Six to Eight double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA style on the topic below

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13 The Leadership Process

The Key Point

Although many people think of leadership as the behavior of leaders, it is actually generated in interactions and relationships between people. Understanding leadership as a process opens our eyes to the fact that leadership is co-produced by leaders and followers working together in organizational contexts.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

BUILDING CHARISMA THROUGH POLISHED RHETORIC

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

BOSSES ARE TO BE OBEYED AND MY JOB IS TO COMPLY. OR IS IT?

Checking Ethics in OB

WORKERS SHARE THEIR SALARY SECRETS

Finding the Leader in You

GOOGLE’S TRIUMVIRATE GIVES WAY TO NEW LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE

OB in Popular Culture

LEADER IDENTITY AND FORREST GUMP

Research Insight

PARTICIPATORY LEADERSHIP AND PEACE

Chapter at a Glance

What Is Leadership?

What Is Followership?

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What Do We Know about Leader–Follower Relationships?

What Do We Mean by Leadership as a Collective Process?

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13.1 Leadership LEARNING ROADMAP

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#sec263)

LEADERSHIP AS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#sec264)

IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP THEORIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#sec265)

When we think of leadership, we often think of leaders. But leaders are only one element of leadership. Other key elements are followers, leader–follower relationships, and context. It is only when all these elements come together effectively that leadership is produced. For this reason, leadership should be thought of as a process.

The leadership process shown in the nearby �igure is co-created by leaders and followers acting in context. Leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo228) is generated when acts of leading (e.g., in�luencing) are combined with acts of following (e.g., deferring). It represents an in�luence relationship between two or more people who depend on one another for attainment of mutual goals.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note1) The implication of this is that leadership is not only about the actions of leaders. It also involves the actions of followers who contribute to, or detract from, leaders’ attempts to in�luence.

Leadership is an in�luence process generated when acts of leading (e.g., in�luencing) are combined with acts of following (e.g., deferring) as individuals work together to attain mutual goals.

Because following is so important to leading, we could almost say that it is in following that leadership is created. If others do not follow then, even if a person has a leadership position, he or she is not really a leader. The person may be a manager—but not a leader. For example, when students in a class act up and do not respect the teacher, they are not following and the teacher is not leading. The teacher may try to use position power to manage the situation, but in this case the teacher is acting as a manager rather than a leader.

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Leadership in�luence can be located in one person (i.e., a “leader”) or be distributed throughout the group (i.e., collective leadership). For example, some teams have one project leader who everyone follows. Other groups may be more self-managing, where team members share the leadership function and responsibilities. While in the past leadership was largely the domain of formal managerial leaders, in today’s environments leadership is broadly distributed more throughout organizations, with everyone expected to play their part.

Formal and Informal Leadership Leadership processes occur both inside and outside of formal positions and roles. When leadership is exerted by individuals appointed or elected to positions of formal authority, it is called formal leadership. Managers, teachers, ministers, politicians, and student organization presidents are all formal leaders. Leadership can also be exerted by individuals who do not hold formal roles but become in�luential due to special skills or their ability to meet the needs of others. These individuals are informal leaders.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note2) Informal leaders can include opinion leaders, change agents, and idea champions.

Formal leadership is exerted by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations.

Informal leaders is exerted by persons who become in�luential due to special skills or their ability to meet the needs of others.

Whereas formal leadership involves top-down in�luence �lows, informal leadership can �low in any direction: up, down, across, and even outside the organization. Informal leadership allows us to recognize the importance of upward leadership (or “leading-up”). Upward leadership occurs when individuals at lower levels act as leaders by in�luencing those at higher levels. This concept of leadership �lowing upward is often missed in discussions of leadership in organizations, but it is absolutely critical for organizational change and effectiveness.

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Upward leadership occurs when leaders at lower levels in�luence those at higher levels to create change.

Regardless of whether it is formal or informal, a key to effective leadership is “willing followership,” as shown in Figure 13.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#r�ig13-1) . Willing followership means that others follow because they want to, not because they have to. This is closely related to the concept of power. When leaders operate from a willing followership model, others follow out of intrinsic motivation and power comes from personal sources. This differs from more compliance-based approaches-common to managers who aren’t leaders, where others follow out of extrinsic motivation and power is more position based. Managers who are also effective leaders have both position and personal power. On the other hand, informal leaders who do not have formal positions can only operate through personal power.

FIGURE 13.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#�ig13-1) The role of “willing followership” in leadership.

Research Insight

Participatory Leadership and Peace

In an unusual cross-cultural organizational behavior study, Gretchen Spreitzer examined the link between business leadership practices and indicators of peace in nations. She found that earlier research suggested that peaceful societies had (1) open and egalitarian decision making and (2) social control processes that limit the use of coercive power. These two characteristics are the hallmarks of participatory systems that empower people in the collective. Spreitzer reasoned that business �irms can provide open egalitarian decisions by stressing participative leadership and empowerment.

Spreitzer recognized that broad cultural factors could also be important. The degree to which the culture is future oriented and low in power distance appeared relevant. And she reasoned that she needed speci�ic measures of peace. She selected two major indicators: (1) the level of corruption and (2) the level of unrest. The measure of unrest was a combined measure of political instability, armed con�lict, social unrest, and international disputes. While she found a large leadership database that directly measured participative leadership, she developed the measures of empowerment from another apparently unrelated survey. Two items appeared relevant: the decision freedom individuals reported (decision freedom), and the degree to which they felt they had to comply with their boss regardless of whether they agreed with an order (compliance).

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You can schematically think of this research in terms of the following model.

As one might expect with exploratory research, the �indings support most of her hypotheses but not all. Participative leadership was related to less corruption and less unrest, as was the future-oriented aspect of culture. Regarding empowerment, there were mixed results; decision freedom was linked to less corruption and unrest, but the compliance measure was only linked to more unrest.

Do The Research Do you agree that when business used participatory leadership, it legitimated the democratically based style and increased the opportunity for individuals to express their voice? What other research could be done to determine the link between leadership and peace?11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note11)

Source: Gretchen Spreitzer, “Giving Peace a Chance: Organizational Leadership, Empowerment, and Peace,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 28 (2007), pp. 1077–1095.

Leadership as Social Construction Understanding leadership as a process helps us see that leadership is socially constructed. The social construction of leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo412) means that leadership is co-created in relational interactions among people acting in context. Because of this, it cannot be meaningfully separated from context. Each leadership situation is unique, having its own particular dynamics, variables, and players. There is no one-size-�its-all solution in leadership.

social construction of leadership The social construction of leadership means that leadership is constructed and produced in social and relational interactions among people acting in context.

Social construction approaches see leadership as socially de�ined. They recognize leaders and followers as relational beings who “constitute” each other in dynamic, unfolding relational contexts.3

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note3) In other words, whether you are a leader or a follower depends on the nature of the interactions you have with other people. Because of this, communication and the everyday interactions of people are a key element of constructionist approaches to leadership.

Leadership as Identity Construction An example of social construction can be seen in DeRue and Ashford’s model of the leadership identity construction process. This model shows how individuals negotiate identities as leaders and followers.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note4) As seen in Figure 13.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#r�ig13-2) , the identity construction process involves individuals “claiming” an identity (as a leader or follower) and others af�irming or “granting” that identity by going along with the claim. Claiming refers to actions people take to assert their identity as a leader or follower. Granting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo156) refers to actions people take to bestow an identity of a leader or follower onto another person.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note5)

The leadership identity construction process involves individuals negotiating identities as leaders and followers.

Claiming refers to actions people take to assert their identity as a leader or follower.

Granting refers to actions people take to bestow an identity of a leader or follower onto another person.

FIGURE 13.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#�ig13-2) DeRue and Ashford Leadership Identity Construction Process.

We can see the identity construction process occurring every time a new group is formed. When there is no designated leader, group members negotiate who will be leaders and who will be followers. For

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example, some might say, “I am willing to take the leader role,” or “Leadership is not really my thing, so I prefer to follow.” It may also be more implicit, with some people doing more in�luencing and organizing and others doing more deferring and performing.

This process occurs even when there is a designated leader. In these cases it may be more subtle, however, such as when individuals choose not to follow the designated leader (i.e., when they do not grant the leader claim). In groups we often see informal norms emerging around leader and follower grants and claims in the form of people supporting or resisting each other’s claims.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Leader Identity and Forrest Gump

In Forrest Gump, Tom Hanks plays a character who has a mental impairment but, despite this, always seems to �ind himself in extraordinary events and situations. One of the most memorable is when he decides to go out for a run, and ends up running for three and a half years. Forrest’s passion for running began as a young boy when his best friend, Jenny, tells him, “Run, Forrest, run!” to get away from bullies. Forrest learns that running is a way to get out of his problems as well as to get over them.

