver your training not only by present- ing lectures, videos, and activities but also by asking good questions to facilitate class discussion. An effective training presentation.should be much more interactive than a speech, although the elements of effective speech delivery (such as eye contact, good posture, effective ges- tures, and varied vocal inflection) are essential when training others.

ASSESS THE TRAINING PROCESS When the training session is over, a trainer's job is not- complete. Effective trainers evaluate how their training was received (Did trainees like it?) and even more important, whether train- ees learned what they needed W. The ultimate test of a training session is whether trainees 'can'use the new skills on the job. Did the training make a difference?

Each piece of the needs-centered model of training reflects an essential element of what a trainer. does. Train- ers first and foremost focus on the needs of learriers and then carefully develop a training program that meets those needs. Training others well involves more than just talking to them.. Effective training develops a specific skill by hav- ing trainees practice and receive feedback to master the skills being taught:

#Technology and Communication @ Work Communicating via the Web Contemporary technology is making it easier to share mes- sages with others who are separated in space and time. Here are a few of the technology-based methods of connecting with an audience that you are likely to use an alternative to face-to- face business presentation8:9

op Web. 2.0. Web 2.0 is a general term that describes the second generation of presenting and gathering infor- mation on the Internet. Web 1.0, the first generation of: Internet technology, was "read-focused": The pri- mary function was to present messages that were only designed to be read by someone. Web. 2.0 is a "read- write" technology. In addition to sharing information, the receiver of the message can easily respond by writing back to the message sender. Facebook is an example

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of a read-write Web 2.0 technology that permits com- municators to interact with one another with seamless ease, including sharing photos, videos, web links, and instant-messaging capabilities.

Wikis. Wikis are collaborative web-based sites that permit many people to 'share information with one another. The distinctive feature of wikis is the open-editing function that permits all users to develop a resource collabora- tively. Well-known sites, such as the encyclopedia Wike- pedia, the travel guide Wiki Travel, and the how-to manuals WikiHow, are places on the web where you not only can share information with others but also can con- tribute to the information presented. Of course, when retrieving information from a Wiki source, consider the source. Although evidence indicates that the self.-policing of the content helps keep the information current and accurate, there is always the potential for misinformation to be posted on a wiki site.

Internet Video. If you've used Skype, FaceTiime, or a host of other Internet video software programs and apps, you know how easy it is to hold a video conversation with someone who is miles or continents away from you. The software or apps you need are often free, and the video cameras and microphones required for video con- versations come built-in to most computers and all smart phones.

Podcast. A podcast is a radio broadcast that uses the technology of an iPod through iTunes to share a mes- sage with others. Originally, podcasts were audio mes- sages, but through vodcasts it's now relatively easy to share video .and audio messages. You don't need to travel to India, China, or even San Francisco; you can present your report to your superiors with a podcast or vocicast.

Regardless of the technology used to solve problems and share information, it's people that make communication possible, an important point to keep in mind in all your work- place interactions. Malcolm Gladwell, in noting the impor- tance of the human element in communicating with others, said this:

Technology does not and cannot change the underlying dynam- ics of "human" problems; it doesn't make it easier to love or mo- tivate or dream or convince.10

13.2: Persuading Others 13.2 Describe how developing leadership skills are

important to developing persuasion skills.

Peruse the management and leadership section of Amazon or any brick-and-mortar bookstore, and you'll find books about how to influence others. The best-selling business management book of all time is Dale Carnegie's classic How to Win Friends and Influence People. At the heart of influen- t - -=L~-~ — 1—inv able to persuade them. To persuade

someone is to change or reinforce the person's attitudes (likes and dislikes), beliefs (what is perceived to be true or false), values (what is considered good or bad), or behavior. As we discuss later in this chapter, sales presentation is a type of persuasive presentation you'll commonly encounter in a professional setting.

Informative and persuasive speaking are related pro- cesses. When you interview for a job, you're doing more than simply presenting information about yourself; you're making a persuasive presentation on why the organization should hire you. .A key difference is that in a persuasive presentation, you want the listener to do more than merely remember what you say; you want to change or reinforce what the listener likes, believes, values, or does.

We've noted that to lead is to influence, so being able to persuade others is a vital leadership skill. Think of any . great leader, in business or politics, past or present, and undoubtedly you'll be thinking of someone who possessed effective persuasion skills. Not all leaders use the same persuasive methods. Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Mahatma Gandhi led through promoting nonviolent means of achieving their goals. In leading the United States out of the Depression and through World War II, Franklin Roosevelt used his skill as a communicator as well as his behind-the-scenes power and influence to achieve his goals. Warren Buffett and Jeff Bezos are exam- ples of business leaders who are sometimes controversial but also inspire and motivate others.

To develop strong leadership and persuasive, skills, you need first to understand principles of persuasion and then learn specific strategies. for persuading others.

13.2.1: Principles of Persuasion. How does persuasion work? What motivates people to do, things that they wouldn't do unless they are persuaded to do them? Let's look at four possible explanations.

PEOPLE RESPOND TO RESOLVE DISSONANCE When you are confronted with information that is inconsistent with your. current thinking or feelings, you experience a kind of psychological discomfort called cognitive disso- nance. You.can be persuaded by being convinced that you have a problem and then pointed in a direction that. will solve your problem. For example, if you have ever driven an automobile after consuming a drink or two, then seen a public service announcement from Mothers Against Drunk Driving documenting how even two drinks can contribute to serious traffic accidents, you've likely experienced cog- nitive dissonance. The incompatibility of your behavior and your knowledge is likely to make you feel uncomfort- able. And your discomfort may prompt you to change your thoughts, likes or dislikes, feelings, or behavior so that you can restore your comfort level or sense of balance—in this case, by not driving after drinking.

Skilled persuasive speakers know that creating disso- nance and then offering their listeners a way to restore bal- ance is an effective persuasive strategy.

Gb nrnunicaticn Ethics C6 Work Is Manufacturing Dissonance Ethical? Advertisers on TV, the Internet, and billboards frequently use the principle of cognitive dissonance to entice you to buy their products. They try to make you feel inferior, unglamor-. ous, or unpopular if you don't use their product. Is it ethical to

"manufacture" problems or dissonance to get you to buy

something or do something? Is it appropriate and ethical to make listeners feel harm will come to them by trying to con-

vince them they have problems of which they may not be aware?

PROMPT

Research also documents that fear appeals are effective in motivating people to take action. But is it ethical to create fear and panic by arousing listener's emotions by threaten- ing them.

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

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Maslow's Five Levels

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Although research does not completely support the notion that humans have a fixed hierarchy of needs (as Maslow originally thought), the theory does serve as a use- ful. way of classifying basic human needs. Figure 13.2 i11us- trates Maslow's five levels of needs; with the most basic at the bottom.

Figure 13.2: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization needs

Self-esteem needs

Safety needs

PEOPLE RESPOND TO MEET NEEDS Besides creating cognitive dissonance, effective persuaders attempt to iden- tify your needs and then convince you that they can meet those needs. For example, executives of a manufacturing company may observe people moving out of your town in search of jobs elsewhere. The manufacturing company's executives can see the town's need for jobs and can craft a message explaining to the town council how the company will meet the need by expanding its factory and persuad- ing the council members to offer tax incentives for the fac- tory expansion. As a speaker, the better you understand what your listeners need, the better you can adapt to them and the greater the chances that you can persuade them to change an attitude, belief, or value or get them to take some action.

