Social Media
Teaching Strategies
Teacher Interview: Jason Choi
Meet Jason Choi, Science and Technology Department chair at Sleepy Hollow High School in Sleepy Hollow, New York. Mr. Choi really had no intention of becoming a high school teacher when he started undergraduate studies at the University of Pennsylvania, though he says he was always intrigued by teaching others, getting inside their heads to help them learn. After graduation he thought about medical school and law school, and he even worked as a paralegal at a large law firm in Manhattan. But when he had the opportunity one summer to teach chemistry classes at a boarding school in Massachusetts, he was hooked on teaching. And even though Mr. Choi has been teaching for 15 years he still has a picture of that first chemistry class in his office.
In what ways do you focus on student learning?
Most chemistry lab manuals tend to be “cookbook” style with limited flexibility and creativity. In the same way I put my personal spin on recipes I cook at home, I try to provide some flexibility in the chemistry activities and labs I plan for the students. When I previously taught reaction rates and the factors that affect reaction rates, I would have the students perform an activity in which two clear solutions are mixed and then turn black after a certain amount of time. The students were provided a set of directions in which the solutions were diluted or the temperatures were changed. This year, I decided to show the reaction and then challenged the students to make the chemicals change color at the 25-second mark. By making it a competition, I was able to engage a few students who normally dislike lab activities. Each group was asked to make a list of questions that they needed to answer and were allowed time and resources to research online resources and experiment for a certain amount of time. The competition provided a great platform to introduce the factors that affect reaction rates; moreover, the students were more engaged.
How would you describe excellence in teaching?
Excellence in teaching goes well beyond the classroom and beyond the end of the year assessment. Excellence in teaching is about making a long-lasting connection, impression, or mark on my students. In return they make an impression on me. Although I teach chemistry, chemistry is not the most important thing I teach in my class—the more important things are thinking critically, articulating ideas, keeping an open mind, working well with others, meeting deadlines and juggling assignments, asking for help, persevering, understanding the value of hard work, and striving to be better. Having said this, I would not be doing my job well if my students did poorly on the standardized assessments. My belief is that if I teach the content and focus on the important things previously mentioned, my students will succeed on whatever test they take in the future.
Teachers need to make education a personal experience for each student. They need to engage students. How each student learns or how each teacher engages the students is different, but there are many similarities in good teaching. First, teachers need to show the relevance of what they are teaching to the students’ lives. Teachers must encourage students to become active learners by incorporating activities that provide opportunities for students to observe, analyze, synthesize, and articulate. In science, demonstration and experiments are vital to achieve this purpose.
I have been lucky to be at Sleepy Hollow since 1997. I have had the opportunity to connect with thousands of students. Since my wife, Sarina, is an English teacher at the same high school, it makes it easier to attend student activities, for example, school plays, sporting events, fundraisers, and so forth. In fact, we’ve attended former students’ college graduations, weddings, baby showers, and unfortunately, funerals. Last February we flew to Dublin and then rode a bus to Belfast to watch a former student play basketball in the Irish professional basketball league.
Where do you find joy in teaching?
As a science teacher, I enjoy seeing the “a-ha” moment in my students. I try to use a wide range of activities and demonstrations to teach chemistry. The purpose of these hands- on experiences is to help students connect the abstract, mathematical concepts with the physical world. It is the best when students ask questions that extend the demonstration or experiment. Rather than just asking to see a demonstration again, I particularly relish when students will ask “If we do A, would B happen?” It informs me that the students are engaged and have internalized the concepts that we are studying.
There is great joy when former students return to say hello and tell you that you’ve made a mark on their lives. I love the fact that Sleepy Hollow is a small school, which gives the faculty a chance to know each student. I also coach three sports—JV volleyball, JV basketball, and varsity golf. Coaching allows me to interact with the students in a different light. I get an opportunity to work with students of all abilities who would most likely not sign up for my honors chemistry or AP chemistry. Although coaching is physically taxing, it is rewarding to see your players grow as athletes and as individuals. The idea is to help students mature into well-rounded individuals who are ready to face the challenges that lie ahead.
You mention that members of your department believe that inquiry-based learning is the best way for students to learn; please explain.
The science department at Sleepy Hollow High School has been working collaboratively with Pace University through monthly meetings to discuss various aspects of the inquiry-based learning model. After the initial meetings the teachers wrote proposals to implement in their classes. This is the third year of this joint venture, and eight teachers participated (three last year and two the year before). The science teachers are joined by one English, two math, and three foreign language teachers. Each participant in the Inquiry-Based Learning Project is working collaboratively or independently on “tilting” some aspect of his or her course toward inquiry. Carlos is teaching acid-base chemistry through the lens of acid rain. Peter and Rachel are exploring hands-on application of electrochemistry by having students make their own “batteries” or copper plate leaves using electricity. Leana and Christine are developing engaging ways to incorporate the Hudson River into the AP Biology and AP Environmental Science curricula. David and Leila are helping students articulate their thoughts more clearly by holding a series of scientific debates. I am using a variety of activities (photo essay, demonstrations, reflections, and video clips) to connect science to the real world by having students explore the application of chemistry concepts. The teachers are working hard to balance the rigors of standardized testing with the excitement and enthusiasm that comes with discovery.
What else would you like to tell the preservice teachers who will be reading this text about using inquiry-based learning?
The best way to establish a good class atmosphere, reduce behavioral issues, and improve student performance is to deliver relevant and engaging lessons. Inquiry-based learning provides a method to do this by piquing students’ natural curiosity and using it to introduce or teach concepts. Teachers should be prepared and the lessons should be well planned; however, teachers must recognize that each class and each student is unique and therefore, teachers need to be flexible and adaptable. Preservice teachers should realize that teaching is a work in progress. Teachers are continually reflecting on lessons and revising them. The teaching profession needs new teachers to come into teaching with enthusiasm and passion, as well as a strong work ethic. Veteran teachers and new teachers can and should learn from one another.
Questions to Consider
1. What are some of the strategies the teachers at Sleepy Hollow use to engage students in learning?
2. What do excellent teachers do to help students learn?
3. Mr. Choi finds joy in teaching when his students ask him “What if?” questions. How might such questions indicate that students have truly understood the lesson?
4. What are some of the ways the teachers at Sleepy Hollow help one another create relevant lessons that require critical thinking? Would you enjoy being part of these lessons? Why?
5. Have you had a teacher who made learning a personal experience for you? Explain.
INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Understand why some teaching strategies appear to work better with one content area than another.
2. Know why it is important for teachers to become skillful in using more than one teaching strategy.
3. Recognize the importance of detailed planning prior to teaching a lesson.
4. Learn some of the strategies teachers use to prepare students for learning.
Teaching has been described as both an art and a science. Teaching as an art requires a level of intuition seldom demanded of other professionals. The intuition aspect of teaching develops through a process of reflection that is automatic and continuous, and that draws on all manner of visual and sensory awareness of the multitude of stimuli emanating from learner/teacher interactions in a specific context. As teachers practice their art, and reflect on the outcomes of that practice, they construct a framework for intuitive and spontaneous actions that promote student learning. Although it may seem that way, intuition and spontaneity in teaching are not random. Some beginning teachers walk into the classroom with a well-developed sense of intuition. They already possess some of the experiences necessary to the development of the intuitive aspect of teaching. However, for most teachers, their intuition grows through experience and develops over time.
Students learn indifferent ways. A teacher who recognizes this can capture the attention of all students.
Teaching as a science is evident in the strategies that teachers learn to use to achieve desired results in student learning. Strategies are used to capture and hold student attention, to direct that attention to a specific detail of knowledge, or to develop a skill students will begin to incorporate into their own framework for learning. Other strategies help students practice and connect new bits of information to what they already know and to what they will be expected to know in the future. These and other strategies are all part of the science of teaching.
The science of teaching is concerned with keeping track of where students are in the learning cycle (Kolb & Fry, 1975), who has just fallen off the cart and who has already made a leap of learning to dimensions beyond the scope of the lesson. The science of teaching is in the planning, the tactical adjustments teachers make in action, and in documenting their own progress and performance and that of the students.
When you ask your college instructor for a definitive answer about what particular strategy will work in a classroom and the instructor answers, “Well, it depends,” your frustration at such an equivocal answer may not be entirely warranted. What your instructor knows is that intuition is developed through experience and since nearly every day in the classroom represents a different set of experiences, how a teacher might respond in any given situation depends often on an unpredictable set of conditions. Your instructor also knows that the science of teaching can be learned and what will work for you in a classroom will depend on how well you learn to use a range of teaching strategies and how well you monitor the effects of the applied science of your teaching.
You have probably heard the comment that teachers are born, not made. The truth is that some people are born to be teachers with all the natural talents necessary to produce excellent results in student achievement. However, most of us must learn and practice the science of teaching skills that comprise the characteristics of excellent teachers. We also learn through persistence, practice, and patience to develop the same art of teaching talent that others may be born with.