As an adult, Forrest is distraught over Jenny leaving him and goes for a run. Once he starts, he just keeps going. He reaches one coast and decides he isn’t done running, so he runs to the other coast. This coast-to- coast run goes on for years, with Forrest only stopping to sleep.

Forrest’s run attracts media attention, and soon he has a large following of people who make attributions about meaning behind Forrest’s running. Several of these followers are failing entrepreneurs who end up achieving success as a result of inspiration they take from Forrest. At the end of one scene we see Forrest on a highway with his followers trailing behind him. We hear Forrest say, “I had run for three years, two months, fourteen days, and sixteen hours,” and then he stops running and turns around. The followers behind him also stop and look to Forrest to see what is going on. One says, “Quiet, quiet! He’s gonna say something!” and after a pause Forrest says, “I’m pretty tired—I think I’ll go home now.”

Forrest’s run raises fascinating questions for leadership. Was Forrest a leader? He had followers, so does this make him a leader? Others granted him leader identity and claimed their own identity as a follower of Forrest. But Forrest never claimed a leader identity himself. So was this leadership? How do we know when something is leadership and when it isn’t?

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Paramount Pictures/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better Take a look at Experiential Exercise 25: Interview a Leader and Experiential Exercise 25: Leadership Skills Inventory in the OB Skills Workbook. These are designed to help you learn more about what makes a person a leader and what constitutes leadership processes. Do these help you understand whether Forrest was a leader in this case or do you need to know more? What would you add to these exercises to help you better assess leadership and followership in the case of Forrest Gump?

Leader identity construction has important implications, particularly for those who are high in motivation to lead.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note6) Although these individuals may want to lead, if others do not grant them a leadership identity their efforts will not succeed. It also helps us understand why some individuals seem to �ind themselves in a leader role even if they don’t want to be. For these “natural leaders,” leadership is thrust upon them by others who grant them leadership identities regardless of their desire to claim leadership (see the “OB in Popular Culture” feature on Forrest Gump).

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Motivation to lead is the extent to which individuals choose to assume leadership training, roles and responsibilities.

The leadership identity construction process brings a new understanding to the importance of followership. Contrary to views that depict followers as passive bystanders to leaders, identity construction shows that followers play an important role in leadership by (a) granting claims to leaders and (b) claiming roles as followers. When these grants and claims do not align—for example, when followers do not grant leaders’ claims or when followers do not accept their own role as followers—the result is con�lict and lack of legitimacy. Unless the problems are worked through, individuals will not be able to negotiate compatible identities. In these cases con�lict will prevail, and the leadership process will break down.

Implicit Leadership Theories A key element affecting whether leadership claims will be granted lies in the “implicit theories” we hold about leadership. Implicit leadership theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo176) are beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note7) They can vary widely depending on our experiences and understandings of leadership. For example, some people believe leaders are charismatic, so they look for charismatic traits and behaviors in those vying for leadership status. Others believe leaders are directive and assertive, so they grant leadership status to those who take charge. Still others believe leaders are con�ident and considerate, so they identify leaders as those who have innovative and interesting ideas and involve others in bringing the idea to fruition.

Implicit leadership theories are our beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership.

Implicit theories cause us to naturally classify people as leaders or nonleaders. We are often not aware this process is occurring. It is based in the cognitive categorization processes associated with perception and attribution. These processes help us quickly and easily handle the overwhelming amounts of information we receive from our environments every day. The categorization process is often particularly salient when we are faced with new information. For example, on the �irst day of class did you look around the room and �ind yourself making assessments of the teacher, and even your classmates? If so, you did this using your cognitive categories and implicit theories.

To understand your own implicit leadership theories, think about the factors you associate with leadership. What traits and characteristics come to mind? Take a minute and make a list of those attributes. Now look at the sidebar on spotting implicit leadership prototypes.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note8) How does your list compare? Did you identify the same prototypical leader behaviors as found in research? What is the nature of your implicit theory? Is it more positive, such as sensitivity, dedication, intelligence, and strength, or is it more negative, involving leaders’ tendencies to dominate, control, or manipulate others? Why do you think you have the implicit theory you do? What experiences you’ve had make you see leadership in this way?

How to Spot Common Implicit Leadership Prototypes

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People hold various prototypes of attributes they associate with leadership. Researchers �ind the following prototypes are most commonly used.

Sensitivity—Sympathetic, compassionate, understanding

Dedication—Disciplined, prepared, hard working

Tyranny—Domineering, power hungry, manipulative

Charisma—Inspiring, involved, dynamic

Attractiveness—Classy, well dressed, tall

Intelligence—Clever, knowledgeable, wise

Strength—Forceful, bold, powerful

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“Instead of putting charismatic leadership on an unreachable pedestal, perhaps learning speci�ic charismatic communication techniques is a pathway to success.”

Building Charisma through Polished Rhetoric

The next time you give a presentation, check to see who’s really listening. Better yet, check to see who’s showing signs that they are ready to accept and act on what you are saying or proposing. That’s one of the ways leadership claims get granted—framing and requesting things in ways that cause others to respond positively. We’re talking about people who turn listeners into followers.

Some would argue this is a special skill associated with a magnetic or charismatic quality that you either have or don’t have at birth. Recent OB thinking suggests there is a lot more to the story. Think of charisma as an ability to inspirationally persuade and motivate others. How is this positive impact achieved? In simple terms it’s done by dropping bland business speech, such as “We need to operationalize this process,” and practicing more emotive language, such as “once we put this into practice it’ll feel like we all threw �ifty-yard touchdown passes.”

Professor John Antonakis at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, believes that all of us should and can learn charismatic communication skills. “Some people are naturally more talented, but everyone can improve with practice,” he says. And he has a training program designed to do just that. After one batch of corporate executives was trained, their leadership ratings went up 60 percent.

Some charismatic leadership techniques taught by Antonakis are verbal, breaking things down into basic components: using metaphors and telling stories, asking rhetorical questions, taking a moral stand, and setting high goals. Others are nonverbal: using voice modulations, gestures, and facial expressions to accent what you are saying.

OB recognizes that not all managers are good leaders even though they should be. Instead of putting charismatic leadership on an unreachable pedestal, perhaps learning speci�ic charismatic communication techniques is a pathway to success. Learning the techniques and putting them to work in everyday conversations is a way for more of us to be perceived as “leaderlike” by others.

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© Monalyn Gracia/Corbis

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13.2 Followership LEARNING ROADMAP

WHAT IS FOLLOWERSHIP? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#sec267)

HOW DO FOLLOWERS SEE THEIR ROLES? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#sec268)

HOW DO LEADERS SEE FOLLOWER ROLES? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#sec269)

Until very recently, followership has not been given serious consideration in leadership research. We are infatuated with leaders, but often disparage followers. Think about how often you are told the importance of being an effective leader. Now think about the times when you have been told it is important to be an effective follower—has it ever happened? If you are like most people, you have received recognition and accolades for leadership but rarely have you been encouraged or rewarded for being a follower.

What Is Followership? Followership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo139) represents the capacity or willingness to follow a leader. It is a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to co-produce leadership and its outcomes. These co-productions can take many forms. For example, it may be heavily leader dominated, with passive followers who comply or go along. Or it may be a partnership, in which leaders and followers work collaboratively to produce leadership outcomes.

Followership is a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to co-produce leadership and its outcomes.

Our infatuation with leaders at the expense of followers is called the romance of leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo379) : the tendency to attribute all organizational outcomes—good or bad—to the acts and doings of leaders.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note9) The romance of leadership re�lects our needs and biases for strong leaders who we glorify or demonize in myths and stories of great and heroic leaders. We see it in our religious teachings, our children’s fairy tales, and in news stories about political and business leaders.

The romance of leadership refers to the tendency to attribute organizational outcomes (both good and bad) to the acts and doings of leaders.

The problem with the romance of leadership is that its corollary is the “subordination of followership.”10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note10) The subordination of followership

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means that while we heroize (or demonize) leaders, we almost completely disregard followers. Leo Tolstoy’s description of the French Revolution provides an excellent example. According to Tolstoy, the French Revolution was the product of the “spectacle of an extraordinary movement of millions of men” all over Europe and crossing decades, but “historians . . . lay before us the sayings and doings of some dozens of men in one of the buildings in the city of Paris,” and the detailed biography and actions of one man, to whom it is all attributable: Napoleon. To overcome the problem of the romance of leadership, we need to better understand the role of followership in the leadership process.