Abraham Maslow developed the classic theory that outlines basic human needs.11 If you've taken a psychol- ogy course, you have undoubtedly encountered this theory, which has important applications to persuasion. Maslow suggests that all human behavior is motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

Physiologieal needs

One practical application is to do everything in your power to ensure that your audience's physiological needs are met. For example, if your listeners are sweating and fan- ning themselves, they are unlikely to be very interested in listening to your sales presentation. If you can tarn on air conditioning or fans, you will have a greater chance of suc- cessfully making a sale. Another way in which you can apply the need hierarchy is to appeal to an audience's higher-order needs. The U.S. Army once used the recruiting slogan "Be all that you can be" to tap into the need. for self- actualization, or achievement of one's highest potential.

PEOPLE RESPOND TO FEAR MESSAGES Fear works. One of the oldest ways to convince -people to change their minds or their behavior is by scaring them into compliance. The appeal to fear often takes the form of an if-then statement: If

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you don't do X, then awful things will happen to you. "If ypu don't buy this insurance policy, then your loved ones may not be able to pay the mortgage and they may be homeless." '7f you don't wear a seat belt, then you are more likely to die in an automobile accident." '7f you don't support the develop- ment of a new hospital inour, community, lives could be lost if we have to travel to the next county for medical attention." A variety of research studies support the following principles regarding the use of fear as a motivator. 12

• A strong threat to a family member or someone whom members of the audience care about will often be more successful than a fear appeal.directed at the audience members themselves-.-

The more respected the speaker, the greater the likeli- hood that the appeal to fear will work.

Fear appeals are more successful if you convince your audience that .the threat is real and will affect them unless they take action.

PEOPLE RESPOND TO'POSITIVE MESSAGES ATV com-

of our strategies of message organization and discuss how to adapt ideas to people and people to ideas.

EFFECTIVELY ESTABLISH YOUR CREDIBILITY If you were going to buy a new computer, to whom would you turn for advice? Perhaps you would consult your brother, the computer geek, or your roommate, the computer sci- ence major. Or you might seek advice from Consumer Reports, the monthly publication of studies of various consumer products. In other words, you would turn to a source you consider knowledgeable, competent, and trustworthy—a source you think is credible.

Credibility is a listener's perception of a speaker's compe- tence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. Remember that your listeners, not you, determine whether you have credibility. It's important to be perceived as credible when presenting any message, but especially critical when trying to persuade someone. The more credibility you have, the more likely it is that your listeners will believe you; trust you, and like you.

How do you establish your, credibility? It's a centuries old question. Aristotle thought public speakers should be ethical, possess good character, display common sense, and be concerned for the well-being of their audience. Quintilian, a. Roman teacher of public speaking, agreed, advising that a speaker should be "a good person speaking well." Modern research has generally supported these ancient speculations about the elements that enhance a speaker's credibility.

. Credibility is not a single factor but consists of multiple elements. Your goal is to be perceived as highly credible on each element of credibility when you speak. Ideally, you should be perceived as competent, trustworthy, and dynamic.

Competence is the perception that a person is skilled, knowledgeable, and informed about the subject he or she is discussing. You will be more persuasive if you can convince your listeners you know something about your topic. How? You can use verbal messages effectively by talking about relevant personal experi- ence with the topic. If you have lived in a high-rise condominium, you'll have more credibility as a high- rise condo salesperson than someone who has only lived in a ranch-style house. You can also cite evi- dence to support your ideas. Even if you have not lived in a high-rise condo yourself, you can be pre= pared with information .about the advantages of apartment living.

Trustworthiness is a second element of credibility.' While delivering a speech, you need to convey honesty and sincerity to your audience. You can't do this simply by saying "Trust me." You have to earn trust. You can do so by demonstrating that you are interested in and experi- enced with your topic. Again, speaking from personal experience makes you seem a more trustworthy speaker. Conversely, having something to gain by persuading your audience may make you suspect in their eyes.

mercial for a "big box" department store pledges, "For every dollar you spend in our store, we will return 5 percent to the public schools in your community; your students will have new computers to help them learn." A candidate for chair of

J the board of directors asserts, '7f you support me for board

f ` chair, I can assure you our stock price and sales will increase." We've all encountered these kinds of positive appeals. Pohti- cians, salespeople, and most successful business and profes- sional persuaders know that one way to change or reinforce your attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior is to use a positive motivational appeal. Positive motivational appeals are ver- bal messages promising that good. things will happen if the speaker's advice is followed. The key to using positive moti- vational appeals is to know what your listeners value. Most people value-a comfortable, prosperous life; stimulating, exciting activity; a sense of accomplishment; world peace; and overall happiness and contentment. In a persuasive

r speech, you can motivate your listeners to respond to your F message by describing what positive things will happen to

them if they follow your advice. ~6

13.2.2: Strategies for Persuading Greek philosopher and scholar Aristotle said that rhetoric is the process of discovering the available means of persua-

1 sion.13 What are those available means? Aristotle singled out three primary strategies: (1) emphasize the credibility

i; or ethical character of a speaker, which he called ethos; (2) use logical arguments,,or logos; and (3) use emotional appeals, or pathos, to move an audience. The following strategies for developing your credibility as a speaker, and using logic, evidence, and emotion to persuade and moti- vate listeners are based on Aristotle's three strategies and bolstered by contemporary research. We'll also revisit some

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That's why salespersons and politicians often lack_cred- ibility. If you do what they say, they will clearly benefit from their sales commissions or political influence.

Dynamism, or energy, is the third element of credibility. Dynamism is often.projected through delivery. Apply- ing the communication principle of effectively using and understanding nonverbal messages, a speaker who maintains eye contact, has enthusiastic vocal inflection, and moves and gestures purposefully is likely to be seen as dynamic. Charisma is a form of dynamism. A charismatic speaker possesses charm, talent, magnet- ism, and other qualities that make the person attractive and energetic. Former General Electric CEO Jack Welch, well-known talk-show host Oprah Winfrey, and moti- vational speaker Anthony Robbins are considered to be charismatic speakers by many people.

The credibility of a speaker, such as well-known soccer star David Beckham—here launching "Four Codes of Football" for Adidas increases the chances that listeners will be persuaded or motivated to do or buy something or to change a behavior.. .

EFFECTIVELY AND ETHICALLY USE EVIDENCE AND

REASONING In addition to being considered a credible. speaker, you will gain influence with your audience if you can effectively use logically structured. arguments

supported with evidence. The goal is to provide logical proof for your arguments. Proof corisists.of both evidence and the conclusions you draw from it; evidence is the illus- trations, definitions, statistics, and opinions that are your supporting material. Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from your evidence. There are three major ways to draw logical conclusions: inductively, deductively, and causally.

Reasoning that arrives at a general conclusion from specific instances or examples is` known as inductive reason- ing. You reason inductively when, you claim that a conclu- Sion is probably true because of specific evidence. For example, if.you were giving a sales pitch to convince your customer. that Hondas .are ' reliable cars, you might use inductive reasoning to make your point. You have a 2006 Honda Civic that has 140,000 miles on it and has required little repair other than routine -maintenance. Your brother has a Honda Accord and has driven it twice as long as any other car he has ever owned. Your friend just returned . from a 3,000-mile road trip in her Honda Odyssey mini-. van, which performed beautifully. Based on these specific . examples, you ask your listener to agree with your general conclusion: Hondas are reliable cars.