This chapter will introduce you to a variety of teaching strategies that work in classrooms and will help you understand a scientific approach to teaching. You will also learn ways specific strategies can be used to meet the learning needs of the range of student abilities and learning styles most commonly found in a single classroom. The art of teaching will emerge as you begin to practice these skills in classrooms.
WHAT ARE TEACHING STRATEGIES?
Mr. Choi provides some insights into teaching strategies and instruction.
In education, it seems as if every year or two, a new theory or instructional model appears on the horizon. I think it is important to realize that there is no cure-all or panacea for struggling students. I am reminded of Leo Tolstoy’s family line from Anna Karenina, “All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” I believe that good instruction, whether it is in science, mathematics, English, or foreign language, all resemble one another. The students are engaged, challenged, and supported. However, poor instruction can have many roots—insufficient content knowledge, poor understanding of students and their lives, unsupportive colleagues or administration, or a lack of passion. The last cause—a lack of passion—is the most crucial aspect of teaching. Carlos, one of our chemistry teachers, often says that teaching is his calling; and many other teachers in our department cannot imagine themselves in any other profession. Some days and some years are more difficult than others, but they truly enjoy their jobs and the impact they have on their students.
Any teaching strategy certainly falls into the category of something that is carefully planned, a method, or a stratagem for reaching a desired goal. The word stratagem has a somewhat negative connotation, defined as being a cleverly contrived trick or scheme for gaining a desired end, but effective teachers know they have to invent all manner of activities to encourage their students to drink from the fountain of knowledge. Consider the admonition, “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.” Well it’s a smart farmer who sprinkled alfalfa sprouts on the watering trough, or a Mary Poppins who figures out a clever way to get the “medicine to go down.” Teaching strategies properly used make it possible for teachers to help students acquire useful and necessary information, sometimes contrary to the students’ desire.
There are as many ways to teach as there are teachers. Since human societies first emerged, knowledge and skills have been handed down from one generation to another through the use of specific teaching strategies. The apprentice model worked for King Arthur and even today some aspiring potters spend weeks, months, or even years carrying the master teacher’s clay from the source to the wheel to the kiln. In Iran students learn the Persian alphabet through repetition and spend hours each day at a table writing a single Arabic symbol over and over until it is so etched in the mind that only an act of Allah could erase it. Children in school in China or Japan must learn more than 8,000 symbols to properly communicate in an educated society, and they copy these symbols until every individual brush stroke becomes as natural as taking a breath.
Deeper Look Read about teaching strategies.
Generic Teaching Strategies
In their “Framework of Universal Teaching Strategies,” Freiberg and Driscoll (2004) describe generic instructional strategies along a continuum that ranges from a teacher focus or teacher-centered perspective to a student focus or student-centered perspective (see Figure 13.1). The strategies are truly universal as they cut across grade levels and content areas. The strategies described by Freiberg and Driscoll consider the context of teaching situations, the curriculum to be taught, and the diverse learners present in classrooms.
The lecture is the strategy used most often in classrooms and provides the teacher with the most immediate control over what content the students are exposed to, the expected behavior of the students, and the valuable commodity—time. When teachers are expected to cover a set amount of curriculum in a specified period of time, the lecture is often the favored strategy. David Ausubel, an educational psychologist that you read about in Chapter 7 of this text, argued that lectures provided the most efficient use of time when trying to impart large amounts of information to a group of students. Since teachers and students have the gift of language, Ausubel’s (1963) contention was that teachers should use language to impart knowledge.
At the student-centered end of the strategies continuum described by Freiberg and Driscoll, students interact with books, audio and video tapes, computer programs, and the Internet. Students use these resources to investigate topics assigned by the teacher or topics that they are interested in and are highly motivated to learn. Use of resources as a teaching strategy requires a high level of teacher competence and knowledge of a range of subjects and of what resources are available. The teacher must be able to guide students to resources that will give them adequate, useful, and accurate information.
Some learning requires hours of practice. Learning to write kanji requires hours of painstaking repetition in making the proper strokes.
Figure 13.1 A Continuum of Teaching Strategies
There is a logical organization to the strategies on the continuum. Since students can’t be expected to discuss what they know nothing about, inputting information is important, usually done most efficiently through lecture or presentation. Group work also requires that the students know how to ask questions of one another and discuss topics in a civilized manner. Role playing and drama require students to demonstrate their knowledge of a subject using higher-level thinking skills. Students who engage in inquiry need to know how to access information, what to do with it, and how to synthesize it. All learning has to begin with some level of knowledge. As you progress through your teacher education program, you will learn more details of a range of teaching strategies and the optimum application of each for specific content areas. The AEA 267 website (http://www.aea267.k12.ia.us/cia/framework/strategies) offers more than 30 teaching strategies and suggestions on how each might be implemented in kindergarten through high school classrooms.
Lecture
We’ve all had the experience of being “talked to.” Sometimes it was inspirational, sometimes it was not. There were probably even times when we had no idea what the lecturer was talking about. Fortunately or unfortunately, the lecture teaching strategy has survived for more than 2,000 years and is used in all content areas and at all grade levels. While the lecture may not always enjoy a favorable reputation, it can be effective in both elementary and secondary settings.
To gain information from a lecture, the listeners must attend to what the speaker is saying and, in the case of a presentation, be able to see what the lecturer is talking about. Al Capp, the creator of the Li’l Abnercomic strip, once said in an interview that the length of time a person could attend to a lecture was equal to their age: one minute for every year. He then qualified his statement by adding that once a person reaches the age of 13 this rule does not apply and that most people despite their age can seldom listen for more than 20 minutes. Sometimes the main problem with lectures is that some people just never know when to stop talking.
There are many ways to enhance student interest in a lecture by following the five elements of an effective lecture. The lecture teaching strategy does not need to bore students.
Perhaps the unfavorable reputation the lecture might have as a teaching strategy could be, in part, a result of the failure of teachers to recognize and use the guidelines that help make this teaching strategy effective. The research on effective instruction provides guidelines for effective delivery of lectures and presentations (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). For the teacher education candidate or beginning teacher who is just becoming familiar with delivering a lecture or presentation, these guidelines can be reduced to five major elements essential for planning and delivering an effective lecture (see Table 13.1).
Table 13.1 Know Your Students
|
Audience |
Know what is developmentally appropriate for them—be aware of their interests, their abilities, and what prerequisite skills and knowledge they need to have to understand what you are talking about. |
|
Focus |
Know your subject, be enthusiastic about it, and stick to it. We all can be seduced into talking about things we really don’t know much about. Everyone wants to have an opinion, but an educative lecture should be a learning experience for the listener, not just an opportunity for the speaker to spout his or her opinion. Present ideas in small chunks, one idea at a time. Make sure your students are with you; keep their attention. |
|
Organization |
Know how to introduce the topic, to expand on it, and to summarize what has been talked about. Know when to change pace and when to stop. |
|
Clarity |
Know how to present an idea from the listeners’ perspective. Provide examples that are relevant, make the subject come alive through explanations, and are colorful, unusual, or startling. |
|
Pacing |
Know when to shift gears, check for understanding, and bring an idea to its logical conclusion. Make students think about what you are saying by having them take notes, for example by writing down the names of important people or important dates. Provide students with an outline of your lecture before beginning so that they can make notations. |
The following examples demonstrate how a teacher might use the five elements of an effective lecture.
Audience
A class of fifth-graders in St. Louis is learning about the Westward Migration during the 19th century in the United States. The students have already had lessons on the Westward Migration and have talked about why people in the 1800s chose to leave their homes and head westward. The teacher knows that her students will be able to listen for about 10 minutes at the most, so she has planned her lesson accordingly. Two objectives the teacher has for this lecture are for her students to be introduced to the major routes followed by the pioneers as they left Independence, Missouri, and headed westward, and to recognize and remember place names and why certain places along the routes became settlements.
Focus
To generate interest, the teacher relates how the pioneers prepared for their cross-country trek to how her urban students might prepare for a vacation or trip to some other part of the country. She relates details about the rigors of the pioneers’ journey to what it might be like for her own students to walk across Missouri today, and lists some of the dangers and hardships both sets of travelers might face.
Organization
The teacher reminds the students of previous learning and gives each student a map with certain routes outlined with dots and lines for students to write place names and dates. As the teacher talks about the three major trails pioneers could take—The Oregon Trail, The Santa Fe Trail, and The California Trail—students mark the starting points for these trails on their individual maps and identify where the trails meet up or split, and the forts that were established along the way.
Clarity
There is a large map in the front of the room that the teacher refers to during the lecture. The teacher also writes the names of places on the board when the students are expected to mark them on their individual maps.
Pacing
The teacher ends the lecture by asking questions to help students recall the information and extend their thinking. The teacher tells the students that tomorrow they will be placed in small groups to gather detailed information about the experiences pioneers had on their journeys crossing the rivers, plains, and mountains. The teacher has provided a special selection of books on the Westward Migration for students to browse through at the end of the lesson. Students are also directed to the simulation “Oregon Trail,” loaded on the classroom computers. While the students look at the books and run the simulation, the teacher plays music from the soundtrack The Way West, by Brian Keane (1995).