How Do Followers See Their Roles? Followers have long been considered in leadership research, but mainly from the standpoint of how they see leaders. The question we need to consider is this: How do followers see their own role? And how do leaders see the follower role? Research is now beginning to offer new insight into these issues.

The Social Construction of Followership One of the �irst studies to examine follower views was a qualitative investigation in which individuals were asked to describe the characteristics and behaviors they associate with a follower (subordinate) role.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note11) The �indings support the socially constructed nature of followership and leadership in that, according to followers, they hold certain beliefs about how they should act in relation to leaders but whether they can act on these beliefs depends on context.

Some followers hold passive beliefs, viewing their roles in the classic sense of following—that is, passive, deferential, and obedient to authority. Others hold proactive beliefs, viewing their role as expressing opinions, taking initiative, and constructively questioning and challenging leaders. Proactive beliefs are particularly strong among “high potentials”—those identi�ied by their organizations as demonstrating strong potential to be promoted to higher-level leadership positions in their organization.

Because social construction is dependent on context, individuals are not always able to act according to their beliefs. For example, individuals holding proactive beliefs reported not being able to be proactive in authoritarian or bureaucratic work climates. These environments suppress their ability to take initiative and speak up, often leaving them feeling frustrated and sti�led—not able to work to their potential. In empowering climates, however, they work with leaders to co-produce positive outcomes. Individuals with passive beliefs are often uncomfortable in empowering climates because their natural inclination is to follow rather than be empowered. In these environments they report feeling stressed by leaders’ demands, and uncomfortable with requests to be more proactive. Passive followers are more comfortable in authoritarian climates where they receive more direction from leaders.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Workers Share Their Salary Secrets

Pay secrecy is a long-held tradition in the workplace. Workers are told they cannot discuss their pay or they will be �ired. Managers say pay secrecy is necessary because it helps avoid potential con�licts and dissatisfaction among workers. But like many other things, Millennials are questioning this practice—and shaking up the workplace in the process.

Brian Bader took a tech-support job with Apple and during his orientation was told that he was not allowed to discuss his pay with co-workers. But this made the 25-year old Bader, curious, and he

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immediately set out to survey his new colleagues about their wages. What he learned was that he was twice as productive as the lowest performer in the group, but paid only 20 percent more. Bader decided to quit his job: “It irked me. If I’m doing double the work, why am I not seeing double the pay?” asked Mr. Bader.

Keeping salary information private is much harder for companies in today’s environment of social media, with Web sites like Glassdoor, Facebook, and Twitter. Information is power, and despite company policies against it many people—especially young workers—are using their power to speak up against such policies. In addition to pay secrecy, the seniority system and annual performance reviews are two workplace institutions that Millennials are questioning. And answers like “because I said so” and “because we’ve always done it that way” are not enough for this generation. When they are dissatis�ied, they take matters into their own hands, either by acting on information power, or quitting, as demonstrated by Brian Bader.

Maskot/Getty Images

What Do You Think? Should companies be able to reasonably expect workers to keep their pay secret? And if there is a company policy against sharing pay information, what is the obligation of the employee to

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follow this policy? How far does our obligation go? In 2013 we saw Edward Snowden break his company policy because he didn’t agree with the NSA policy regarding the government’s Internet and phone- tracking program. How does his action compare to that of Mr. Bader, who shared his pay information against company policy?

Follower Role Orientation Follower beliefs are also being studied in research on follower role orientation. Follower role orientation represents the beliefs followers hold about the way they should engage and interact with leaders to meet the needs of the work unit.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note12) It re�lects how followers de�ine their role, how broadly they perceive the tasks associated with it, and how to approach a follower role to be effective.

Follower role orientation is de�ined as the beliefs followers hold about the way they should engage and interact with leaders to meet the needs of the work unit.

FIGURE 13.3 Followership in Context.

Findings show that followers with hierarchical, power distance orientation believe leaders are in a better position than followers to make decisions and determine direction.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note13) These individuals have lower self- ef�icacy, meaning they have less con�idence in their ability to execute on their own, and they demonstrate higher obedience to leaders. They depend on leaders for structure and direction, which they follow without question. These followers report working in contexts of greater hierarchy of authority and lower job autonomy. This may be because these contexts are attractive to them, or it may be because those with more proactive follower orientations are less likely to remain in these environments.

Power distance orientation is the extent to which one accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.

Individuals with a proactive follower orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo333) approach their role from the

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standpoint of partnering with leaders to achieve goals.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note14) These individuals are higher in proactive personality and self-ef�icacy. They believe followers are important contributors to the leadership process and that a strong follower role (e.g., voice) is necessary for accomplishing the organizational mission. Proactive followers tend to work in environments that support and reinforce their followership beliefs—that is, lower hierarchy of authority, greater autonomy, and higher supervisor support. These environments are important because proactive followers need support for their challenging styles. They need to trust leaders and to know that they will not be seen as overstepping their bounds.

Proactive follower orientation re�lects the belief that followers should act in ways that are helpful, useful, and productive to leadership outcomes.

The issue that is less clear is what managers want from followers. It seems that managers want voice, as long as that voice is provided in constructive ways. However, �indings with obedience are not signi�icant, indicating that managers may be mixed on whether obedience is positive or negative. This is true regardless of whether it comes from those with a power distance or proactive follower orientation. Therefore, we are not quite sure how obedience plays into followership. Do managers want obedience? Do only some managers want it, or do managers want only certain types of obedience? It turns out that although we have spent decades learning about what followers want from leaders, we still know very little about what leaders prefer in terms of follower behaviors and styles. Research is now underway to better investigate the manager side of the leadership story.

How Do Leaders See Follower Roles? One area that helps us understand the manager’s view is the study of implicit followership theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo175) .15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note15) Research on implicit followership theories takes the approach described in implicit leadership theory research but reverses it—asking leaders (i.e., managers) to describe characteristics associated with followers (e.g., effective followers, ineffective followers). It then analyzes the data to identify prototypical and anti-prototypical follower characteristics.

Implicit followership theories are preconceived notions about prototypical and antiprototypical followership behaviors and characteristics.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Bosses Are to Be Obeyed and My Job Is to Comply. Or Is It?

Before you answer the question in the headline, read further:

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Yale University laboratory, 1963—Psychologist Stanley Milgram runs an experiment with collaborators posing as “learners” being taught word association tasks by their “teachers” – the real subjects. When the learners behind a wall missed a word association each of the 40 teachers was instructed to give them an electric shock. The learners faked their expressions of pain and cries to stop the process. When the teachers resisted going to higher levels of electric voltage, they were told by the experimenter: “You must go on. The experiment requires that you go on.” Twenty-six of the teachers kept administering shocks until the �inal level was reached, a level they were told would be of danger to human life.

McDonald’s Restaurant, 2004—A telephone caller tells an assistant store manager that he is a police of�icer investigating employee theft. Claiming to have “corporate” on the line he tells the assistant manager to take a female employee into the back room and interrogate her while he is on the line. The assistant manager does so for over three hours and follows “Of�icer Scott’s” instructions to the point where the 18-year old employee is naked and doing jumping jacks. The hoax was discovered only when the assistant manager called her boss to check out the story. The caller was later arrested and was found to have tried similar tricks at over 70 McDonald’s restaurants.

Managers are supposed to make decisions, and the rest of us are supposed to follow. Isn’t that the conventional wisdom? But these incidents suggest that even though we may have a tendency to obey apparent authority �igures, it isn’t always the right thing to do.

There are times when it’s best to disobey the boss or any other authority �igure who is asking us to do something that seems odd or incorrect or just plain suspicious. And if what you are being asked to do is wrong but you still comply, you’ll share the blame. It can’t be excused with the claim “I was just following orders.”

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Arcady/Shutterstock

Do the Analysis

If obedience isn’t always the right choice, how do we know when it’s time to disobey? Can you give some examples from personal experience when it was best not to comply with what you were asked to do? How would your behavior in the situation stack up under scrutiny? What does the literature have to say about reasons for obedience and how to double-check to make sure our obedience is justi�ied in certain situations? How about the price of disobedience? Is it possible to educate and train people to be better followers—people who don’t always follow orders and sometimes question them?

Findings shown in the sidebar on the next page indicate that characteristics associated with good followers include being industrious, having enthusiasm, and being a good organizational citizen.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note16) Characteristics associated with ineffective followers (i.e., anti-prototypical characteristics) include conformity, insubordination, and incompetence. Of these anti-prototypical traits, it appears that incompetence is the most impactful. In other words, leaders see incompetence as the greatest factor associated with ineffective followership.