Reasoning by analogy is a special type of inductive rea- soning: An analogy demonstrates how an unfamiliar idea, thing, or situation is similar to something the audience already understands. Analogy is. not only a type, of sup- porting material; it can also be used to, reason inductively. For example, you -might reason, "Even though we're a small business, we should start a retirement..plan for our company. If we don't, we could lose our top employees. Our top competitor started a new 401(K). retirement 'plan" for her employees and she's had much less employee turn- over." The key to reasoning by analogy is to make sure that the two things you are comparing (your company and your competitor's company) are similar so that your argu- ment is a sound one.

Reasoning from a general statement or principle to reach a specific 'conclusion is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning can be structured as a syllogism, a three-part argument that has :a major premise; a minor . premise, and a conclusion. In attempting to convince the marketing department at a car dealership to advertise on television, you might offer this syllogism:

MAJOR PREMISE: All of the top-selling automobile deal- ers in our county advertise on television.

MINOR PREMISE: Your automobile dealership is in this county.

CONCLUSION: Your automobile dealership should adver- tise on television.

If you use deductive reasoning correctly, your conclu- sion is certain, rather than probable_ as it is with inductive

• reasoning. To make sure your conclusion is certain, your

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major and minor premises must both be true. If you can prove that all top-selling auto dealers advertise on TV, and if it is true that those that advertise sell more cars; then your conclusion will be sound.

You use causal reasoning when you relate two or more events in such a way as to'conclude that one or more of the events caused the others. For example, you might argue that public inoculation programs during the twentieth cen- tury eradicated smallpox.

As noted when we discussed cause and effect as a per- suasive organizational strategy, there. are two ways to structure a causal argument. One is by reasoning from cause to effect, predicting a result from a known fact. You know that you have had an inch of rain over the last few days, so you predict that the aquifer level will rise. The inch of rain is the cause; the rising aquifer is the effect. The other way to structure an argument is by reasoning from a known effect to the cause. National Transportation Safety Board accident investigators reason from effect to cause when they reconstruct airplane wreckage to find clues to the cause of an air disaster.

Recap Inductive, Deductive, and Causal Reasoning

Inductive specific a general probable Dell and IBM examples conclusion computers are

all reliable,

Therefore, PCs

are reliable.

Deductive a general a specific certain All financial statement conclusion officers at this

company have

advanced

degrees. Tom

Bryson is the

chief financial

officer at this

company.

Therefore,

Tom Bryson

has an

advanced

degree,

Causal something a spec- likely The number of known ulation about people with

causes or undergraduate

effects of degrees has

what Is risen steadily

known since 1960.

This Increasing

number has

caused a glut

in the job

market for

people with

degrees.

Trying to establish a causal link where none exists is one type of logical fallacy. Unfortunately, not all people who try to persuade you will use sound evidence and rea- soning. Some will try to.develop arguments in ways that are irrelevant or inappropriate. To be a better informed lis- tener, as well as a more ethical persuasive speaker, you should be aware of the common logical fallacies described in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: Reasoning Fallacies

Fa—llacy-- — — i---- --

I Explan--- ati--on— r (Ex--ample -

Causal Fallacy There is no logical or causal

If we annex the new

An inappropriate or connection between the annexation of a subdivision

subdivision into our city, then we are likely to have more

inaccurate cause-and-effecl and Ilia days of sunshine. days of sunshine. j connection between two

i things or events.

Everybody knows this product i Bandwagon Fallacy Saying 'everybody knaW is

• a fallocious attempt to is defective. The argument that because everyone believes something

suggest that because everyone agrees. others

i or does something, the belief should "lump on the

or behavior must be valid, bandwagon' and also agree.

accurate, or effective-

Because of the overcrowding Either-Or Fallacy There are more than two j options lorsolving the at our schools, ether we pass

The oversimplification of an problem For example, less the school bond to build new i issue into a choice between expansive portable schools or we'll have.to bus I only two outcomes or classrooms can be purchased our students to another

possibilities. without a bond election. school district I

J

Because I didn't receive the i Hasty Generalization One example does not

' provide enough evidence to correct change when I made Reaching a conclusion from reach o sweeping general my purchase at Mega-Low too little evidence or conclusion that klega-Low Mart, this is evidence that nonexistent evidence. Mad is trying to cheat Mega-Low Mart is trying to

customers. It could simply cheat their customers.

have been an isolated error.: , J

f Personal

Attack The idea may be a sound Janice's idea that we ' one. Simply attacking the decrease property taxes is a I Attacking the personal person without critiquing the crazy idea because Janice I characteristics of someone idea proposed does not never had a good idea in her i connected with an idea. address the proposal itself. life.

rather than addressing the

I idea itself.

— - - —

A member of Congress who Red Herring The representative is trying to

- use the colleague's is attacked for inappropriately Using irrelevant facts or arguments to distract the

indiscretion to distract questioners from the issue of

using funds responds by talking about the sexual

listener from Ilia issue antler funds misuse, rather then indiscretion of a colleague. discussion. address it directly_ r ,

Because superstar Bart Appeal to Misplaced Simply because a well-known i Authority athlete endorses a breakfast McCoy likes Ns breakfast

cereal does net prove the cereal, you hell like it loo.

i Using someone without the cereal is good, healthy, or

appropriate credentials or tasty.

expertise to endorse an ides

' or product. I

r , ~

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USE EMOTION EFFECTIVELY AND ETHICALLY TO PER- SUADE People often make decisions based not on logic, but on emotion.14 Advertisers know this. Think of the soft- drink commercials you see on television. There is little rational reason that people should spend any part of their food budget on soft drinks; they are "empty calories." So soft-drink advertisers turn instead to emotional appeals, striving to connect their product with feelings of pleasure.

One way to make an emotional appeal is with emotion-arousing verbal messages. Words with positive

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connotations (such as mother, flag, and freedom) and those with negative connotations (such as slavery, the Holocaust, and terrorism) trigger emotional responses in listeners. Patriotic slogans, such as "Remember 9/11" and "Give me liberty, or give me death," are examples -of phrases that have successfully aroused emotions in their listeners. McDonald's "I'm lovin' it" and Nike's "just do it" are short phrases that appeal to positive feelings and the satisfaction of accomplishment.

Speakers can use nonverbal messages to effectively appeal to an audience's emotions.

. Another way to appeal to emotions is through con- crete illustrations and descriptions. Although illustrations and descriptions are themselves types of evidence or sup- porting material, their impact is often emotional. Research has found that telling an interesting story with an emo- tional punch is a very useful persuasive strategy.15 When trying to convince her listeners to purchase high-quality child safety seats, a speaker used this example to evoke an emotional response in support of her goal:

Michelle Hutchinson carefully placed her three-year-old daughter into her child safety seat. She was certain that Dana was secure. Within minutes Michelle was involved in a minor accident and the seat belt that was never designed to hold a child safety seat allowed the seat to lunge forward, crushing the three-year-old's skull on the dash. Dana died three days later. 16

Effective use of nonverbal messages can also appeal to an audience's emotions. Smiling people, upbeat music, and good times are usually part of the formula for selling soda pop. As a speaker, you can use visual aids to evoke both positive and negative emotions. A photograph of a dirty, ragged child alone in a big city can evoke sadness and pain. A video clip of an airplane crash can arouse fear and horror. A picture of a smiling baby makes most of us smile, too.