The lecture strategy can be a very effective teaching tool. Using a lecture makes it possible for teachers to present information in the least amount of time. All members of the class as well as the teacher hear the same information at the same time. And a lecture can be a perfect beginning to a unit or to introducing a new concept. However, when using the lecture strategy, it is difficult to address individual needs since the information is presented to all students in the same mode.
A variety of teaching resources can help teachers create images in students’ minds to enhance their learning.
Questioning and Discussions
We all learn from the questions we ask and from the questions others ask us. We have questions we want answered, we have questions we are sometimes afraid to ask, and sometimes people ask us questions that we have no answers for. People ask questions to gain information, to increase understanding, and even to draw attention. Some of the questions people ask are silly, some are shocking, and some are just downright wrongheaded. Sometimes teachers are so concerned with answers that they miss the importance of questions, of asking the right questions, and of listening to and learning from the questions their students ask of them.
Teachers ask questions of their students for many reasons. Questions such as “Have you ever had an alligator nibble at your toes?” are asked to generate interest and gain student attention. Teachers ask questions to check for student understanding, to encourage student thinking, and to structure and redirect learning. Questioning is used by teachers as a diagnostic tool in determining the level of instruction at which students need to begin learning. Questions asked to manage student behavior or classroom organization are usually intended to help students remember rules, while some questions allow students to express their own feelings and opinions.
Questioning is the predominant method of checking for student understanding. Questions can be delivered in a rapid sequence for review of content or used as final evaluations of student learning. Learning the art of asking the right question at the right time and in the right way can be one of the most challenging aspects of teaching.
Guidelines have been created to help teachers with this task. Decades ago, John Dewey (1934) developed an “Art of Questioning Guide” that still holds true today.
· Questions should not elicit fact upon fact, but should be asked in such a way as to delve deeply into the subject, i.e., to develop an overall concept of the selection.
· Questions should emphasize personal interpretations rather than literal and direct responses.
· Questions should not be asked randomly so that each is an end in itself, but should be planned so that one leads into the next throughout a continuous discussion.
· Teachers should periodically review important points so that old, previously discussed material can be placed into perspective with that which is presently being studied.
· The end of the question asking sequence should leave the children with a sense of accomplishment and build a desire for that which is yet to come.
Questioning is a frequent activity in classrooms. Responses by students to teacher-posed questions can provide immediate feedback of student learning.
Other classification systems, taxonomies , have been created to aid teachers in developing questions for multiple purposes. There are multiple ways of organizing questions to encourage higher-order thinking skills, but you will most likely be introduced to Benjamin Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy in your teacher education course work. You have also read about Bloom’s taxonomy in Chapter 3 and will read more about Bloom in Chapter 15 of this text.
Six levels of questioning identified by Bloom are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Figure 13.2 shows the types of questions that elicit different responses from students and that require differing types of cognitive activity.
Figure 13.2 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Question Types
|
Question Type |
Student Performance |
Examples |
|
Knowledge |
tell, list, describe, recall, which |
How many queens have ruled Great Britain? |
|
Comprehension |
summarize, compare, contrast, explain, define, make comparisons |
What happened in the experiment? |
|
Application |
demonstrate, use prescribed methods, restate, transfer |
Using the population grid, which of the three cities has the largest population? |
|
Analysis |
list why, make inferences, generalize, categorize, break into parts |
When did you know that Goldilocks was tired? |
|
Synthesis |
create, suppose, make predictions, write an essay |
What is the best air route to take from Tokyo, Japan, to Disney World in Florida? Why? |
|
Evaluation |
judge, evaluate, rate, prove, give opinions about issues |
Should world governments control population growth? |
Wassermann (1992) identified both unproductive questions and less-than-productive questions that teachers ask. In her unproductive category she lists irrelevant questions, too complex questions, teacher-answered questions, trick questions, and questions that humiliate. An example in the irrelevant question category is this: Student: I want to learn more about the aurora borealis. Teacher: Have you got a library card?
A too complex question is usually impossible to answer intelligently in a short answer. Teacher- answered questions need no explanation. Those of us who have seen the movie Ferris Bueller’s Day Off watched with humor as the high school social studies teacher asked, “Anybody? Anybody?” and then either answered his own question or went on to the next question. Once a teacher starts answering his or her own questions, the students soon learn to wait the teacher out; and that’s exactly why teachers have to learn to use Wait-time and Wait-time II during questioning and group discussions. Teachers who consistently use Wait-time II are helping their students learn the fine art of discussion. Wasserman’s “less-than-productive questions” category includes questions that don’t require students to examine their own responses. They often fall short because they deal with trivia or are too difficult for the students, or because their wording is ambiguous (p. 15).
One purpose of asking questions is to promote thought. When teachers ask questions that promote thoughtful responses, the students are encouraged to develop the habit of thinking. Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe’s (2004) text Understanding by Design introduces the concept of big ideas and that the questions essential to any unit of study need to be identified before instruction for the unit begins.
From Questions to Discussions
A lot of talk goes on in classrooms. Not all of this talk is productive. Productive talk is structured by the teacher and engaged in by the students. Teachers who understand the art of questioning teach their students how to answer and ask thoughtful questions in a courteous manner. This prepares students to engage in productive discussions. Discussing issues with one’s peers can help students solve problems, attain goals, and develop concepts. Discussions can get students actively engaged in the content they must learn. Through discussion students can learn to think and value their own ideas as well as those of others. Effective teachers prepare their students for their role in discussions. Knowing how to participate in a productive discussion is a necessary step toward learning how to be a productive member of a cooperative learning group. Students may find it difficult to work productively in groups if they do not understand that discussions require active listening, respect for the ideas of others, and noninterference when others are speaking.
When introducing a group of students to new instructional strategies, a useful rule of thumb is never to teach a new strategy with new content. Teachers who want their students to engage in meaningful discussions let them practice the discussion skills. Teachers make certain all students understand the skills they have been practicing by asking the following questions.
1. Were your comments relevant to the current discussion?
2. Were your comments supported by facts?
3. Did you consider the importance of your comment before you made it?
4. Did your comment broaden the discussion or clarify a point being discussed?
5. Were your comments complete and concise?
Video Link Watch an example ofa class discussion.
The School Improvement Network at http://www.schoolimprovement.com offers several resources that show teachers how to effectively implement differentiated instruction to assure that each student has the opportunity to learn and achieve.
Grouping
Humans are not born with the ability to collaborate, though learning to cooperate has been a major factor in the survival of our species. We have to learn how to get along with others even though it may take much energy and patience. Parents remind their children to share, to take turns, to let someone else be first. Teachers organize classroom activities and playtime so that students have opportunities to practice behaviors necessary for life in a community and in a democracy. Henry Ford developed a model of teamwork for mass production of cars. His motto was simple: “Coming together is a beginning; Keeping together is progress; Working together is success.” Working together may not come naturally for everyone, but through every step of formal education, students are prompted to develop more and more skill at becoming productive members of a group. The seminal research of Johnson and Johnson (1990) emphasized that the skills needed to interact effectively with others need to be taught just as systematically as math or social studies.
Formal group work has been a teaching strategy used in schools since the early 1800s. Grouping students for instruction usually involves grouping students by age to form grade-level classes and then within-class grouping by ability. (Remember the reading group you were in during elementary school!) Students can be grouped to study specific subjects, for tutoring purposes, and in cooperative learning groups .
Humans are not born with an innate ability to share. Students must be taught and then continuously reminded of the guidelines for working peacefully with others.
When teachers think of grouping students it is usually to accomplish a specific goal and provide students increased opportunity to learn both academic content and group participation skills. Johnson and Johnson (1999a) define cooperative learning as the instructional use of small groups so students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Slavin(1993) provided an organizational structure for managing cooperative learning in the classroom.
Deeper Look Read more about cooperative learning.
Early socializing activities can begin by teachers handing out cards with numbers or symbols. Students find the classmates with the same number or symbol, form groups, and start to get to know one another. An “In the Bag” activity has small groups of students working together to blow a paper cup into bags taped at the edge of their desks or tables. In a strategy called “Number Heads Together,” each student in the group has a number. The teacher asks a question and then says, “Put your heads together and make sure everyone knows the answer.” Students discuss the answer; then the teacher calls a number and that student answers.
In high school classes students are often given the task of working together to solve problems or complete lab assignments. Group activities of this nature can provide a virtual experience for students’ future roles as citizens in the larger community of their city or state or country. Such activities also make learning fun. When students learn the strategies and skills necessary to work together in productive groups, the end result can be enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding. Initial group activities should be short and simple and should concentrate on positive social interaction. Assessment of academic work in groups should not be addressed until students have learned to successfully interact with one.
The Learning Together Model of Johnson and Johnson contains five key steps:
Step One: Teacher presents students with a specific academic learning task.