How to Spot Common Followership Prototypes and Antiprototypes

People hold various prototypes and antiprototypes of attributes they associate with followership. Researchers �ind the following are most common.

Prototypical

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Industry—Hardworking, productive, goes above and beyond

Enthusiasm—Excited, outgoing, happy

Good citizen—Loyal, reliable, team player

Antiprototypical

Conformity—Easily in�luenced, follows trends, soft spoken

Insubordination—Arrogant, rude, bad tempered

Incompetence—Uneducated, slow, inexperienced

What is interesting about the �indings on prototypes and antiprototypes (see the sidebar) is that they may show why we are uncertain of what managers desire from followers. What managers see as insubordination and incompetence, followers may see as proactive follower behaviors. There can be a �ine line between these behaviors as provided by followers, and whether leaders are ready and able to effectively receive them. Although it hasn’t been studied yet in research, we can be pretty sure that a key factor in in�luencing how managers view and receive proactive follower behaviors is the quality of the relationship between the manager and the subordinate.

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13.3 The Leader–Follower Relationship LEARNING ROADMAP

LEADER–MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#sec271)

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#sec272)

HOLLANDER’S IDIOSYNCRASY CREDIT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#sec273)

Among the strongest �indings in leadership research are studies showing that the nature of leader– follower relationships matter. When relationships are good, outcomes are positive. When relationships are bad, outcomes are negative, and potentially even destructive.

Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory The underlying premise of leader–member exchange (LMX) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo1) theory is that leaders (i.e., managers) have differentiated relationships with followers (i.e., subordinates).17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note17) With some subordinates, managers have high-quality LMX relationships, characterized by trust, respect, liking, and loyalty. With other subordinates, managers have low-quality LMX relationships, characterized by lack of trust, respect, liking, and loyalty. Whereas the former (high LMX relationships) are more like partnerships between managers and subordinates in co-producing leadership, the latter (low LMX relationships) are more like traditional supervision, with managers supervising and monitoring and subordinates complying (or maybe resisting).

Leader–member exchange (LMX) is the study of manager–subordinate relationship quality.

Leader–follower relationships are important because they are differentially related to leadership and work outcomes. As you would expect, when relationship quality is high it has all kinds of bene�its: Performance is better, subordinates are more satis�ied and feel more supported, commitment and citizenship are higher, and turnover is reduced. When relationship quality is low, outcomes are not only negative, they can also be destructive. At the very least, workers in low LMX relationships are less productive and have more negative job attitudes. At their worst, relationships are hostile, leading to abuse or even sabotage.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note18)

The implications of leader–member exchange theory are very clear. Bad relationships are counterproductive for individuals and organizations, whereas good relationships bring tremendous bene�its. If you have a bad relationship with your boss, you can expect it to negatively impact your work and possibly your career. In organizations, bad relationships create negative environments and poor morale. They drain organizations of the energy needed to perform, adapt, and thrive.

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Social Exchange Theory To avoid these problems, we need to work to develop better-quality relationships throughout the organization. The question is, how?

Social exchange theory helps explain the social dynamics behind relationship building. According to social exchange theory, relationships develop through exchanges—actions contingent upon rewarding reactions. We engage in exchanges every day when we say something or do something for another and those actions are rewarded or not rewarded. Relationships develop when exchanges are mutually rewarding and reinforcing. When exchanges are one sided or not satisfactory, relationships will not develop effectively, and will likely deteriorate or extinguish.

Social exchange theory describes how relationships initiate and develop through processes of exchange and reciprocity.

At the core of social exchange is the norm of reciprocity, the idea that when one party does something for another an obligation is generated, and that party is indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note19) We see this all the time when someone does us a favor and then, depending on how close we are to them, we feel indebted to pay them back. If the relationship is close (e.g., family) we don’t worry about paying back right away because we know it will be repaid in some way in the future. If the exchange is with someone we don’t know as well (e.g., a classmate we just met), we are more anxious to repay so that the other knows we are “good” for it.

The norm of reciprocity says that when one party does something for another, that party is indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid.

The norm of reciprocity can be seen as involving three components.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note20) Equivalence represents the extent to which the amount of what is given back is roughly the same as what was received (e.g., the exact same or something different). Immediacy refers to the time span of reciprocity—how quickly the repayment is made (e.g., immediately or an indeterminate length of time). Interest represents the motive the person has in making the exchange. Interest can range from pure self-interest, to mutual interest, to other interest (pure concern for the other person).

Equivalence is the extent to which the amount given back is roughly the same as what was received.

Immediacy is how quickly the repayment is made.

Interest is the motive behind the exchange.

The way in which these components work together varies by the quality of leader-follower relationships. When relationships are �irst forming, or if they are low quality, reciprocity involves greater equivalence (we want back what we give), immediacy is low (we expect payback relatively quickly), and exchanges are based on self-interest (we are watching out for ourselves). As relationships develop and trust is built, equivalence reduces (we don’t expect exact repayment), the time span of reciprocity extends (we aren’t

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concerned about payback—we may bank it for when we need it at some time in the future), and exchanges become more mutually or other (rather than self) interested.

What makes this process social and not economic is that it is based on trust. Trust is based on the belief regarding the intention and ability of the other to repay. Economic exchanges are necessarily devoid of trust. The reason we make economic contracts is to create a legal obligation in case one party breaks the contract. In social exchange, trust is the foundational element upon which exchanges occur. If one party demonstrates that they are not trustworthy, the other party will see this and stop exchanging—and the relationship will degenerate.

Trust in social exchange is based on the belief in the intention and ability of the other to repay.

If we want to build effective relationships, therefore, we need to pay attention to reciprocity and social exchange processes. We need to make sure that we are engaging in exchanges, that we are doing so based on reciprocity, and that the exchanges are mutually satisfying and rewarding for all involved.

Hollander’s Idiosyncrasy Credits Another way to view the nature of exchange in relationships is idiosyncrasy credit theory, developed by social psychologist Edwin Hollander in the 1950s.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note21) Idiosyncrasy credits represent our ability to violate norms with others based on whether we have enough “credits” to cover the violation. If we have enough credits, we can get away with idiosyncrasies (i.e., deviations from expected norms) as long as the violation does not exceed the amount of credits. If we do not have enough credits, the violation will create a de�icit. When de�icits become large enough, or go on for too long, our account becomes “bankrupt,” and the deviations will no longer be tolerated, resulting in deterioration of relationships.

Idiosyncrasy credits refer to our ability to violate norms with others based on whether we have enough “credits” to cover the violation.

Idiosyncrasy credits offer a fun and simple way to think about some key concepts we need to keep in mind in relationship building. The main point is to manage your balances. If you are expending credits by behaving in idiosyncratic ways (deviating from expected norms), then you have to stop spending and start building. If you have a rich account and the relationship is �lying high, you can afford to expend some credits by acting in a quirky way or doing things that might not be seen as positively in the other’s eyes. Others will be willing to stick with you—as long as you don’t go into a de�icit.

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13.4 Collective Leadership LEARNING ROADMAP

DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#sec275)

CO-LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#sec276)

SHARED LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#sec277)

Relational interactions are the foundation of leadership, and relational approaches have allowed us to understand that leadership is more aptly described as a collective rather than an individual process. Collective leadership considers leadership not as a property of individuals and their behaviors but as a social phenomenon constructed in interaction. It advocates a shift in focus from traits and characteristics of leaders to a focus on the shared activities and interactive processes of leadership.

Collective leadership represents views of leadership not as a property of individuals and their behaviors but as a social phenomenon constructed in interaction.

Distributed Leadership One of the �irst areas to recognize leadership as a collective process was distributed leadership research, distinguishing between “focused” and “distributed” forms of leadership. This research draws heavily on systems and process theory, and locates leadership in the relationships and interactions of multiple actors and the situations in which they are operating.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note22)

Distributed leadership sees leadership as a group phenomenon that is distributed among individuals.