When you use emotional appeals, you do have an obli- gation to be ethical and forthright. Making false claims, misusing evidence or images, or relying exclusively on emotion without any evidence or reasoning would violate standards of ethical public speaking.

ORGANIZE YOUR PERSUASIVE MESSAGE EFFEC- TIVELY Besides knowing how. to motivate listeners, an effective persuader knows how, to structure a persuasive message for maximum effect. Most persuasive speeches are organized according to one of four strategies: problem and solution, cause and effect, refutation, and the motivated sequence—a special variation of the problem-solution format that lends itself well to sales presentations.

Problem-and-solution organization is the. most basic organizational pattern for a persuasive speech. The problem-and-solution strategy works best when a problem can be clearly documented and a solution or solutions proposed to deal with the problem. When describing the problem, your goal is to create dissonance or to identify an unmet need.

When you use problem=and-solution organization, apply the principle of appropriately adapting messages to others. If you are.speaking to an apathetic audience or one that is not even aware that a problem exists, you can emphasize the problem portion of the speech. Your fellow members of the Chamber of Commerce, for example, who don't see how a new shopping mall in a nearby commu- nity will affect retail sales in your downtown area, may need to be jolted from apathy: You can point out that" the presence of malls has resulted in drastically declining retail sales in other communities. If your audience is already aware of the problem, you can emphasize your proposed solution or solutions (perhaps to try to stop the mall from being built or to aggressively promote your community as the best destination for shopping). In either case, your challenge will be to provide ample evidence that your perception of the problem is accurate and rea- sonable. For example, you would need to find statistics that document how a mall can lower sales. You'll also need to convince your listeners that the solution or solu- tions you advocate are the most appropriate ones to solve the problem. Again, evidence in the form of statistics. or examples is needed.

Consider another example of using the .problem- solution structure. The president of a Chamber of Com- merce is trying to convince the local school board to address the public perception that the school district is inferior compared to nearby school districts. The commu- nity is not attracting new businesses because.of percep- tions of academic mediocrity. The Chamber of Commerce president analyzes the problem and proposes a solution:

I. PROBLEM: Students in public schools in our com- munity are not learning as well as students in other nearby communities.

A. Our student test scores are down. B. Our teachers are paid less than teachers in

nearby school districts. C. Parents are not volunteering in our schools.

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II. SOLUTION: We should slightly increase property taxes to raise money to finance improvements in our schools.

A. We could hire additional teachers to help im- prove test scores.

B. We could increase, compensation for our best teachers.

C. We could hire a volunteer coordinator to in- crease parent volunteers in our school.

In the cause-and-effect organization pattern, a speaker can either identify a situation and then discuss the result- ing effects (cause-effect) or present a situation and then explore its causes (effect-cause):

Regardless of which variation you choose, you should once again apply the principle of being aware of your communication with yourself and others. Specifically, you must analyze the problem and determine the critical causal link and then convince your listeners that the Link is valid. An effect may have more than one cause. For. example, sales at your company are 10% behind sales fig- ures at this time last year. As sales manager, you are re* sp onsible.for analyzing the issues and presenting your analysis to the company CEO. Here's a Way you could organize your message:

I. CAUSE: The design of our product line is out of date.

A. We have not hired any new engineers in the past five years.

B. Our engineers are using outdated computer equipment.

C. Our engineers are relying on outdated soft- ware. to design our product.

II. EFFECT: Our sales are down.

A. Our customers find our competitor's product more up-to-date.

B. Our customers are replacing the products they have purchased from us with products from our competitor.

C. Our customers have indicated that they do not intend to purchase our product in the future.

When using a cause-and-effect organizational strategy, it's not enough just. to assert your causes and probable effects. You need to provide evidence to provide the link between the causes and effects.

A variation on cause and effect is organizing a presen- tation from effect to cause. For example:

I. EFFECT. Holiday. sales are sluggish. People aren't buying as many gifts as they did in previous years.

II: CAUSE: The recession has decreased customers' purchasing power.

A third way to organize your efforts to persuade an audience is especially useful when you are facing an unre- ceptive audience—one that does not agree with your point of view or your specific proposition. Refittation is an organ- izational strategy by which you identify objections to your proposition and then refute those objections with argu- ments and evidence. It is better to present both sides of an issue rather than just your own position if your audience is skeptical of your position.

It is most effective to organize a persuasive speech by refutation when you know what your listeners' chief objections to your proposition are. In fact, if you do not acknowledge such objections, the audience will proba- bly think about them during your speech anyway. Credible facts and statistics will generally be more effective than emotional arguments in supporting your points of refutation.

.Suppose you represent a large hotel chain that wants to build a new luxury hotel in a southwestern city. The hotel chain has purchased most of the property it needs to start construction; except for one prime piece of property owned by two sisters who have a tamale stand on their property. You have approached the sis- ters, but they don't want to sell. They have agreed to meet with you to hear your final offer, so you'll need to be especially effective in .refuting their concerns. You understand that the price- you're offering is not the rea- son they are balking at selling. Rather, they promised their mother, who passed away last year, that they would always maintain the family business at the same location where their mother started the business. Here's an outline for a presentation to the two sisters based on the refutation organizational strategy:

I. We would like to build a hotel on this property, and we will honor your mother by naming our exclusive rooftop restaurant after her.

II. In addition to purchasing your property, we would like to purchase your mother's recipe for tamales and feature them in our new restaurant.

III. We would like to hire both of you as consultants to the hotel to work in the restaurant and be in charge of quality control of all food served in the hotel.

The presentation to the. sisters consists of major . points offered to directly refute their objections. When you use a refutation strategy, you address the specific concerns and offer solutions to the objections you know you will encounter.

Like refutation, the fourth organizational strategy is unique to persuasive speaking. The motivated sequence, devised by Alan Monroe, is a five-step organizational strat- egy for a persuasive presentation. 17 This simple yet effec- tive strategy integrates the problem-and-solution

organizational method with principles that have been.con- firmed by research and practical experience. The five steps involved are attention, need, satisfaction; visualization, and action.

1. Attention. Your first task, and the first stage in appro- priately adapting your message to others, is to get your audience members' attention. Distracted and multi- tasking listeners are difficult .to persuade.18 Using a rhetorical question, illustration, startling fact or statis- . tic, quotation, humorous story, or reference to historical or recent events are ways of starting a speech to gain favorable attention. The attention step is, in essence, your application of one of these strategies.

Business executive Raymond Kotcher used this attention-catching opener to begin a speech in which his goal was to encourage recent graduates with communication degrees to become involved in the global marketplace:

and privileged society—setting off for college; yes, graduating from college; that first job; committing to that someone special; the first child—the email offers advice, encouragement, warnings about and hope for the future. Don t hit delete just yeW9

2. Need. After getting your audience's attention, establish why your topic, problem, or issue should concern them. Tell your audience about the problem. Adapt your mes- sage to them by convincing them that the problem af- fects them directly. Argue that there is a need for change. During the need step (which corresponds with the prob- lem step in a problem-and-solution speech), you should develop logical arguments backed by evidence. Its dur- ing the need step that you create dissonance or use a credible fear appeal to motivate listeners to respond to your solution.