Step Two: Students understand the social skills necessary to complete the task through group effort.
Step Three: Teacher checks for student understanding of both academic and social skills.
Step Four: Groups work together demonstrating a high level of verbal interaction and positive interdependence.
Step Five: Teacher assesses individual accountability for the academic task and initiates a class discussion of the group process.
Video Case Group Work
1. Why did Seana Mekari use a “silent symposium” group work activity to facilitate student comments on a recent reading assignment?
2. Teachers must carefully plan every facet of group work. Which part of a group work lesson might be the most difficult for teachers to plan for?
The following scenario is an example of how a teacher designs, implements, and coordinates cooperative group learning. Clearly, preparing for effective cooperative learning groups in the classroom is no small undertaking.
One evening during a unit on anatomy, Ms. Lynn drives across town with two large, well- iced cool cans in her pickup truck. She collects sterilized pigs’ hearts from the local meat processing plant through an arrangement she has made with the school administration, the PTA, the parents and students in her seventh-grade science classes, and the managers of the processing plant. The next day her students, already aware of their task for the day, get into their appointed groups around the tables in the science lab, don medical gloves, and assume their posts.
Ms. Lynn states the plan for the day, placing special emphasis on the timing of the lesson since there will be no opportunity for students to complete their work at a later date. She questions the students to make certain they understand their assignment and the role each will assume in the group. As the hearts are dissected and parts identified, one member of each group is using a scalpel, one is making notes, and another is drawing pictures, while another is offering suggestions from a sheet handed out by Ms. Lynn, asking questions, and keeping an eye on the clock. Ms. Lynn circulates among the lab tables, stops to praise a group for their progress, prompts them to look at specific areas, and moves on to the next group. She allows the students to work at their task for most of the period, reminding them that they will debrief the lesson the next day.
Cleanup is handled efficiently, all pig’s heart parts are placed back in the cool cans, and Ms. Lynn tells the class she is checking for fingers and toes before she closes the lids. Just before the bell rings she asks the students to place their index and middle fingers on the wrist of one of the other members of their group, making a circle of heartbeats. She thanks them for their contribution to today’s lesson. As the students leave the lab there is much chatter and excited energy and even some anticipation of the lesson on the brain and the sheeps’ heads they will be expected to investigate.
Table 13.2 Common Characteristics of Cooperative Learning
|
Heterogeneous groups |
Group members represent a mixture of gender, ethnicity, and ability. |
|
Positive interdependence |
Everyone in the group has a meaningful task to complete |
|
Verbal face-to-face interaction |
Students engage in purposeful discussion. |
|
Individual accountability |
Each member must complete an assessment appropriate to the group goal. |
|
Social and academic goals identified |
Guidelines for group work have been explained and practiced. |
|
Group processing conducted |
During group work, the instructor monitors student involvement; at the close of group work, the level of success of the group is assessed. |
Before groups of students can work together successfully they must learn the skills of cooperative work, communication, and division of labor. Before teachers can implement cooperative learning strategies effectively they must know how to organize materials, equipment, and workspace. Teachers must carefully plan and schedule group work. For your benefit, at http://math.sfsu.edu/hsu/talks/asilo-groupthoughts.html , Eric Hsu, a math teacher, asks and answers questions on teaching with group work. Marzano, Pickering, and Pollack (2001) say that cooperative learning activities instill in learners important behaviors that prepare them to reason and perform in an adult world. Teachers are expected to pose problems for students to solve. When students can work together to find solutions to problems that may emerge through other sources, they are using critical-thinking skills in interactions with others.
Role Play, Simulation, and Drama
Teaching strategies that involve students in acting a part or responding to a specific set of circumstances are perhaps the most emotionally charged of all teaching strategies. Role playing, simulations, and drama allow students to experience tough, real-life problems in a controlled environment. Students in a first-aid class learn to resuscitate drowning victims and administer CPR with the assistance of lifelike dummies whose touch and response is similar to that of a living person. Second-graders learn to “drop and roll” to extinguish flames and to crawl along the floor of an escape route to exit a burning building.
Through role play, we learn how to act in places we have never been and how to negotiate unknown territory. Simulations can help students learn empathy, to understand the predicaments life creates for others. In simulations students are faced with dilemmas. They must make choices, take action, and then experience the consequences of their actions. Training for medical triage groups and rescue teams relies heavily on simulation and role playing. Role play, simulation, and drama can help students learn by doing, thinking, feeling, or responding and develop their own knowledge, skills, and dispositions. They allow students to have vicarious experiences that can substitute for firsthand experiences that may be impossible to achieve. Teacher education candidates often cite field experience as the most informative and influential part of teacher education course work. Perhaps that’s because fieldwork puts them in the “role” of teacher.
The Powerful Effect of Role Play and Simulation
An infamous simulation exercise, “Blue-eyed/Brown-eyed,” had its birth in 1968, in Jane Elliott’s fourth-grade classroom in Riceville, Iowa. Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., when one of her students asked why this had happened, Elliott decided to provide her students with firsthand knowledge of racial discrimination. Since Elliott’s students lived and attended school in an all-white community, she had to create a hypothetical situation that would demonstrate to her students what racial discrimination looked and felt like and the demoralizing effects it could have on individuals. Blue-eyed and brown-eyed students in her classroom were assigned to two groups; one group was not allowed to enjoy the benefits enjoyed by others in the classroom, and one group enjoyed all of the benefits plus special considerations. After a time of being in one group, students switched roles.
Elliott’s Blue-eyed/Brown-eyed simulation exercise is a classic in teaching about racial discrimination and is a perfect example of the impact a well-planned teaching strategy can have on students. Elliott’s simulation was such a powerful piece of teaching that her students still remember it today. Read more about Elliott’s lesson at http://www.horizonmag.com/4/jane-elliott.asp or check out copies of Elliott’s videos, The Angry Eye, The Eye of the Storm, and The Stolen Eye.
The website http://www.simulations.com offers educators and students a wide range of well-planned simulations to explore. The website http://www.sciencesimulations.com offers simulations in chemistry, biology, and physics that combined create a complete classical lab for experimentation.
Video Link Learn more about the effect of simulation.
Reflective Learning/Inquiry
Discovering something for yourself is intrinsically rewarding because you are actively involved in exploring and manipulating your environment. Most people love a well-planned scavenger hunt and movies that have the hero fight nature, the forces of evil, and doubting Thomases to finally discover some wondrous prize. It’s the reason scientists of all kinds spend long hours laboring over test tubes, ancient texts, or computer programs to finally solve a puzzling piece of nature, history, or engineering, to say “I did it.”
Reflective learning strategies deal with a problem or problems the students must solve. In reflective learning students are often asked to contend with circumstances that lie outside the range of what is commonplace and normal to them. Students involved in reflective learning must discover facts and concepts and knowledge that are new to them. They also have to compile evidence to support or refute a solution. Students must develop hypotheses.
One well-known reflective learning teaching strategy is the Social Inquiry Model, described by Joyce and Weil (2008). This model, specifically developed for the social studies curriculum, has six phases that help students develop cooperation and collaboration skills in addition to the cognitive benefits of the inquiry process. The six phases are
1. Orientation: presentation and clarification of a puzzling situation
2. Hypothesis: development of a hypotheses to structure an exploration or solution to the problem
3. Definition: process of defining, clarifying, and understanding the hypothesis
4. Exploration: looking for the assumptions, implications, and logical validity of the hypothesis
5. Evidence: assembling relevant facts and evidence to support or refute each hypothesis
6. Generalizations: arriving at an acceptable solution based on evidence
Video Link Learn more about teaching strategies.
Viewing Teaching Strategies as Direct or Indirect Instruction
Teaching strategies can also be grouped into two overarching categories of direct or indirect instruction sometimes referred to as explicit and implicit instruction . Explicit instruction can be viewed as instruction that helps students increase and broaden their existing knowledge or skills. Teaching strategies that are explicit or direct are successful in helping students acquire information that is highly structured. Implicit teaching strategies are intended to assist students in thinking about their own thinking, also called metacognition deciding on a specific choice or solution, and acting on their decisions. Each area of instruction requires different behaviors from teachers and responses from students.
Direct instruction represents a teacher-centered approach with the teacher providing the instructional input. The teacher’s role in direct instruction to students in the most direct way possible (Borich, has been shown to correlate highest with student achievement as measured by standardized tests emphasizing facts, rules, and sequences. Direct instruction strategies make it possible for teachers to serve up information in chunks palatable to students, to make dry, boring information interesting, and to help students master content.
Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) wrote a seminal essay on the power of direct instruction that has provided a framework for understanding the components of direct instruction. Additionally, Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, Tarver, and Archer (2012) provide many examples of the use of direct instruction strategies. Remember the lecture on the Westward Migration referred to earlier in this chapter, and the way the teacher provided stimuli to pique student interest and attention.
Indirect instructional strategies help students work together to solve existing problems.