Distributed leadership is based on three main premises. First, leadership is an emergent property of a group or network of interacting individuals, i.e., it is co-constructed in interactions among people. Second, distributed leadership is not clearly bounded. It occurs in context, and therefore it is affected by local and historical in�luences. Third, distributed leadership draws from the variety of expertise across the many, rather than relying on the limited expertise of one or a few leaders. In this way it is a more democratic and inclusive form of leadership than hierarchical models.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note23)

Leadership from this view is seen in the day-to-day activities and interactions of people working in organizations. Rather than simply being a hierarchical construct, it occurs in small, incremental, and emergent everyday acts that go on in organizations. These emergent acts, interacting with large-scale change efforts from the top, can be mutually reinforcing to produce emergence and adaptability in organizations. Hence, leadership is about learning together and constructing meaning and knowledge

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collaboratively and collectively. For this to happen, though, formal leaders must let go of some of their authority and control and foster consultation and consensus over command and control.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note24)

Co-Leadership Another form of collective leadership is co-leadership. Co-leadership occurs when top leadership roles are structured in ways that no single individual is vested with the power to unilaterally lead.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note25) Co-leadership can be found in professional organizations (e.g., law �irms that have partnerships), the arts (the artistic side and administrative side), and healthcare (where power is divided between the community, administration, and medical sectors). Co-leadership has been used in some very famous and large businesses (e.g., Google, Goldman-Sachs).

Co-leadership occurs when leadership is divided so that no one person has unilateral power to lead.

Co-leadership helps overcome problems related to the limitations of a single individual and of abuses of power and authority. It is more common today because challenges facing organizations are often too complex for one individual to handle. Co-leadership allows organizations to capitalize on the complementary and diverse strengths of multiple individuals. These forms are sometimes referred to as constellations, or collective leadership in which members play roles that are specialized (i.e., each operates in a particular area of expertise), differentiated (i.e., avoiding overlap that would create confusion), and complementary (i.e., jointly cover all required areas of leadership).26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note26)

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Google’s Triumvirate Gives Way to New Leadership Structure

The news came as a surprise: Eric Schmidt was out and Larry Page was in as head of Google. Schmidt had been brought in by the board of directors in 2001 to provide “adult supervision” to then twenty-seven- year-old founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin. For ten years Google’s management structure represented triumvirate leadership, with Page, Brin, and Schmidt sharing the leadership role. To some, it was a three- ring circus, with co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin running the business behind the scenes and Schmidt as the public face. Now, the three decided, it was time for Page to take the stage.

“For the last ten years, we have all been equally involved in making decisions. This triumvirate approach has real bene�its in terms of shared wisdom, and we will continue to discuss the big decisions among the three of us. But we have also agreed to clarify our individual roles so there’s clear responsibility and accountability at the top of the company,” said Eric Schmidt.

The objective is to simplify the management structure and speed up decision making. “Larry will now lead product development and technology strategy, his greatest strengths . . . and he will take charge of our day-to-day operations as Google’s Chief Executive Of�icer,” according to Schmidt.

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That leaves Sergey Brin, with title of co-founder, to focus on strategic projects and new products, and Schmidt to serve as executive chairman, working externally on deals, partnerships, customers, and government outreach. As described on the of�icial Google blog, “We are con�ident that this focus will serve Google and our users well in the future.”

The question now is, with the leadership triumvirate dead, will the new leadership structure work?

David Strick/Redux

What’s the Lesson Here?

Do you think co-leadership models work? And would they work for you—would you be able to operate effectively as part of a co-leadership structure? Why or why not?

Shared Leadership According to shared leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo402) approaches, leadership is a dynamic, interactive in�luence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals, or both.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note27) This in�luence process occurs both laterally—among team members—and vertically, with the team leader. Vertical leadership is formal leadership; shared leadership is distributed leadership that emerges from within team dynamics. The main objective of shared leadership approaches is to understand and �ind alternate sources of leadership that will impact positively on organizational performance.

Shared leadership is a dynamic, interactive in�luence process among team members working to achieve goals.

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In shared leadership, leadership can come from outside or inside the team. Within a team, leadership can be assigned to one person, rotate across team members, or be shared simultaneously as different needs arise across time. Outside the team, leaders can be formally designated. Often these nontraditional leaders are called coordinators or facilitators. A key part of their job is to provide resources to their unit and serve as a liaison with other units.

According to the theory, the key to successful shared leadership and team performance is to create and maintain conditions for that performance. This occurs when vertical and shared leadership efforts are complementary. Although a wide variety of characteristics may be important for the success of a speci�ic effort, �ive important characteristics have been identi�ied across projects: (1) ef�icient, goal-directed effort; (2) adequate resources; (3) competent, motivated performance; (4) a productive, supportive climate; and (5) a commitment to continuous improvement.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c13-note28) The distinctive contribution of shared leadership approaches is in widening the notion of leadership to consider participation of all team members while maintaining focus on conditions for team effectiveness.

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13 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is leadership?

Leadership occurs in acts of leading and following as individuals work together to attain mutual goals.

Formal leadership is found in positions of authority in organizations, whereas informal leadership is found in individuals who become in�luential due to special skills or abilities.

Leadership involves an identity construction process in which individuals negotiate identities as leaders and followers through claiming and granting.

Implicit leadership theories are beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership.

What is followership?

Followership represents a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to co-produce leadership and its outcomes.

Romance of leadership is the tendency to attribute organizational outcomes (both good and bad) to the acts and doings of leaders; its corollary is the “subordination of followership.”

The social construction of followership shows that followers hold beliefs about how they should act in relation to leaders, but whether they can act on these beliefs depends on context.

Those with power distance orientation accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally, whereas those with proactive follower orientations believe followers should act in ways that are helpful and productive to leadership outcomes.

Implicit followership theories show managers’ views of characteristics associated with effective and ineffective followership.

What do we know about leader–follower relationships?

Leader–member exchange theory shows that managers have differentiated relationships with subordinates depending on the amount of trust, respect, and loyalty in the relationship.

These relationships are important because they are differentially related to leadership and work outcomes. When relationship quality is high, performance is better, subordinates are more satis�ied and supported, commitment and citizenship are higher, and turnover is reduced.

Relationships develop through processes of social exchange based on the norm of reciprocity (i.e., when one party does something for another, an obligation is generated until it is repaid).

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Reciprocity is determined based on three components: equivalence (whether the amount given back is same as what was received), immediacy (how quickly the repayment is made), and interest (the motive behind the exchange).

Idiosyncrasy credits mean that when we have enough credits built up in relationships with others, we can get away with idiosyncrasies (i.e., deviations from expected norms) as long as the violation does not exceed the amount of credits.

What do we mean by leadership as a collective process?

Collective leadership advocates a shift in focus from traits and characteristics of leaders to a focus on the shared activities and interactive processes of leadership.

Distributed leadership sees leadership as drawing from the variety of expertise across the many, rather than relying on the limited expertise of one or a few leaders.

Co-leadership is when top leadership roles are structured in ways that no single individual is vested with the power to unilaterally lead.

Shared leadership de�ines leadership as a dynamic, interactive in�luence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals, or both.

Shared leadership occurs both laterally, among team members, and vertically, with the team leader. The main objective is to understand and �ind alternate sources of leadership that will impact positively on organizational performance.

Terms to Know Claiming (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key1)

Co-leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#key2)

Collective leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#key3)

Distributed leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#key4)

Equivalence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key5)

Followership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key6)

Follower role orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key7)

Formal leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key8)

Granting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key9)

Idiosyncrasy credits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key10)

Immediacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key11)

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Implicit followership theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key12)

Implicit leadership theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key13)

Informal leaders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key14)

Interest (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key15)

Leader–member exchange (LMX) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key16)

Leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key17)

Leadership identity construction process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key18)

Motivation to lead (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key19)

Norm of reciprocity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key20)

Power distance orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key21)

Proactive follower orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key22)

Romance of leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec266#key23)

Shared leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec274#key24)

social construction of leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key25)

Social exchange theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key26)

Trust (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec270#key27)

Upward leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec262#key28)

Self-Test 13 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str1) . Leadership is a process of ____________.

a. (a) leading and following

b. (b) deferring and obeying

c. (c) managing and supervising

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d. (d) in�luencing and resisting

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str2) . We could almost say that it is in ____________ that leadership is created.

a. (a) positions

b. (b) authority

c. (c) following

d. (d) hierarchy

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str3) . A type of leadership that is often missed in discussions of leadership is ____________ leadership.

a. (a) face-to-face

b. (b) downward

c. (c) hierarchical

d. (d) upward

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str4) . ____________ occurs through processes of claiming and granting.

a. (a) Followership

b. (b) Leadership identity construction

c. (c) Implicit theory

d. (d) Status

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str5) . People use ____________ in deciding whether to grant a leadership claim.

a. (a) implicit theories

b. (b) social constructions

c. (c) collective leadership

d. (d) social exchange

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str6) . ____________ involves the choice of how to engage with leaders in producing leadership.

a. (a) Implicit theories

b. (b) Followership

c. (c) Informal leadership

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d. (d) Reciprocity

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str7) . Power distance is an example of ____________.