In trying to convince his audience that the world is changing and that they ought to be contributing to the global conversation, Kotcher points out that in order to be contemporary, they need to be up-to-date on cyber- world applications:

The audience of widely read blogs ... rivals the size of .the audiences of the online-versions of major newspapers. Each day, 200 million Google searches are conducted, and half aren't in the English lan- guage. There are two billion cell phone subscribers in the world today. 20

3. Satisfaction. After you explain and document a need or problem, you identify your plan (or solution) and explain how it will satisfy the need. You need not go into painstaking detail at this point in your talk. Present enough information so that your listeners have a gen- eral understanding of how the problem may be solved., You'll provide the specific action you want them to take later (in the action step). For now, identify in general terms what the solution to the problem.is—satisfy the need you have identified. Here's the satisfaction step in Raymond Kotcher's message:

Relisli the idea of joining the conversation. Today's media 'are participatory: integrating people with people to build community. Gone are the days of command and control. And this new networked world requires a new generation of communication leaders and leadership. Apply what you've learned at [college] and in your life so far. Already, one in five college.-age students has traveled abroad in the past three years: More.than one in three of you speak at least two languages. And your generation truly wants to help build this global community. 21

Visualization. Now you, need to give your audience a sense of what it would be like if your solution were adopted or, conversely, if it were not adopted. Visualiza- tion—using words to create an image in audience mem- bers' minds—applies the principle of effectively using verbal messages. With a positive visualization approach, you paint a rosy picture of how wonderful the future will be if your satisfaction step is implemented. With a negative visualization approach' you paint a bleak picture -of how terrible the future will be if _nothing is done; you use a fear appeal to motivate your listeners to do

A persuasive speaker, such as former U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson, addressing Columbia Business School students, might use an organizational strategy such as the motivated sequence to craft an effective message.

Now, I have a request. I want you graduates to con- sider.what I have to say to you this afternoon not as a commencement address. Rather, think of my remarks—and I'll keep them brief—as an email, written just to you. An email written. to you, an 4• emerging communicator. And as with most personal notes that are written to mark milestones in our great

202 Chapter 13

what you suggest to avoid further problems. In either case, you use word pictures--lively descriptions'that appeal to listeners' senses (sight, taste, smell, sound, and touch). Or you might combine both approaches: The problem will be solved if your solution is adopted, but things will get increasingly worse if it is not. Here's how Kotcher helped his listeners visualize how the world is changing and how some previous college graduates have capitalized on being globally aware and active:

Justin Lane, for instance, a 1995 ... graduate, is the New York bureau chief for the European Pressphoto Agency. He won the Pulitzer in 2002 for breaking news photography for-his freelance contributions to the The New York Times' coverage of the September 11 attacks. A year later, he traveled to Iraq to document cultural loot- ing, the crisis fatting Iraqi women, and the uncovering

Iof mass graves. His photographs from Iraq garnered two gallery shows in New York and appearances in numerous newspapers, magazines, and books.

Then there's Chris McKee, also class of 1995... He made an award-winning documentary that has opened up the little-known world of Mongolian nomads to the rest of the world. And Tyler Hicks, class of 1992, named by American Photo magazine as one of the twenty-five most important photographers, in large part because of his compelling images from war- tom places like Kosovo, Iraq, and Afghanistan. 22

5. Actimi. The action step is your speech's conclusion. You re- m rid your audience of the problem (outlined in the need step), give them the solution (the satisfaction step), remind them of the great things that will happen if they follow your-advice (positive visualization) or the bad things that will happen if they don't (negative visualization). Finally, you tell them what they need to do next (the action step).

To finish his presentation, Raymond Kotcher made this specific recommendation to his listeners:

So, this email. to you is just about finished. Yet I can't close- without giving you some personal ad- vice—about what I have gleaned in my career and life since those impossibly cold mornings walking to class at 640 Comm Ave. Here goes:

■ Engage your curiosity. Be indefatigable in ferret- mg out the answers to questions that will inform a world; assist a client, uncover an injustice, right a wrong.

■ Never forget your integrity and credibility. Develop your voice. You're a skilled communicator. Always strive to improve and develop your communication skills and apply them atop a deep understanding for all that has preceded you. Combine that with your personal experiences and what is important to you. And be willing to listen and to be taught, because learning NEVER ends.

■ Foster your creativity. Oh, how the world, espe- cially the business world, seeks creative and inno- vative thinkers who can communicate their imagi- nativeideas.

Donald C. Bryant defines rhetoric as "the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas.i24 You can adapt the motivated sequence to the neecjs of your topic and your audience. For example, if you are speaking to a knowledgeable, receptive audience, you do not need to spend a great deal of time on the need step. The audience already knows that the need is serious. They may, how- ever, feel helpless to do anything about it. Therefore, you would want to emphasize the satisfaction and action steps.

However, if you are speaking to a neutral or apathetic audience, you will need to spend time getting their atten- tion and proving that a problem exists, that it is significant, and that it affects them personally. You will emphasize the attention, need, and visualization steps. And if you are speaking to a hostile audience, you should spend consider- able time on the need step. Convince your audience that the problem is significant and that they should be con- cerned about it.

Qx Persuading the Receptive Audience

• Identify with your audience by stating bow you are similar to them,

stressing characteristics you have in common.

• Emphasize common interests and describe areas of agreement.

• Provide a clear objective; because they are receptive to you, tell your

listeners what you want them to do.

• Use emotional appeals appropriately. Using stories, illustrations, and

other methods of ethically appealing to emotions can be effective with a

receptive audience.

O Persuading the Neutral Audience

• Because your listeners are not engaged or maybe uninterested In you or

your topic, gain and maintain their attention using appropriate attention-

catching methods such as rhetorical questions, quotations, startling

statistics, and Interesting examples.

• Refer to beliefs, attitudes, and concerns that are important to the listener.

• Identify the needs of the listener and address those needs.

• Show how die topics affect people your listeners care about.

• Be realistic about what you can accomplish given that your listeners are

neutral or apathetic.

0 Persttnding the Unreceptive Audience

• Beeause your listeners arc not In agreement withyour goals and

objectives, don't tell them you are going to try to convince them to

change their minds and support your position.

• Make sure you present your strongest arguments first.

• Acknowledge opposing points of vlow and then use evidence and facts

(rather than emotional appeals or opinion) to refute their ideas.

• Don't expect a major shift in attitudes or behavior.

Is there one best way to organize a persuasive speech? The answer is no. The organizational strategy you select must depend on your audience, your message, and your desired objective. What is important is to remember that your decision can have a major effect on your listeners' response to your message.

Recay-)

Organizational Patterns for Persuasive Speeches

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13.2.3: Presenting to Sell When Dietrich Mateschitz was on a trip to Thailand as a marketing executive for Procter & Gamble, he tasted a drink . called Krating Daeng, which is Thai for "red water buffalo." He thought it might have possibilities as a beverage that could be sold to people who needed an energy boost. After considerable marketing research and product development, Mateschitz debuted his product in 1987 in Europe. It sold well, and he launched it in the United States in 2001. Chances are you've sampled his creation-Red Bull. 25

Dietrich Mateschitz figured out how to sell a product even before people had expressed a need for the product. Now that's good selling.. What did Mateschitz know. that could help you be a top-notch salesperson? We're about to tell you.