Indirect teaching strategies encourage students to think beyond the facts given, to draw conclusions or make generalizations. Teachers who use direct instruction focus learner attention on a problem and then provide students with background information (Woolfolk, 2004). This approach activates the cognitive processes required to form concepts and to recognize patterns and abstractions. Borich and Tombari (2003) suggest that indirect teaching functions are most useful in providing behaviors that students will use in their adult lives. Reaction to the world outside the classroom requires students to be able to analyze situations, make decisions, organize information, and adapt. These skills are not learned through memorization of rules and facts, but must be constructed through experiences demanding higher-level thinking. They are using information to draw conclusions and they are thinking. When students think well while learning, they learn well.
Deeper Look Read more about metacognition and student learning.
A Constructivist Approach to Teaching
As you learned in Chapter 7 of this text, a constructivist approach to teaching is built on the idea that each student actively creates, interprets, and reorganizes information in ways that are unique. Present knowledge is used to achieve predetermined educational goals. Students engage in problem-based learning , inquiry activities, and dialogues with others to connect elements in the learning environment. They come together in communities of learners with an opportunity to think critically by challenging and explaining their thinking to one another. Students experience the ideas, phenomena, and artifacts of the discipline before having formal explanations of them.
In a constructivist environment teachers do not prescribe, but instead are more likely to respond to the needs of learners, the content, and the context. The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator of learning, one who responds to the students’ needs in a flexible manner. By allowing students to construct knowledge as learners, teachers help them to think critically about concepts (Gabler & Schroeder, 2002; Martin-Dunlop & Fraser, 2008) and design and sequence lessons that encourage learners to use their own experiences to actively construct meaning (Richardson,1997).
There are many constructivist strategies that a teacher might employ when teaching a particular content area. Scaffolding allows the learner to make sense of a complex task. Modeling requires teachers to think aloud about the process they have gone through to solve a problem. Teachers probe students’ thinking through coaching, guiding, and advising. To create a constructivist learning environment, teachers must clearly understand how the theory of constructivism translates into practice (Windschitl, 1999).
Video Link Learn more about constructivist teaching.
Activity Learning
Simply put, the activity approach to teaching is exactly what it implies. Students develop understanding of the link between the conscious and the objective world by engaging in activities.
Through the manipulation of objects and tools, students can gain knowledge in a variety of domains. Piaget (1985) proposed that individuals gain knowledge through active exploration in which they form schemes, cognitive structures that help them organize patterns, or thoughts to interpret their experiences. A teacher might allow a student to choose either a pictorial or a, concrete representation to solve a math problem (e.g., 2 × 3). The student then can either make two groups with three cubes in each group or draw two circles with three boxes in each, thus concluding the answer is six. The objective of the activity is achieved through a physical or mental product.
When teachers plan an activity for their students, they consider the curriculum objectives for that activity, what resources should be available, and what prerequisite knowledge the students must have to complete the activity. Teachers take into account the context in which the activity will take place.
Teachers know that as students become actively engaged things will happen that may change the intended outcome, and that sometimes students will come up with solutions or answers that the teacher may not have considered. Teachers using constructivist and activity teaching strategies must be both well prepared and flexible. That is not a contradiction. It is just one of the phenomena of teaching from a constructivist perspective.
Never Just One
It would be nearly impossible to use only one teaching strategy in a single lesson. Even lectures usually include some questions. Discussions are loaded with questions. When students work together in groups, they share information with one another, ask questions, and carry on discussions. Inquiry, whether done individually or in groups, depends on questioning and working through hypotheses and sometimes acting out a problem. Role playing, simulations, and drama draw on any number of teaching strategies to achieve desired results. When students are using resources, audiovisual equipment, computers, and the Internet they are receiving lectures of sorts from books and videos, asking and answering questions, and sharing their information through discussions and presentations with their classmates.
Teachers who use a variety of strategies are likely to have a high degree of instructional success since students learn in so many different ways. Selecting the best teaching strategy to match students with subject matter is a teaching skill not easily mastered. But it can be accomplished when a teacher keeps in mind the needs and abilities of the learners, the content goals to be achieved, and the time and resources allowed by the context. Teachers must make hundreds of decisions a day regarding what they are going to teach and how they are going to teach it. Teacher knowledge of the best uses for a particular teaching strategy, how to most effectively implement the strategy, and the learner response to a particular approach are the key ingredients in any instruction.
Understanding and Using Evidence
Using Third-Grade Math Scores on a Unit Test to Create Cooperative Learning Groups
The following data provide the individual scores of third-grade students on an end-of-unit test. It has been determined by the teacher that a majority of the students could benefit from review work on regrouping when subtracting three-digit numbers. The teacher has decided to place the students in heterogeneous groups for cooperative group work. The purpose of the group work will be to provide students with the opportunity to ask questions of one another and to practice and develop skill in regrouping.
Your Task
Establish cooperative learning groups of three or four students.
Establish heterogeneous groups including high- and low-performing students and reflecting gender difference.
Teachers must constantly assess student learning through reflection on data and then organizing that data in useful ways. The teacher of this class has decided to put the students into cooperative learning groups so that the students can have more practice in using regrouping strategies. Teachers always know, or should know, more about their students than just raw data can show, and so they may make decisions based on personal experience rather than what the raw data indicate. This is a teacher’s professional right and one that all effective teachers exercise from time to time.
The teacher has decided to put one high-performing student in each group. There were 25 items on the test and the teacher also considers the number of questions missed along with the raw score.
Caitlin missed no problems and works well with all other students in the class, even with Neil who can sometimes be a behavior problem, so the teacher has placed Caitlin, Neil, and Nancy in one group. The teacher wants Nancy to have as much practice as possible during the group work time and so has decided that a smaller group will be better suited to Nancy’s needs. Also, a smaller group may give Neil less of an opportunity to act out.
Carl is also an excellent student, though sometimes he disregards others’ feelings. The teacher is placing him with Timette, who has a calming personality, and with Patrick, who is Carl’s friend, and with Susan. The teacher believes a larger group with numerous interactions will engage Carl’s helper potential.
Carla and Kenneth scored close in their performance on the test and have often helped one another in the past. The teacher is placing Marilyn and Tiffany in this group because all of these students are hard workers and have demonstrated their ability to cooperate during group work in the past.
Jaylynn and Andrew performed very close on the test, and the teacher feels they will provide great assistance to Angelica and Garcia. Jaylynn also speaks Spanish and will be able to help with translation of any terms that may be unfamiliar to Garcia.
Pete, Stacy, and Richard will form a group. Richard scored in the middle range on the test, but he is very thoughtful and patient. The teacher feels that she will be able to spend some extra time with this group if her calculations about the other groups are correct.
Teachers’ Lounge
A Teacher’s Gift
One of the most difficult, but most rewarding classes I taught came the year I was assigned a LA/SS block of 15 of the lowest-achieving, least-motivated eighth-graders in our middle school. I worked hard to reach these students, and sometimes wondered if I had. On the day before Winter Break, I saw two of my students in the corner of the classroom working hard on something that was not an activity I had prepared for them. I put on my best “teacher face” and walked over. As I approached, they turned around and offered up a small, plastic bell that they had physically cracked; with grins, they exclaimed “Merry Christmas! Do you know what this is?” I choked up as I identified the Liberty Bell from our social studies lessons. It was only later that I learned they had stolen the bell from the tree at the entrance of the school! This bell is still one of my prized holiday decorations.
Lorae Roukema, EdD Campbell University Buies Creek, North Carolina
WHAT MAKES TEACHING STRATEGIES WORK?
As Mr. Choi describes, it is the teachers that continually strive to improve lessons that make teaching strategies work.
As a department chair, I have the opportunity to visit and sit in on numerous classrooms. Watching a wide range of teaching styles is a great learning experience. I encourage all my teachers to visit other classrooms; and this year, I gave the teachers a list of periods that I would cover so that they could visit other teachers. Unless the culture of the school encourages and supports peer visitations and observations, it is difficult to implement. Peer visitations are a requirement of the inquiry program. Each class presents a unique challenge and a unique experience. Teachers should continually try to improve lessons and revise the curriculum. I try to implement technology into my classes when it proves useful. Technology can help engage students, allow for differentiated structure, and provide multiple opportunities. Last year I started using WebAssign with my AP and Honors Chemistry classes. This website allows teachers to assign problems that vary from student to student and provide immediate feedback. This year, we have used iPads to help differentiate instruction so when we studied chemical formulae, the students were able to work at their own pace and at their level of proficiency. We are fortunate to have Smart Boards in our classroom. Technology is no panacea; however, if used properly, it can make instruction more efficient and effective.
Teacher knowledge, skill, dedication, disposition, enthusiasm for helping students learn, and ability to assess student learning are the catalysts that can bring any teaching strategy to its full potential. Teachers such as Jason Choi, featured at the beginning of this chapter, who can motivate students to learn by making the content engaging and meaningful, who can use the context in which the students must learn to best advantage, and who understand the needs of the students, use a variety of teaching strategies.