a. (a) an implicit followership theory

b. (b) upward leadership

c. (c) the leadership process

d. (d) a follower role orientation

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str8) . Individuals who engage in voice likely have a ____________.

a. (a) weak feedback orientation

b. (b) prototypical leadership theory

c. (c) proactive follower orientation

d. (d) power distance orientation

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str9) . When someone returns a favor to relieve an obligation very quickly it is an example of ____________

a. (a) economic exchange

b. (b) interest

c. (c) equivalence

d. (d) immediacy

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str10) . The obligation created when someone does you a favor is ____________.

a. (a) feedback orientation

b. (b) the norm of reciprocity

c. (c) implicit followership theories

d. (d) distributed leadership

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str11) . A rule of thumb for whether you can violate norms in a relationship is to not overexpend your ____________.

a. (a) idiosyncrasy credits

b. (b) relational disclosures

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c. (c) low LMX

d. (d) reciprocity

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str12) . ____________ says that leadership is an emergent property of a group or network of interacting individuals.

a. (a) Leadership identity construction

b. (b) Distributed leadership

c. (c) Leader–member exchange theory

d. (d) Social exchange theory

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str13) . If a manager and subordinate have a lot of trust and support for one another, we can say they have a ____________.

a. (a) weak norm of reciprocity

b. (b) idiosyncratic relationship

c. (c) low LMX relationship

d. (d) high LMX relationship

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str14) . When the leadership role at the top is divided among multiple people, it is called ____________.

a. (a) collective leadership

b. (b) distributed leadership

c. (c) co-leadership

d. (d) shared leadership

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str15) . Conformity is an example of ____________.

a. (a) power distance orientation

b. (b) prototypical followership

c. (c) anti-prototypical followership

d. (d) constructive orientation

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str16) . What does it mean when we say leadership is socially constructed?

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17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str17) . How do followers see their role in leadership?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str18) . How does the norm of reciprocity work in relationship development?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str19) . Why are scholars talking about collective leadership?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c13str20) . Your roommate is student government president and has been having trouble getting others to listen to him. Each night it is a different complaint about how terrible the other people in student government are, and how they are lazy and not willing to do anything. You really want to help him �igure out this problem. How do you go about it?

Steps to Further Learning 13 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch13#ch13) .

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises Self-Assessment Portfolio

The New Vice President

Interview a Leader

Leadership Skills Inventories

Leadership and Participation in Decision Making

Least-Preferred Co-worker Scale

Leadership Style

“TT” Leadership Style

Empowering Others

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14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles

The Key Point

When leaders are effective, the people who are in�luenced by them tend to feel good and are most often productive. But when leaders are ineffective, people and performance suffer. This chapter explores why some leaders can be more successful than others, and identi�ies challenges facing leaders in today’s changing organizational contexts.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

STAYING THIN TO GAIN A LEADERSHIP EDGE

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

NEWLY PROMOTED TO MANAGER? “DO NOTHING” MAY BE YOUR KEY TO SUCCESS

Checking Ethics in OB

TACKLING UNETHICAL LEADERSHIP IN THE WORKPLACE

Finding the Leader in You

PATRICIA KARTER USES CORE VALUES AS HER GUIDE

OB in Popular Culture

LINCOLN AND LEADERSHIP

Research Insight

WHEN INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES MATTER MORE THAN CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Chapter at a Glance

What Do We Know About Leader Traits and Behaviors?

What Do Contingency Approaches Tell Us About leadership?

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What Are Charismatic and Transformational Theories of Leadership?

What Are Complexity Leadership Views?

How Do We Address Leadership Ethics?

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14.1 Leader Traits and Behaviors LEARNING ROADMAP

EARLY TRAIT APPROACHES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#sec280)

LATER TRAIT APPROACHES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#sec281)

BEHAVIORAL LEADERSHIP APPROACHES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#sec282)

ARE LEADERS BORN OR MADE? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#sec283)

We all have experience with many different kinds of leaders. Some are task oriented and authoritarian. Others are inspirational and motivating. Still others are hands off, with laissez-faire or ineffectual styles that can make it frustrating when situations require strong leadership.

These characteristics represent traits and behavioral styles of leaders. Trait and behavioral approaches help us understand how characteristics of leaders are associated with their effectiveness. The basic premise is that we can identify more and less effective leadership styles by studying how followers perceive and react to different kinds of leaders.

As any of us who have worked in organizations know, managers play a crucial role in creating the climates in which we work. When a manager fosters a supportive and motivating climate, our work is meaningful and going to work is fun. But when we have a bad manager, morale plummets and we are drained of the energy we need to be productive in work—and in life. Research has shown us what makes some managers more effective than others. In this chapter we build from this knowledge to understand how we can become more effective managers and leaders in the workplace.

Early Trait Approaches For over a century, scholars have been on a quest to identify the elusive qualities that separate leaders from non-leaders. Based on the assumption that leaders are endowed with certain traits or characteristics, much of the early work focused on identifying qualities that predict who is a leader and who is not. These studies, collectively called trait approaches, assumed that if we could identify leadership qualities, we could select individuals for leadership positions based on their leadership traits.

Trait approaches assume that leaders are endowed with certain traits or qualities associated with leader status and success.

The focus in this early work was on personality, needs, motives, values, and even physical characteristics such as height and sex. For this reason, these theories were often called “great man theories” because one of the key traits they associated with leadership was being male.

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Early review were discouraging. Scholars concluded that traits were not signi�icantly associated with leadership. A primary reason was the failure to look for situational and mediating variables, such as communication or interpersonal behaviors, that would help explain how leader traits are causally linked to outcomes.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note1) Instead, researchers looked for signi�icant correlations between traits and leadership outcomes, such as group performance or leader advancement. When they failed to �ind strong relationships, they concluded that traits were not a signi�icant predictor of leadership or its effectiveness.

Later Trait Approaches These early reviews saying there was not a pattern of signi�icant correlations caused trait approaches to fall out of favor. In recent years, however, trait approaches have experienced a comeback as management scholars are developing new measures and new ways to analyze the relationship between a manager’s traits and his or her leadership effectiveness.

Some scholars are using the Big Five dimensions of personality in an attempt to predict leader emergence (i.e., who is recognized as leader of a group) and leader effectiveness (i.e., how well a leader performs in the role). Findings show signi�icant but small relationships for four of the Big Five traits: extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note2) This means that effective leaders seem to have a bit more of these traits than ineffective and non-leaders.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“When we see a senior executive who’s overweight, our initial reaction isn’t positive. . . . If he can’t keep his hand out of the cookie jar, how can he do his job?”

Staying Thin to Gain a Leadership Edge

A good workout may return more than good health and the body image you want. It might boost your leadership potential as well. Although OB scholarship has historically turned away from considering personal traits such as height, weight, and physical attractiveness in leadership, the real world may be moving in a different direction. OB researchers are starting to look at the workout as not only a personal wellness issue but also a leadership one.

After seeing a video replay of a presentation he made at the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), Tim McNair was shocked at the prominence of his “gut.” He guessed co-workers back home were looking at the same thing every time he spoke with them. Even worse, he wondered if they were saying to each other “If he can’t keep his hand out of the cookie jar, how can he do his job?”

That question doesn’t surprise OB professor and leadership consultant Barry Posner of Santa Clara University. “When we see a senior executive who’s overweight,” he says, “our initial reaction isn’t positive.” Recent research by CCL backs him up. A study of 757 executives showed that a leader’s weight had a strong correlation with how good she or he was perceived as a leader by peers, bosses, and subordinates. A BMI of 25 seemed to be the dividing line. Below it and you score well as a leader; above it you score more poorly.

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BelleMedia/Shutterstock

OB places a lot of importance on how perceptions in�luence attitudes and behavior. So if perceptions of our leadership abilities are affected in any part by our physical appearance, maybe it’s time to get both weight and perceptions under control. Whether you call it our “leadership image” or something else, we own it. Even the CEO of Weight Watchers International has had to own up. He started the job at 245 pounds on a six-foot-two frame and says, “I sucked my gut in a lot.” After losing 40 pounds he now says, “I probably carry myself with more con�idence and authority.”

Other scholars are pulling from evolutionary psychology to identify genetic factors associated with leadership that have evolved through natural selection. These scholars argue that our predilections toward leadership and followership are likely due to natural selection that caused certain traits and behaviors to be retained because they solved adaptive problems faced by our ancestors.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note3) According to evolutionary psychology approaches, it may be engrained in some of us to voluntarily subordinate to others because our ancestors learned that, in certain situations, it is better to defer to a central command.