To sell is to persuade someone to buy or use a product or service. You experience hundreds of sales messages every day, and sales and marketing experts spend billions of dollars crafting those messages, all to get you to buy ore: use what they are selling.

Sales involves more than simply selling products. You can also sell an idea, a proposal, or a policy rather than a tangible object. Sales skills are important leadership skills. We've noted that to lead is to influence others through communication, and often leaders need to sell ideas and methods. So, as we discuss the principles and strategies of sales, keep in mind that leaders sell ideas—whether infor- mally and one on one, in groups and teams, or when speak- ing to many people.

. Since selling is persuading, the principles of and skills for persuasion that we've already discussed are the key strategies that you will use. when selling someone some- thing. To maximize your sales potential, we suggest that you first, analyze the sales situation, and second, plan your persuasive sales message using time-tested strategies that, to paraphrase Donald C. Bryant, help you adjust products and services to people and people to products and services.

Career Corner

Have You Considered a Career in Sales? People with effective communication skills make good salespersons. And salespersons make good money. Why? Because regardless of the technological advances that are made and the evolving nature of business, a good salesperson is always in'demand. Here's.a ten-step guide from SalesHQ for considering a career in sales.31

1. UNDERSTAND THE SALES UNIVERSE. Read books about sales and talk to people already working as sales- persons to better understand sales as a career.

2. FIND YOUR NICHE. Think about the kinds of prod- ucts or services you would be good at selling.

3. RESEARCH YOUR INDUSTRY. Go online and assess specific products and businesses.

4: LEARN TO TALK THE TALK. Job-shadow a sales- person to learn, specific tips and techniques of the sales profession.

5. GET THE EDUCATION YOU NEED. Taking a course in business and professional communication is excel- lent educational preparation.

6. BUILD YOUR NETWORK. Talk to more than one person; use and expand your network of friends, col- leagues, teachers, and family members to establish a sales network.

7. RESEARCH YOUR PROSPECTIVE EMPLOYER. Again, go online to investigate specific places where

YOU would like to work. 8. POLISH YOUR RESUME.. Make sure your resume

highlights your skills in communication and persuasion.

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9. NEGOTIATE FOR YOUR FIRST JOB. Find a jqb that seems to be a good fit with your skills, then negotiate your salary and commission.

10. SET YOUR FIRST-YEAR SALES GOALS. In consul- tation with your employer, determine your first-year sales estimate.

13.2.4: Developing Your Sales Message We've discussed the importance of motivation in persua- sion. Selling is persuasion, and motivating customers is essential in selling. Communication consultant Granville Toogood suggests that when making a sales pitch, you motivate customers by connecting with their needs. As Toogood puts it: 26

You're not selling soap. You're selling sex.

• You're not selling perfume. You're selling love.

• You're not selling cars. You're selling excitement.

• You're not selling jeans. You're selling adventure.

You also need to organize your message. Most sales presentations are organized using the problem-and-solution pattern. The five-step motivated sequence (which, as we noted, is .a form of the problem-and-solution approach) is a good formula for structuring sales presentations by catch- ing attention, establishing need, satisfying the need by offer- ing a solution, visualizing the benefits of the solution or describing how the need will not be met if the solution is not adopted, and then identifying a specific action to take. The suggestions for organizing a sales presentation we describe below are based on the motivated sequence. 27

more than merely get a customer's attention; a good sales- person is able to "hook" the customer, to gain and keep the person's focus. In most cases, you have to grab your listen- ers quickly. To hook them, ask them, an opening question that is based on what you suspect they may need ("Are you interested in a car that costs less yet looks expensive?") or addresses a fear they may have ("Would you like a car that will protect your family if you have an accident?").

IDENTIFY THE CUSTOMER'S KEY ISSUE After hooking the customer, you need to address what he or she needs or wants. Knowing your customer's interests, needs, desires, fears, and hopes is essential for making a sale. How do you find out what your customer likes and needs? Ask. After you ask, you have one more task: Listen. An effective sales message doesn't begin with the salesperson immediately extolling the virtues of the product. First, ask questions that qualify your customer.- To qualify a customer is to identify whether the customer can afford the product or

service you are selling and to learn how to best approach the customer. Does the customer have a family? If so, would he or she be motivated by appealing to concerns for their safety? Is the customer most interested in a low price? Knowing what customers want can help you adapt and customize your messages to them, just as any good pre- senter adapts a message to his or her audience.

It's also important to have a positive relationship with your customers. Joe Girard, the number-one car salesman in the United States for 11 years in a row, would send more than 13,000 cards to his customers. He'd wish them every- thing from happy birthday to happy George Washington's Day. The message on the front of each card was simple. I1 said, "I like you." He sold twice as many cars as whoeve.i came in second place. Customers identified with Joe; the) liked him. And they came back to buy more cars from him.

If the customer does not explicitly tell you what he of she wants, you may need to ask specific questions, such a,, the following, to identify the customer's needs or issues:

• What do you like best about what you are currently using?

• What would an ideal product look like?

• What do you like least about what you are currenty using?

• What is missing from what you're currently using?

• How many of these do you use each week?

• What are the key things you're looking for in a new... ? • If you bought our product, when would you need i

delivered?

• What could we do to get your business?

If you already suspect what the customer's needs ar( then you can directly identify how what you are selhn meets the needs, solves a problem, or addresses an issu

competitor has to offer and what the customer needs an your ability to briefly and quickly get to the heart of whi the customer wants will increase your chances of makin the sale.

MAKE THE RECOMMENDATION After you have an( lyzed, or qualified, the customer, you'll -want to note ho, your product or service addresses the issues you've ident fied. Although you don't need to ask for the sale. quite ye you need to describe what you're selling and link your pro( uct or service to the customer's needs. Especially if you': selling several models or versions of the same product (su( as a car, a computer, or an insurance benefit package), you need to direct the customer to a specific recommendation.

When making your recommendation, explain and der onstrate how the product works. Provide a step by-st( overview of what the product does. If appropriate, let d customer try the product. Most grocery stores know th one way to sell cheese is to give away free samples. Letth

HOOK YOUR LISTENER As we've noted, presenters need to get listeners' attention. A good salesperson does that concerns the customer. Your knowledge of what you

u , wi n nny, a„u ,v,an—y —F..—

your customer use the product to experience the benefits may be your most important sales tool.

Research has found that a method of making a request called the door-in-the-face technique can be effective. Tins strat- egy involves first making a more extravagant. or overreaching request, which is then followed up with a more modest request. For example, a life insurance salesperson who first asks a customer to take out a $5 million life insurance policy (which is rejected) but then follows up with a $500,000 request, which is purchased, is using the door-in-the-face technique. It's called door-in-the-face technique because being refused after the first request is like having the door slammed in your face'.29

Making specific recommendations creates a relationship between your product and. a customer's needs.