Knowing a variety of instructional strategies and having the flexibility to change them both within and among lessons are two of the greatest assets a teacher can have (Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2003). Without variety and flexibility to capture the interest and attention of students, it is unlikely that any other key behavior, however well executed, will have the desired effect (Borich, 2011).
Mr. Choi provides an example of ways teaching strategies can be combined to increase student participation in lessons.
The AP chemistry course is quite expansive and rigorous. I use direct instruction to present certain materials or explain certain phenomena. I often model problem analysis and problem solving in this manner. However, I usually follow up with some cooperative learning activity and provide opportunities for students to find out for themselves what they know and what they don’t know. Cooperative learning encourages metacognition skills since students have to articulate and justify their ideas.
During your first attempts at teaching a small group of students or an entire class, it may be that you will feel more confident and competent with only one teaching strategy. The fear of losing control, that the students won’t pay attention to you, or that they won’t learn what you need to teach them may keep you locked within the parameters of this one teaching strategy. That’s natural. We begin learning in small chunks, and we feel very comfortable when we know how to do something, so we practice it and get better at it and feel even more confident as we continue to practice that particular skill. However, the research base in education tells us that teachers who use a range of teaching strategies have a greater chance of meeting the learning needs of their students and of helping students develop academically. It becomes every teacher’s responsibility to develop skill in using a variety of strategies to help students connect with the content. Over time, effective teachers learn to make any teaching strategy work for them.
The Importance of Planning
Planning is of the utmost importance in making a variety of teaching strategies work for you and the students. Some types of plans work better with some types of teaching strategies. You will hear and read about the importance of planning in nearly all of your teacher education coursework. In your personal life you have no doubt had much opportunity to plan, but as a student you have been mainly concerned with enacting the plans of others. Your teachers have told you what they expect you to do, and in best-case scenarios have provided you with examples, directions, and a time line for achieving the objective. In becoming a teacher, it is necessary to make the shift from enacting the plans of others to creating plans for others to follow.
Plans need to be detailed, thorough, and doable. Plans must be based on accurate content information, a comprehensive understanding of the context, and both theoretical and practical knowledge of learner capabilities and potential. Plans must include objectives that will meet established curricular goals. In other words, they must make sense across many dimensions. There are many lesson plan formats for teacher education candidates to follow. The website at http://www.lessonplans4teachers.com/templates.php offers a variety of lesson plan templates for you to follow. Often individual teacher education programs and specific content area instructors will provide a “homegrown” lesson plan format that they expect all of the candidates to use. The concept of what should be included in a lesson plan has a theoretical base, while variations on the concept are widespread among educators.
Instructional Theory Into Practice
Madeline Hunter’s (1994) seven basic elements of an effective lesson—(1) anticipatory set, (2) instructional objective, (3) instructional input, (4) example of intended learning outcome, (5)check for understanding, (6) guided practice, and (7) independent practice—help form the foundation for any plan involving any teaching strategy. These elements might not be arranged in the same order, and some of the elements might not be shared with the students to encourage discovery or inquiry learning. Whether or not all elements of Hunter’s seven basic elements of an effective lesson are shared with the student, they should be part of the instructional plan in one form or another.
Jarolimek, Foster, and Kellough (2005) define a lesson plan as a step-by-step plan of action, or a trip map through the lesson that can be followed easily while the lesson is being taught. Beginning teachers and teachers in training need to keep their plans close by for easy reference. How many of us have had the experience of driving to a new destination, map on the car seat next to us if we have no GPS navigator, checking reference points, and trying to read street signs. Cell phones can be used as homing devices when we’re on the road, but most school administrators would frown on teachers calling out to get advice on exactly how to proceed with a lesson in progress. Plans help teachers reach benchmarks and goals and bring the students along. It is not an easy task to write a lesson plan. It is complex and time-consuming. One reason for developing the skill of writing effective lesson plans early in your career is so that once you do write a plan, use it, and judge it as top-notch, you won’t have to write the whole plan over again and again, though you may have to modify it for different groups of students. The Internet is a rich resource of lesson plans to provide examples and get you started on planning your own lessons.
The Planning Cycle
Effective teachers are always planning. They think through the design and implementation of lessons long before it is time to actually teach them. They collect artifacts, talk to other teachers and friends about what they want to do, and maybe even try out a plan for a lesson on an unsuspecting family member. Freiberg and Driscoll (2004) explain teacher planning through four phases of a planning cycle (see Figure 13.3).
The first phase may find a teacher sitting quietly in a backyard swing looking at a sky full of clouds and listening to the sound of the wind in the trees. Ways to teach a unit on climate and weather to next year’s third-graders come to mind. What do 8-year-olds need to know about weather? What would they find most interesting about weather? How would it be possible for them to experience weather conditions in other parts of the world? How many children’s books does the school library have on weather? Questions come together in ideas, and ideas spur teachers on to action. Resources are collected and organized. Before you know it, it is fall, the school year has begun, and it is time to teach a lesson on weather.
Figure 13.3 A Lesson Planning Cycle
Source: Adapted from Freiberg, J. H., & Driscoll, A. (2004). Universal teaching strategies. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
The active planning phase of Freiberg’s cycle is when teachers actually write the lesson plans they intend to teach. The teacher opens the mental box of weather lessons that has been created in the brain, or the filing cabinet, or the computer program where all the ideas collected during the preplanning stage have been stored, and begins to write the actual plan.
Ongoing planning takes place while the teacher is actually teaching the lesson. A student’s question may prompt the teacher to include a bit of information that wasn’t in the original plan, or a super book recommended by the school librarian may be read, or an unbelievable weather pattern develops outside that the children simply must see. The world is full of reasons teachers need to be ready to include ongoing planning in their teaching strategies repertoire.
Postplanning is what teachers do when the lesson is over, the school is quiet, and most everyone has gone home for the day except the custodian and the principal. In postplanning the teacher asks if the goals of the lesson were achieved, if necessary standards were covered, if student learning met expectations, and if there are changes that should be made next time the lesson is taught. In post planning the teacher is engaging in reflection on practice. After this period of reflection the planning cycle begins again as the teacher considers how this lesson might be taught in the future.
Experienced teachers will suggest that it’s a good idea to plan more than you actually expect to teach. Teachers should also let the students know the plan. No one likes to be kept in the dark. In explaining or discussing the plan with the students, the teacher may become aware of an approach or idea that the students or a particular student may be interested in that the teacher had not included. Through interactions with students about plans, an opportunity to uncover the curriculum may present itself.
Effective teachers access a variety of resources when planning lessons. Maintaining a file of lesson examples provides a starting point for lesson planning.
Getting Students Ready to Learn
One of the most critical parts of any teaching strategy is how it is applied in the beginning of the lesson. How do your university instructors begin their lectures? With stories? With anecdotes? By directing your attention to a picture or a chart? Did math classes you attended begin with a “stumper” problem on the board for you to try to solve in the first few minutes of class? When you entered your psychology class was there a sealed envelope on each desk with instructions not to open it until an exact moment in time? Such simple devices can capture our attention. They are often mysterious, and frequently so compelling that we don’t need to be reminded to pay attention. Our own internal monitoring devices are turned on, and learning has us in its grasp.
Attention-getting activities may include a quick demonstration with an unexpected outcome or asking students to close their eyes and visualize an unlikely event. Riner (2000) says that gaining attention need not be elaborate, but the event should cause all students to be involved.
Bracketing or: Let’s See, Where Was I?
Did you ever walk into a room in your own house and wonder why you were there? Have you ever forgotten something you went to the store to buy? Have you ever left your house and worried that maybe you forgot to turn off the stove? Of course you have. Some students come to school and can’t remember what you talked about the day before. So much has happened to them in the interim that they may have misplaced the last bit of information they received at school before heading home, or to their part-time job, or to soccer practice. There’s a lot going on in teachers’ and students’ lives. Part of a teacher’s job is to help the students remember where they are in the process of learning in school.
Bracketing is a strategy that teachers can use at the beginning of a lesson or at the end of the lesson. Teachers talk the students though the process of bracketing what happened between yesterday’s lesson and today’s lesson and setting it aside so that the ideas from content studied previously can be easily associated with the ones they are about to learn. For example, a teacher reminds students of the class discussion on magnets held the previous day. She acknowledges that after class the students were engaged in activities unrelated to the discussion and that particles of information from other experiences may have gotten mixed in with the information the students were carrying around about magnets. Then she tells the students it is time to organize the information and ideas surging around in their thinking. Find all the information about magnets, focus on it, and attempt to set aside unrelated information to access at a later time. Bracketing used often becomes a habit of mind and can aid considerably in focusing attention on instruction.