Behavioral Leadership Approaches If you want to know whether a leader has a certain trait—that is, intelligence, extraversion, or persuasiveness—how would you �ind out? The answer is that you would look at his or her behaviors. Not surprisingly, then, when the early trait approaches failed to produce meaningful results, researchers began considering other types of leader characteristics, such as what leaders did, or how they behaved.

This led to what is known as the behavioral approach in management research. The behavioral approach focuses on identifying categories of relevant leadership behavior and examining their relationships with outcomes. It does this primarily through the use of interviews and questionnaires that gather subordinates’ perceptions of the supervisors’ behaviors.

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The behavioral approach focuses on identifying categories of relevant leadership behavior and examining their effects on performance and other outcomes.

Research Insight

When Individual Differences Matter More than Cultural Differences

When it comes to transformational leadership, whether subordinates like it or not may depend more on individual differences than cultural differences. At least this is what researchers found in a study of managers and subordinates in the United States and China. The �indings, published in the Academy of Management Journal, show that when individuals have a low power distance orientation they see transformational leaders as more fair (i.e., procedural justice) than when they have a high power distance orientation. And this �inding seems to hold across both Chinese and American respondents.

The authors suggest that the difference lies in one’s power distance orientation. When individuals have a high power distance orientation, they expect their leaders to communicate strong directives. And they don’t want leaders to provide explanation or clari�ication—their expectation is that solutions should come from leaders, not from followers. Transformational leaders, however, are focused on stimulating followers to think for themselves and take on more leadership responsibility. They use intellectual stimulation to encourage followers to think more like leaders. For those with high power distance orientation, this use of intellectual stimulation is viewed with suspicion. They believe it is unfair for leaders to pass on to followers what they should be taking care of themselves.

These �indings indicate that cultural differences may matter less than we think. Individuals both in the United States and China appear to respond negatively to transformational leadership when they have high power distance orientation. When power distance orientation is low, transformational leadership is seen as fair. But when power distance is high, transformational leaders better beware: Subordinates might not like their style!

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Do the Research Do you think these �indings would hold for other leadership styles? The study looked at power distance orientation, but what other variables do you think might matter when it comes to considering individual differences across cultures?

Source: See Bradley Kirkman, Gilad Chen, Jiing-Lih Harh, Zhen Xiong Chen, and Kevin Lowe, “Individual Power Distance Orientation and Follower Reactions to Transformational Leaders: A Cross-Cultural Examination,” Academy of Management Journal 52 (2009), pp. 744–764.

Much of the early work on behavioral approaches was centered at two universities, so they became known as the Ohio State and Michigan studies.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note4) These studies discovered that the majority of a manager’s leadership behaviors could be divided into two meta-categories: relations-oriented and task-oriented behavior. Relations-oriented behavior, or consideration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo57) , involves concern for relationships and interpersonal support. It focuses on employee-centered, or socioemotional, concerns. Task-oriented behavior, or initiating structure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo191) , involves directive behavior focused on providing clarity and task focus. It addresses production-centered, or task-related, concerns of management.

Relations-oriented behavior, also known as consideration, involves concern for relationships and socioemotional support.

Task-oriented behavior, also known as initiating structure, involves providing direction and enforcing performance standards needed to drive production.

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These two behavioral categories form the foundation for much of the management research that was to follow. Relations-oriented behavior focuses on the human relations aspects of management. It shows that highly considerate managers are sensitive to people’s feelings and try to make things pleasant for followers. They do this by listening to subordinates and treating them as respected colleagues, defending subordinates when needed, being willing to accept suggestions, and consulting with subordinates on important matters.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note5)

Task-oriented behavior focuses on production. Its key concern is to provide structure for subordinates by de�ining task requirements and specifying the work agenda. Task-oriented behaviors include maintaining performance standards, assigning tasks, identifying standard procedures, enforcing deadlines, correcting performance problems, and coordinating activities.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note6)

Are Leaders Born or Made? The focus on traits and behaviors raises another issue at the center of leadership. Is leadership restricted to those who are born with leadership ability, or can anyone be made into a leader? This is known as the “born/made” argument in leadership. The “born” argument aligns with trait theory, which says that leaders have certain traits—that they are natural-born leaders. The “made” argument aligns with the behavior approaches, which say that leadership is associated with behaviors (i.e., if you behave like a leader you are a leader). The made argument implies that anyone can be made into a leader through training and development.

Where do you fall on this issue? Do you think anyone can be made into a leader? Or do you think people have to have certain skills to be a leader? If the born argument is right, then we should focus on selection by screening new hires for leadership traits and skills. If the made argument is correct then we should focus on development by training individuals to better demonstrate leadership behaviors.

Potential insight into the answer can be found in a series of research studies by Rich Arvey and colleagues based on samples of fraternal and identical twins from the Minnesota Twin Registry. Examining how much leadership is determined by nature (i.e., genetics) and how much by nurture (i.e., environment), they found that 30 percent to 32 percent of the variance in role occupancy among twins could be accounted for by genetic factors. This means that roughly 70 percent can be developed.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note7) The implication of these �indings is that not everyone can be a leader. Instead, individuals must possess at least some set of basic leadership skills and abilities. In other words, just like being a musician or a star athlete, leadership is a talent—and some people have it more than others.

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14.2 Contingency Theories LEARNING ROADMAP

THE CONTINGENCY MODEL (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#sec285)

FINDINGS FROM CONTINGENCY THEORIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#sec286)

FIEDLER’S LEADER MATCH (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#sec287)

PROBLEMS WITH CONTINGENCY APPROACHES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#sec288)

Common sense would tell us that not all traits or behaviors of leaders are positively related to effectiveness all of the time. Instead, whether a leader behavior is effective will depend on the situation. On the �irst day of class, what do you want from your professor: Do you want more considerate behavior, or do you want more structuring behavior? Most students want more structuring behavior. If your professor comes in and is nice and friendly (i.e., consideration) but does not hand out a syllabus (i.e., initiating structure), the response will likely not be very positive. In other words, some situations call for certain types of behaviors more than others.

This is the premise behind the contingency approaches in leadership theory. Contingency approaches state that whether a leader style or behavior is positively associated with leadership effectiveness depends on (i.e., is contingent upon) the situation. In situations requiring more direction and structure, task-oriented behavior will be more effective and desired. In situations requiring more support and consideration, relations-oriented behavior will be more effective.

Contingency approaches state that the relationship between leader behavior and leadership effectiveness depends on the situation.

The Contingency Model A general contingency model is shown in Figure 14.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#r�ig14-1) . It indicates that a manager’s leadership behavior or style (e.g., the independent variable) is related to leadership effectiveness (e.g., the outcome variable) depending on the situation (e.g., the moderator variable).

Contingency theories start with a manager’s behavioral style. The most common leadership behaviors used by managers are task oriented and relations oriented. In contingency approaches, these are often referred to as directive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo85) and supportive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo441) styles. Two additional behavioral styles were added later: achievement-oriented and participative leadership.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note8) Achievement-oriented leadership

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo4) focuses on building subordinates’ con�idence in their ability to achieve high standards of performance through a focus on excellence and goal setting. Participative leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo308) focuses on consulting with subordinates and taking their suggestions into account before making decisions.

Directive leadership provides clarity and direction for subordinates.

Supportive leadership promotes a friendly work climate by focusing on subordinate needs and well-being.

Achievement-oriented leadership is motivation focused and builds subordinates’ con�idence to achieve high standards through its focus on excellence and goal setting.

Participative leadership is a democratic form of leadership that consults with subordinates and takes their suggestions into account before making decisions.

Contingency theories try to predict leadership effectiveness. The most common effectiveness variables are subordinate job satisfaction and performance. As described in previous chapters, job satisfaction is the positive feelings one has about the work and work setting. Performance is the quality and quantity of work produced. Performance can be measured at the individual level (i.e., the performance of a particular subordinate) or at the group level (i.e., the performance of a work unit).

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FIGURE 14.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#�ig14-1) A comprehensive contingency model.

The central argument of contingency theories is that situational factors moderate the association between a manager’s leadership style and his or her effectiveness. Situational variables are assessed in a variety of ways. They include characteristics of the follower, such as follower readiness, or ability to do the task. They can be characteristics of the task, such as task structure (e.g., high or low task structure). Or they can be characteristics of the organizational structure, such as leader position power (e.g., formal or informal authority system).

Follower readiness is the amount of experience or ability the follower has to do the job.