STRESS BENEFITS, NOT FEATURES All customers are interested in the benefits of what you're selling to them. This next point is essential: You must stress the benefits of what you're selling, not just list the features. What's the differ- ence between a feature and a benefit? A feature is simply a characteristic of whatever the product or service is. For example, if you say, "This computer screen is very bright," you're describing a feature of the product. A benefit is .a good result or something that creates a positive response in a customer. Rather than simply noting that the computer screen is bright, you could describe a benefit of the bright screen: "This means that you won't experience eye strain or headaches, and you can- get your work done more quickly." Describing a benefit is a customer-centered way of helping the customer visualize. the positive things thafi

will happen to him or her if he or she buys what you are selling. Table 13.2 provides additional examples of features and their corresponding benefits.

Table 13.2: Features and Benefits

This floor is a no-wax Because this is a no-wax floor, you will never floor. again have to get down on your hands and

knees to scrub another floor.

If you sponsor this Sponsoring this event promotes your company concert, your com- and lets everyone in the community know how pany name and logo much you care about supporting the arts. People will be listed in the will view your company in a positive light, which program. will increase your sales and maintain the goodwill

of your customers.

This ergonomically This ergonomically designed chair will eliminate designed chair will backaches, increase your productivity,'and give keep your back you more time to spend, on more pleasurable straight. tasks.

MAKE THE CLOSE Every good salesperson knows the most critical part of making a sale is the close. The dose is when you ask for (and ideally get) the sale. Most closes involve summarizing how the product or service solves a problem or meets a need, cogently listing the benefits, and then asking for the sale.

Some closes use the yes.technique. A salesperson using the yes technique asks the customer a series of questions to which, the answer is always yes. For example:

Salesperson: "So, Mr. Affolter; you like the Oxford model the best?"

Customer: "Yes."

Salesperson: "And you like the cobalt blue?"

Customers "Yes."

Salesperson: "You also like the cruise .control, satellite ra- dio, and GPS system, right?"

Customer: ".Yes, I do."

Salesperson: _ "So if I can get the Oxford model; in blue, with the features you like, and we can agree on a price, will you buy the car today?".

Customer: "Okay, yes."

The yes technique is based on the principle that "It's better to get a message out of someone than to put one in him or her." Get the customer to state what he or she likes and, when asked to make the purchase, to reach the con- clusion that the correct answer is yes.

RESPOND TO OBJECTIONS Textbooks have a way of presenting models or specific strategies that make it seem as though all you need to do is follow the suggested sequence of steps or specific prescriptions and you'll be successful. When attempting to sell something to someone, you'll soon . discover that it's usually not .quite that easy. In most sales

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'7f they don't like our proposal T11 show them the kittens. Everybody likes kittens."

situations, the customer is not likely to simply say yes or "I'll take it" after you've. hooked the person, identified the issue, made the recommendation, stressed the benefits, and provided a closing. Customers will likely have questions, concerns, and objections to the claims you've made. How you respond to those will often determine whether you get the sale or not. Consider the following suggestions.

Some customers may not explicitly state what is bother- ing them. For example, they , may not say, "I don't have enough money to buy what you're selling." So, you need to listen between the lines if the customer says something like'Tm not sure I'm prepared to buy this product now" or "Buying this product doesn't fit into my plans right now" If price appears to be the unspoken objection, you may need to suggest a pay- ment plan spread over a period of time, direct the customer to a less expensive option, or reconfigure the product so it costs less. The more you can remove hidden agendas, the more likely you are to be able to address the specific concern.

How do you determine a customer's real objections? You listen, observe, ask good questions, and listen some more. Open-ended questions such as "What questions do you have about this product?" or "Is there something that I could do today that would help you make a commitment?" can often help you find a customer's underlying objection. If you can then successfully address that objection, you've got the sale.

If a customer says no, or "I'll need to think about this" or "I'm not sure I'm ready to decide today;' avoid pressur- ing the customer, but try to keep the conversation going. We .don't encourage such high-pressure tactics as "This is a one- time offer, only good in the next hour" or "You must decide today." It's also unethical to claim that the product is the last one left when there are more in the back room. Instead, just continue to do your best to listen and see if you can identify what it is that is keeping the customer from saying yes. By asking follow-up questions, exploring objections, listening

for, clues, and observing nonverbal behavior, you may still be able to successfully respond to a rejection. Although some people actually do need more time to think, you're less likely to get the sale if the customer leaves your location or if you are no longer in contact with the person.

Leaders Corrimunic ating @ Work Ethics Is Everything According to Barbara J. Krumsiek, chief executive and chair of

the Calvert Group Ltd., an investment firm, ethics is everything

when it comes to leadership. She describes her view that eth-

ics is an element in every communication action, especially in

the finance world. Ethics Is how you think about things when It's not written down. I tell Calvert people you make decisions every day, hundreds of them, that have ethical content. We couldn't possibly write codes of ethics to cover everything you do. So therefore, you're going to have to do. the right thing. I'm counting on you to do the right thing 30 I .

Ethics are implicit in every communication and leadership

action you undertake, especially if you're trying to persuade

someone to do something or sell them something. You have

an ethical responsibility to present information that is honest,

accurate, relevant, and on point.

A customer may ask you something about what you're selling that you don't know. If you don't know the answer to a question, say so, and find the answer quickly. Promise to get back to the customer with the answer by a specific time or date. Be sure to keep your promise.

One maxim that has served salespeople well is "Under- promise and overdeliver." Don't promise more than you know your product or service can offer, and work to pro- vide even more than the customer expects. Although cus- tomers generally do not like surprises, they are usually delighted when what they've purchased surprises them with more than what was promised.

One of the biggest sales mistakes new salespeople make is talking too much after they have made a sale. Once the customer has made the decision to buy a product or service, don't keep describing additional benefits.

13.3: Making Special Presentations 13.3 Describe communication strategies for making

special speaking presentations.

Besides informing and persuading others, you maybe called on to introduce another speaker, present an award, receive an

award (because you're such a good. leader and communica- tor), or make a toast. In these special presentation situations, the audience has certain expectations of what you may say. When introducing someone, for example, it's assumed you will extol the virtues and credentials of the person you're introducing. Toasts are expected to be brief yet interesting,

13.3.1: Introducing Others The purposes of an introduction are to arouse interest in a speaker and his or her topic and to establish the speaker's credibility. When you are asked to give a speech of introduc- tion for a featured speaker or honored guest, your purposes are similar to those of a good opening to a speech: You need to get the attention of the audience, build the speaker's credibil- ity, and introduce the speaker's general subject. You also need to make the speaker feel welcome while revealing some of the speaker's personal qualities so that the audience can feel they know the speaker more intimately. There are two cardinal rules for giving introductory speeches: Be brief and be accurate.

• BE BRIEF The audience has come to hear the main speaker or honor the guest, not to listen to you.

BE ACCURATE. Nothing so disturbs a speaker as having to begin by correcting the.introducer. If you are going to introduce someone at a meeting or dinner, ask that person to supply you with biographical data beforehand. If someone else provides you with the speaker's back- ground, make sure the information is accurate. Be certain that you know how to pronounce the speaker's name and any other names or terms you will need to use.

. The following short speech of introduction adheres to the two criteria we have just' suggested: It's brief and it's accurate.

This evening, friends, we have the opportunity to hear one of the. most innovative mayors in the history of our community. Mary Norris's experience running her own real estate business gave her an opportunity to pilot a new approach to attracting new businesses to our com- munity, even before she was elected mayor in last year's landslide victory. The Good Government League recently recognized her as the most successful mayor in our state. Not only is she a skilled manager and spokesperson for our city, but she is also a warm and caring person. I am pleased to introduce my friend Mary Norris.