Sponges
Another simple yet effective technique used by teachers to gain student attention at the beginning of a lesson, or to keep student attention during the lesson, is the sponge. This term describes review or extension activities that help to keep learning on track. Sponges can also be used effectively to summarize a lesson through an enjoyable activity. For example, at the end of a lesson on parts of speech or sentence construction, have students in the classroom call out four letters as you write them on the board or overhead projector. Then ask the students to come up with a four-word sentence where each word in the sentence begins with the letters written on the board. It may take a few seconds for the first sentence to be formed, but once you have written two or three sentences on the board the students’ ideas will come at you like wildfire. Such an activity could be used to introduce a lesson or as a wrap-up. Visit http://www.atozteacherstuff.com/Tips/Sponge_ and_Transition_Activities/ for additional ideas on sponge activities.
Evaluating Learning
The purpose of assessment is to measure student learning. Since different teaching strategies tend to stimulate different types of learning, it is important for teachers to learn about and be able to use a wide variety of assessment strategies. It would be illogical to evaluate student learning following a role play situation with a multiple-choice test. And a test on the facts and rules of one content area would not work for a classroom of students who were researching different subjects. Assessment should become a part of every teacher’s repertoire of teaching strategies so that knowledge of assessment is applied in planning, in decision making, and in communicating with students.
Knowledge about learners is gained through interactions with and observations of the students. Teachers need to observe students, to record their observations, and to seek information about students from outside the classroom. Teachers also need to be clear about the methods of assessment they are using and to what end they are using them. You will learn more about assessing student learning in Chapter 15 of this text, and as you do, keep in mind the connection between the content, the context, the learner, and assessment and teaching strategies.
Teacher Work Sample or Analysis of Student Work
Teachers can also document student work and their own effectiveness as teachers by a process of work samples. Perhaps you have already been introduced to Teacher Work Samples (TWS) or Analysis of Student Work (ASW) in your teacher education program. The process of developing a TWS or ASW offers evidence of your ability to design and implement standards-based instruction, assess student learning, and reflect on the teaching and learning process. These products also provide credible evidence of your ability to facilitate learning of all students. A TWS and ASW are sources of evidence your instructors and supervisors use along with classroom observations and other measures to assess your performance as a teacher relative to national and state teaching standards.
Video Link Learn more about the teacher work sample.
Understanding the Connection Between Teaching Strategies and Curriculum
At the beginning of this chapter, Mr. Choi creates lessons that reflect practical applications of the required content. In Chapter 11 of this text you were introduced to the role curriculum plays in instruction and learning. You read the ways a teacher used exceptional instructional strategies to deliver the curriculum in engaging and long-lasting applications that can be disseminated to other teachers.
What we discover in learning about teaching strategies is that they share a symbiosis with curriculum. Teaching strategies cannot really exist without curriculum and vice versa. They rely on one another for successful delivery. Of what use would a teaching strategy be if there was no purpose for using it? Curriculum supplies the purpose. Curriculum is what we teach. Instruction is how we teach the curriculum.
In many ways the teacher is in control of the curriculum, though sometimes it may seem otherwise, given the heft of district curriculum guides and state and federal curriculum policies. Curriculum materials can be used in different ways. Teachers use curriculum materials according to their own personal practical knowledge. They consider how curriculum can be applied in the context and best meet the needs of the students. Teachers use different approaches to teaching to make the relevance and significance of curriculum apparent to the students. Teachers have to be able to visualize what written curriculum looks like in action. The talent it takes to make the transition from text to action is much greater than the talent it takes to recognize it once it occurs, but a teacher must possess both talents.
Challenging Assumptions
Is cooperative group work beneficial to high-performing students?
The Assumption
High-performing students do not benefit from working cooperatively on group projects with students who are achieving at lower levels. Students, and occasionally their parents, may complain that by being placed in groups with lower- achieving students they simply end up doing the work for others and are not challenged to learn at the high levels that they are capable of.
The Research
The benefits of cooperative learning have been extolled through extensive research. It has been claimed that cooperative learning is one of the best researched of all teaching strategies. The research indicates that cooperative learning consistently improves achievement and that students who learn cooperatively have greater retention of the information learned. Working in cooperative learning groups has been shown to encourage positive relationships among all students, improved relations among different ethnic groups, and improved relationships between mainstreaming students with learning disabilities and others. Cooperative learning groups also promote positive feelings about learning and about one’s own abilities. Higher-level thinking is promoted through cooperative group learning.
Implications
While the reasons to use cooperative learning groups in a classroom are clear, the potential for individual student success of any cooperative learning group often rests directly on a teacher’s ability to plan tasks that require input from each student and address individual needs. In addition to planning appropriate tasks, a teacher must also make certain that all students have the opportunity to stretch their learning and reach ever-increasing levels of achievement.
Sources:
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperation, competition, and individualization (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
King, A. (2002). Structuring peer interactions to promote high-level cognitive processing. Theory Into Practice, 41, 31–39.
HOW ARE DIFFERENT STRATEGIES USED FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES?
When Mr. Choi was asked if he thought all students would respond to an inquiry-based teaching strategy, he answered both yes and no.
I believe that all human beings are curious by nature. Inquiry-based learning taps into one’s natural curiosity and desire to explore and discover. Unfortunately, this curiosity has been stamped out of some students and they want to be told what to do and what to think. Surprisingly, sometimes these are the top students with the highest grades. Initially, some students do not respond favorably to inquiry-based learning; however, if the teacher can gradually lead the students toward discovery and independent thinking, all students eventually respond favorably to the model.
We have a thriving science research program that provides students the opportunity to choose a particular topic and research an original hypothesis. I participated in a science research for teachers program at Columbia University for two summers. I was lucky enough to study carbon nanotubes with a great group of professors and graduate students. This program gave me insight into science research and allowed me to see, firsthand, the role of creativity in science. Ultimately, we want our students to have both the sound foundation and the innovative spirit to succeed in science.
We all remember clearly the teachers we had who were able to help us “see” and understand concepts that were new to us or difficult for us to grasp—teachers who used all manner of paraphernalia to help us connect what we already knew about the world in general to what we had to learn specifically. These were the teachers who carried schoolbags full of objects they had collected that we could hold and manipulate, while they talked us through ideas, lessons, and experiments.
Doing math is different from teaching math. Teaching math, as well as other subjects, is as much an art as it is a science. Teachers must train themselves to think like artists at times. They must constantly draw on creativity in their approach to teaching. If you approach teaching strictly from an empirical perspective, you’re painting by the numbers. Art is a creative way of organizing reality. The logic of teaching is the logic of the well-organized artist whose palette is arranged methodically so that his or her creativity can have full reign.
Culturally Relevant Teaching Strategies
Culturally relevant teaching strategies refers to the ways generic strategies are modified or implemented to address the fact that students’ orientations to learning may be influenced by their cultural backgrounds. The ways in which students interact with one another and with the teacher also may be influenced by their cultural background (Irvine & York, 2001). Students who live in an Italian or Jewish neighborhood in New York City, students from a fishing town in Florida, students who attend an inner-city school in Chicago or Los Angeles, and students from a small mining town in a remote area of Northern Nevada will bring different backgrounds to school and have different orientations to learning. Teaching strategies that accommodate learning styles influenced by culture have a greater chance of matching students’ varying orientations to learning.
Some students require less structure and want to solve problems on their own with a minimum of teacher help. Planning lessons that provide opportunities for students to learn within differently structured contexts is part of what makes teaching such an interesting and engaging profession. Visit the website at http://www.lab.brown.edu/tdl/tl-strategies/crt-research.shtml to learn more about culturally responsive teaching through reviews related to learning styles, culture, and research on effective teaching strategies.
Multiple Intelligences
Learners view the world from different perspectives and react to it with differing abilities. You read about Howard Gardner’s (1999) belief that children develop abilities, “intelligences,” by their own spontaneous interaction with the world in which they live. According to Gardner, curriculum and teaching strategies should respond to the individual differences in intellectual potential related to the eight intelligences he identified: (a) linguistic, (b) musical, (c) logical-mathematical, (d) spatial, (e) bodily-kinesthetic, (f) interpersonal understanding, (g) intrapersonal understanding, and (h) naturalistic intelligence. People generally possess all eight intelligences, and these intelligences interact with one another. Yet individuals are likely to be more highly developed in some of the intelligences than others. Some students perform well on standardized tests, and some don’t. Students who have not yet mastered computation skills but perform well on story problems may be using their ability to understand the meaning and order of words to solve problems rather than mathematical skills.
Inclusion Strategies: Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
As a teacher, you will be expected to create a classroom environment that provides all students equal access to learning. An intended goal of federal and state special education requirements has been to afford opportunities for students with disabilities, to the maximum extent possible, to interact with their nondisabled peers. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) presumes that all children with disabilities are, to some extent, educated in regular classes. Special education and related services provided to special needs students are to be in addition to and affected by the general education curriculum, not separate from it.
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Response to Intervention (RTI) is an instructional program that guides teachers in making instructional decisions for students who may not be able to access information at the same rate as other students in the classroom. The program involves data-based problem solving, monitoring of student progress, and universal screening. When specific students are identified as benefitting from RTI, the intensity and duration of additional instruction is determined. The implementation of RTI has provided evidence that through additional high levels of instruction the learning abilities of struggling students can be improved.