Finally, keep the needs of your audience in mind at all times. If the person you are introducing truly needs no introduction, do not give one! Just welcome the speaker and step aside.

13.3.2: Presenting an Award Presenting an award is somewhat like introducing a speaker or guest: Remember that the audience came not to hear you but to see and hear the winner of the award.

First, when presenting an award, refer to the occasion. Awards are often given to mark the anniversary of a spe- cial event, the completion of a long-range task, the accom- plishments of a lifetime, or extraordinary achievements.

Next, talk about the history and significance of the award. This section of the speech may be fairly long if the audience knows little about the award; it will be brief if the audience is already familiar with the history and purpose of the award. Whatever the award, a discussion of its significance will add to its meaning for the person who receives it.

In the final section of an award presentation .name the person to whom the award is given. The longest part of this segment is the description of the achievements that elicited the award.. That description should be given in glowing terms: Hyperbole is appropriate here. If the name of the person getting. the award has already been made public, .you may refer to the person byname throughout your description. If you are going to announce the indi- vidual's name for the first time, you will probably want to recite the achievements first and leave the person's name for last. Even though some members of the audience may recognize the recipient from your description, save the drama of the actual announcement until the last moment.

13.3.3: Accepting an Award Anyone who receives an award or nomination usually responds with a brief acceptance speech. Acceptance speeches .have received something of a bad reputation because of the lengthy, emotional; rambling, and generally boring speeches delivered annually on prime-time TV by the winners of the film industry's Oscars.

The same audience who may resent a lengthy oration will readily appreciate,a brief, heartfelt expression of thanks. In fact, brief acceptance speeches can actually be quite insightful, even inspiring, and can leave the audience feeling no doubt that the right person won the award.

If you have the good fortune to receive an award, your acceptance speech may be impromptu; because you may not know that you have won until the award is presented. A fairly simple formula should help you compose a good acceptance speech on the spur of the moment.

• First, thank the person making the presentation and the organization that he or she represents. It is also gracious to thank a few people who have contributed to your success—but resist thanking a long list of eve- ryone you have ever known, down to the family dog.

Next, comment on the meaning or significance of the award to you. You may also Wish -to reflect on the larger significance of the award to the people and ide- als it honors.

Finally, find some meaning in the award for your audience—people who respect your accomplishments

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#

and who may themselves aspire to similar achitieve- ments. In what has become one of the most often quoted acceptance speeches ever made, William Faulkner dedi- cated his 1950 Nobel Peace Prize for Literature to:

the young men and women already dedicated to the same . anguish and travail, among whom is already that one who will some day stand here where I am standing, 32

Acceptance speeches have a reputation for being boring. If you keep your speech brief and behave graciously, your audience will agree that the right person received the award.

13.3:4: Making a 'Toast It's not uncommon in a business or professional setting to have an opportunity to propose a.toast. It could be at a business lunch or dinner, or at the beginning or ending of an informal or. social meeting with a client or customer.. A toast is a brief satute.to the occasion or is dedicated to a

particular person, usually -accompanied by a round of drinks and immediately followed by the raising or clinking together of glasses or goblets. The purpose of a toast is to enhance relationships, celebrate an accomplishment, or remember a past event. The custom is said to have taken its name from the old custom of tossing a bit of bread or a crouton into a beverage for flavoring.33 "Drinking the toast" was somewhat like enjoying a dunked doughnut.

The modern toast is usually quite short, only a few sentences at most. Some toasts incorporate a quotation you might remember that seems appropriate to the occasion as, for example, one given at a business dinner by a client:

I propose a toast. We are a long way from home this even- ing. But as we have worked together in our meetings today, you and your staff have made us feel very wel- come. It was Robert Frost who said, "Home is a place where when you go there they have to take you in." Thank you, colleagues, for taking us in this evening and making us feel so much at home.

If you are asked to make an impromptu toast, let your audience and the occasion dictate what you say. Sincerity is more important than wit. At a dinner one of your authors attended in Moscow a few years ago, all the guests were asked to stand at some point during the meal and offer a toast. Although this Russian custom took all of us by sur- prise, one of our friends gave a heartfelt and well-received toast that went something like this:

We have. spent the past week enjoying both the natural beauty and the many marvels of your. country. We have visited the exquisite palaces of the czars and stood in amazement before some of the world's great art treasures. But we have also discovered that the most important resource of Russia is the warmth of her people. Here's to new and lasting friendships.

Our Russian hosts were most appreciative. The rest of us were impressed. Our friend's toast was a resounding success because she spoke sincerely about her audience and the occasion.

Summary: Informing, Persuading, and Making Special Presentations 13.1: Describe some of the strategies to enhance the

. effectiveness of a persuasive message.

Principles of informing others, whether in a presentation, brief, or report, include these ideas:

Use simple ideas. Pace the flow of the information. Relate new information to what listeners already know. Use adult

learning strategies. Relate to listeners' interests. Build it redundancy. Reinforce ideas verbally and nonverbally.

These are the nine steps of the need-centered training model:

1. Anchor all training processes in analyzing the organ zational and trainee needs.

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2. Analyze the training task: Break the skill into sequen- tial steps.

3. Develop training objectives: Identify what you want to accomplish.

4. Organize training content: Structure the training nfor= mation and skills.

5. Determine training methods: Decide how you will present the content.

6. Select training resources: Identify the written and visu- al materials you need.

7. Complete the training plan: Display all elements of the training lesson.

S. Deliver the training: Bring the training to life.

9. Assess the training: Determine if the trainees liked it, learned it, and can perform it.

13.2: Describe how developing leadership skills are important to developing persuasion skills.

Persuasion is the process of attempting to change or rein- force attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors. Several princi- ples explain how persuasion works: Cognitive dissonance is a sense of mental disorganization or imbalance that arises when new information conflicts with previously organized thought patterns; people are persuaded to resolve the dissonance. Maslow's classic hierarchy of needs suggests that people are persuaded when the proposed persuasive goal helps them to meet an unmet need. Both fear appeals and positive motivational appeals motivate listeners to respond to persuasive messages:

The steps of presenting an effective sales talk include the hook, identifying the issues, making a recommendation,

identifying and providing evidence for the benefits, making the dose, and asking for the sale.

13.3: Describe communication strategies for making special speaking presentations.

Be brief and be accurate when introducing another speaker. When presenting an award, you can use a formula in which you refer to the occasion, talk about the history and signifi- cance of the award, and then name the awardee. When accepting an award, thank the person giving you the award, comment on the significance of the award to you, and find meaning in the award for the audience. When making a toast, be brief, sincere, and let your audience and occasion determine what you say.

Select a product that you like, and use. Based upon the steps, of designing an effective sales presentation, design a sales message, imagining that you are selling the product to someone who is similar to you in age, interests, and experiences. Next, select a person who is considerably different from you, and redesign your sales presenta- tion for that person.

10. A minimum number of characters is required to post and earn points. After posting, your. response .can be viewed by your class and instructor, and you can participate in the class discussion.

r 0 characters 1 140 minimum

Chapter 13 Quiz: Informing, Persuading, and Making Special Presentations

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