Strategies for English-Language Learners (ELL)
Many students in your future classrooms will have limited or no English-language capacity. You will be responsible for helping these students learn the content. Since the role of language has a strong influence on student learning and may place students who do not speak, read, or understand English at a disadvantage, you will be expected to implement strategies that diminish this disadvantage. Some schools may use a “pullout” approach, allowing limited English proficient (LEP) students to spend part of the day in a special bilingual class. However, chances are that all teachers will need to possess some skill in using strategies to help LEP students learn. The first step in teaching LEP students should always be to show respect for students’ cultural backgrounds. It doesn’t take much energy for a teacher to learn how to pronounce a student’s name correctly, but the effort will make a world of difference in the student’s attitude toward the teacher and consequently toward learning.
Audio Link Listen to a clip about teaching English Language Learners.
Homework as a Teaching Strategy
One of the best pieces of advice I received from an experienced teacher when I began my professional career was to never have students do homework that they had not started in class or that they weren’t sure how to complete. No teacher wants a student to go home and report, “I don’t know why I’m doing this, and I don’t understand it at all.”
Homework is a form of interactive practice in which the learner is interacting with the content, but when the teacher is not present to mediate this interaction, the student had better be absolutely clear about what needs to be done and why. Homework is an extension of classroom learning and when planned carefully can assist student achievement; but like every other strategy a teacher uses, homework should fit the content, the context, and the learner. If practice makes perfect then it becomes a teacher’s responsibility to somehow monitor the practice that occurs during homework so that it will not become imperfect practice. One educator suggests that no homework should be assigned until the teacher has completed the same work. Ten common reasons why teachers assign homework were identified by Joyce Epstein and Frances Van Voorhis (2001). Epstein called these the 10 Ps, for purposes of homework: Practice, Preparation, Participation, Personal development, Peer interactions, Parent–child relations, Parent–teacher communication, Public relations, Policy, and Punishment.
CONNECTING TO THE CLASSROOM
This chapter introduced you to some of the teaching strategies that teachers employ in the classroom. There are many reasons teachers use a variety of teaching strategies to help students access information. As you visit classrooms for observation and practice, be alert to the rationale a teacher might have for using one strategy over another. Here are some ideas to help focus your observations.
1. Not all students learn in the same manner.
2. Learning skills and facts are more easily facilitated by some strategies.
3. Space and time have a major influence on the strategies teachers can use.
4. Materials and resources may influence the strategies teachers use.
5. Most effective lessons utilize more than one teaching strategy.
6. A teaching strategy should always match the method by which students will be assessed.
SUMMARY
Understanding that instruction is the systematic delivery of content to a unique set of individuals in a specified context is part of the specialized knowledge of a professional teacher.
· What are teaching strategies? A teaching strategy is the yeast in the lesson that makes it rise to meet students’ interests and abilities. Teaching strategies provide the pedagogical framework for the professional teacher to deliver the content and to build instruction and activities around standards and the required curriculum.
· What makes teaching strategies work? Part of making teaching strategies work is being able to assess their impact on student learning, so teachers have to collect data and use that data to guide future practice. Teaching strategies used correctly have the power to transform a ripple on a pond to wave length and frequency in a student’s mind.
· How are different strategies used for different purposes? We’re not the same as people or as learners. Each of us sees the world from a single perspective born of a million different influences and affects. Not all students discover the same bit of information simultaneously, if at all. Teachers must always look though the eyes of their students to see where learning connects for each of them.
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. It would be unreasonable to expect a novice practitioner to enter the classroom highly knowledgeable of and skilled in the use of multiple approaches to teaching. Which teaching strategy would you like to learn first? What advice is of most worth in this process? How might you practice a teaching strategy even before you have a classroom of your own?
2. Resources are like advice; they fall into categories of useful and not so useful. What types of resources are most likely to help teacher education candidates increase their knowledge of teaching strategies? What are some ways to store and organize resources so they will be readily available when needed?
3. The diversity of student characteristics in a classroom can make some teachers lack confidence in their ability to meet the learning needs of all students. What examples have you seen when the strategy clearly matched the students’ backgrounds?
4. Helping students identify and build on their strengths is an often underemphasized tenet of teaching. Recognizing one’s own strengths can lead to confidence. Feeling confident when teaching a group of students leads to competence. Consider your strengths. How will these help you in teaching? Which strategies do you believe will benefit most from the strengths you possess?
KEY TERMS
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING AND THINKING ABOUT TEACHING STRATEGIES?
One of the indicators of understanding is to examine how complex your thinking is when asked questions that require you to use the concepts and facts introduced in this chapter. After you answer the following questions as fully as you can, rate your knowledge on the Complexity of Thinking rubric to self-assess the degree to which you understand and can apply a variety of instructional strategies.
1. What ways would a teacher have to plan differently for a lecture and organizing cooperative group work?
2. What is the planning cycle that teachers use in lesson implementation?
3. What activities might teachers use to get their students ready for learning?
4. Why should teachers be aware of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences when planning lessons?
Assess your current level of understanding of how the teaching strategies can improve student learning.
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Complexity of Thinking Rubric |
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Parts & Pieces |
Unidimensional |
Organized |
Integrated |
Extensions |
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Indicators |
Elements/concepts are talked about as isolated and independent entities. |
One or a few concepts are addressed, while others are underdeveloped. |
Deliberate and structured consideration of all key concepts/ elements. |
All key concepts/ elements are included in a view that addresses interconnections. |
Integration of all elements and dimensions, with extrapolation to new situations. |
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Using teaching strategies to improve student learning |
Able to name one or two phases of the planning cycle. |
Can describe the planning necessary for use of one strategy but does not compare this process to another strategy. |
Describes ways teachers’ knowledge of strategies can promote student learning. |
Combines knowledge of strategies and students’ learning styles. |
Adjusts planning and teaching strategies to students’ learning styles to prepare students for learning. |
STUDENT STUDY SITE
Visit the Student Study Site at www.sagepub.com/hall to access links to the videos, audio clips, and Deeper Look reference materials noted in this chapter, as well as additional study tools including eFlashcards, web quizzes, and more.
Field Guide
for Learning More About Teaching Strategies
Go back and read the introduction to the Field Guide in Chapter 1. Think about what you are learning about teaching and what you might include in your field guide related to the topics in this chapter.
Ask a Teacher or Principal
Ask a teacher what her favorite teaching strategy is and why she prefers it over others. Have her tell you how she learned it and developed skill in using it. Also, ask the teacher if the strategy is most effective with any particular content area.
Make Your Own Observations
Plan a short lecture on a subject you feel will be of interest to students at a specific grade level. Be sure to follow the five guidelines discussed in the chapter (audience, focus, organization, clarity, and pacing). Make an outline of your lecture. Visit a classroom when the teacher is delivering a lecture. Compare your lecture structure to the one the teacher used. If the teacher used a lecture structure different from the one you outlined, ask why.
Reflect Through Journaling
Think of something you learned and who taught it to you. For example, how did you learn to tie your shoes, scramble an egg, play a musical instrument, dance, or wash a load of clothes so all the clothes didn’t come out some shade of pink or dusty brown? Describe the process. How did the person who helped you learn teach you? What strategies did he or she use? Did the teacher use repetition, written instructions, or a demonstration? Did you have to practice on your own or did the teacher work through the process with you? Write a brief description of the learning process you went through. What teaching strategies work best for you?
Build Your Portfolio
Teachers who continue to grow and learn access the resources available to them, work with other professionals, and collect data representing their teaching performance and the performance of their students. You have no doubt already begun a professional development portfolio. This is a perfect place to keep a record of your growth in understanding and using an array of teaching strategies. Make a list of the key components of one teaching strategy you have observed and understand. Describe how you might have used it in one of your practicum experiences.
Select a content area (e.g., reading, math, science, social studies, art, music) that you are interested in teaching. Write six questions you could ask the students that would be designed to elicit differing levels of student thinking. Make certain the questions you write will help the students achieve the objective of a particular lesson. Write one question for each of the levels in Bloom’s taxonomy.
Read a Book
Everyone who teaches should read Enhancing Teaching, by Madeline Hunter (1994; New York, NY: Macmillan). It is easy to read, addresses many aspects of designing instruction to help students achieve success in school, and is written from the personal perspective of an educator who understands the teacher’s role.
The Teacher’s Guide to Success: Teaching Effectively in Today’s Classrooms, by Ellen L. Kronowitz (2008; Boston, MA: Pearson), provides a wealth of suggestions for making every classroom the perfect environment for learning.
Search the Web
Visit the In Time website ( http://www.uni.edu ) to see examples of the ways teachers incorporate standards into lesson plans. Download two lesson plans using different teaching strategies and compare the elements and style of the two lessons. Focus on teacher behaviors and expected student behaviors as you consider the content, the context, and the learners.
Visit https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos ? to see some of the great strategies teachers use in their classrooms to engage students in learning.