Task structure describes whether the task is highly de�ined (high structure) or ambiguous (low structure).

Leader position power describes the amount of formal authority associated with the position of the leader.

Findings from Contingency Theories Findings from contingency approaches show, in general, that certain situations favor certain leadership styles. Managers, therefore, need to understand, what the situation is and how to adjust their style to �it it.

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Directive Leadership Directive leadership is needed when subordinates want guidance and direction in their jobs. It helps increases role clarity, self-ef�icacy, effort, and performance. When the task is clear, directive leadership will have a negative impact, as it will be seen as overly domineering—a “micromanaging” style—by subordinates.

Supportive Leadership Supportive leadership is needed when subordinates want emotional, not task, support. Supportive leadership is bene�icial for highly repetitive or unpleasant tasks. It helps reduce stress by letting employees know the organization cares and will provide help.

Achievement-Oriented Leadership Achievement-oriented leadership is needed for challenging tasks or when subordinates need to take initiative. It helps employees gain con�idence and strive for higher standards. It increases expectations that effort will lead to desired performance.

Participative Leadership Participative leadership is best when subordinates need limited direction and support. It allows employees to provide input. When tasks are repetitive, nonauthoritarian subordinates appreciate being involved to help break up the monotony.

Fiedler’s Leader-Match One contingency theory that differs from the others in how it handles the issue of �it between leader style and the situation is Fiedler’s LPC (least-preferred co-worker) model. Fiedler’s LPC model suggests that a manager’s leadership style does not change. A manager has a certain style and that is the style he or she has to work with. Therefore, instead of modifying their style, managers need to match (i.e., leader-match) the situation to their style.

Leader-match means the leader cannot change his or her style and therefore needs to change the situation to match the style.

A match can be achieved in two ways: by selecting managers with the appropriate style to �it the situation, or by training managers to change the situation to make it �it their leadership style. In the latter case, Fiedler developed leader-match training, which Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other organizations used for training managers to diagnose the situation and match their style to it. A number of studies have been designed to test this leader match training. Although they are not uniformly supportive, more than a dozen such tests found increases in work unit effectiveness following the training.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note9)

Problems with Contingency Approaches Although contingency approaches focus managers on the importance of matching their styles to the situation, they do not describe exactly how to do this. The problem is that the guidelines coming out of contingency approaches are broad, and therefore not very informative. In the workplace, managers face leadership situations that are complex and dynamic, and each situation is unique in its own way. There is no “magic toolbox” we can give managers for how to deal with these situations. Leaders need to understand the basic concepts but then be able to adapt their style to �it the needs of the particular situation.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

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Newly Promoted to Manager? “Do Nothing” May Be Your Key to Success

Do nothing! Really? This sounds like the complete opposite of what leaders are supposed to be doing. After all they worked really hard to get the promotion. Shouldn’t they be showing everyone else that they’re still the best workers on the team?

Northwestern’s Keith Murnighan has spent a lot of time studying leaders and people at work. He’s the one pushing the “do nothing” approach to leadership. But he doesn’t mean not showing up for work and being out of touch with what’s going on. He does mean, however, not trying to do other people’s jobs for them and continuing to do the tasks you excelled at before getting the promotion. Leaders need to understand that their jobs are to help others do great work, not do that work for them. They also need to understand that leadership today is more like coaching a team full of talented players: they need strategy, they need support, and they need encouragement and reminders to stay focused. When given all that, the likelihood is that teams they can deliver great results.

In his book Do Nothing: How to Stop Overmanaging and Become a Great Leader, Murnighan identi�ies micro-managing—or overmanaging—as one of a leader’s most common and costly mistakes. This basically means not trusting others to use their talents and instead trying to direct them in every last detail of their work. Murnighan describes this as a natural human tendency, one linked in part to the desire to be in control of things. He also says a good leader recognizes this tendency and guards against it. “As you move up,” Murnighan points out, “you can’t help but remember what made you successful and think that you should ‘do’ more of that. But as you get more responsibility you should actually do less.”

The point is that leaders need time to work on the big picture and putting resources and support systems in place. They also need time to listen and learn from those reporting to them so that they can do these things best. Everyone, says Murnighan, wants leaders who are willing to say “You’re on the front lines and I’m not, so I want to hear your voice as I formulate strategy.” If they try to do everything, they won’t have time for these really important things. But if they “do nothing”—meaning nothing that someone else can do—they’ll have time and energy left to do the right things, the things leaders are paid for and expected to do in support of their teams.

© Hero Images/Corbis

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Do the Analysis

Can you buy into this notion of “doing nothing”? Is Murnighan on the right track, or is his advice potentially misleading in causing leaders to think that they don’t have to be in charge of things at all? What’s the proper dividing line between managing just enough and overmanaging? Does this line depend on the nature of the work being done, the skills of the work team, and even the industry? In other words, is “Do nothing” a universal prescription for leadership action or more of a useful reminder that leaders need to tread carefully and make sure they’re doing the right things?

Frustration with these limitations led to what some refer to as the “doom and gloom” period in leadership research. This period (the 1970s to 1980s) was characterized by disillusionment and criticism from scholars that leadership research had told us very little.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note10) To address these criticisms, scholars turned to a new way to think about leadership. Instead of focusing on leadership contexts, they focused on leaders. This led to visionary, charismatic, and transformational approaches in leadership.

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14.3 Charismatic/Transformational Views LEARNING ROADMAP

CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#sec290)

BURNS’S TRANSFORMING LEADERSHIP THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#sec291)

BASS’S TRANSACTIONAL/TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#sec292)

PROBLEMS OF “HEROIC” LEADERSHIP VIEWS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#sec293)

Charismatic Leadership We are all familiar with charismatic leadership. We have been witness to the powerful effects, both good and bad, charismatic leaders can have on those around them. But what exactly is charisma, and how does it operate in leadership?

Charisma Charisma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo34) is a special personal quality or attractiveness that enables an individual to in�luence others. It is often characterized as personal magnetism or charm. Charisma evokes enthusiasm and commitment among followers. For example, John F. Kennedy, Oprah Winfrey, and Nelson Mandela are often described as charismatic leaders.

Charisma is a special personal quality or attractiveness that enables an individual to in�luence others.

Charisma has its roots in Christianity. The earliest usage depicts leaders set apart from ordinary people by their divine calling, personal sacri�ice, and devotion to a spiritual mission and duty.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note11) People follow out of a sense of obedience and trust in the leader and his or her revelation. Mother Theresa and Gandhi were able to amass large followings because of their self-sacri�ice and dedication to their mission. Their calling had broad appeal to the needs and hopes of the people around them.

Although charisma is often considered an individual trait, it is more aptly described as a relational process involving a leader, followers, and a situation. Katherine Klein and Robert House describe charisma as “a �ire” produced by three elements: (1) a “spark”—a leader with charismatic qualities, (2) “�lammable material”—followers who are open or susceptible to charisma, and (3) “oxygen”—an environment, such as a crisis or a situation of unrest among followers, that is conducive to charisma.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note12) For example, Martin Luther King was a leader with charismatic qualities (a skilled communicator), who tapped into the needs of followers hungry for change (protestors for equality), in a time of great unrest (the Civil Rights Movement).

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Charismatic Traits and Behaviors What most distinguishes charismatic leaders is their skill as communicators. Charismatic leaders connect with followers on a deep, emotional level. They use metaphors and symbols to articulate their vision in ways that captivate followers and build identi�ication. Their vision may offer promises that otherwise appear impossible. For many, this was the appeal of Barack Obama’s 2008 election platform of “Change We Can Believe In” and “Yes We Can.” Charismatic leaders often use unconventional behavior to demonstrate their exceptional qualities. Virgin Group founder Richard Branson is often described as a charismatic leader, and his record-breaking crossing of the Paci�ic Ocean in a hot air balloon certainly quali�ies as unconventional and exceptional behavior.

Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

Novel and inspiring vision

Emotional appeals to values

Expressive communication in articulating the vision

Unconventional behavior

Personal risk and self-sacri�ice to attain the vision

High expectations

Con�idence and optimism

Consequences of Charisma For charisma to achieve positive outcomes, it needs to be used from a socialized charismatic power orientation, where power is used for collective rather than personal bene�it. When used for personal interests, or a personalized charismatic power orientation it can have destructive consequences. Personalized charismatics dominate followers and keep them weak and dependent on the leader. For example, many dictators oppress their people by not allowing access to schooling or meaningful employment. In organizations, personalized charismatics reduce followers’ power by centralizing decision making, restricting information, and doing what they can to make themselves look more important than others.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note13)

Socialized charismatics focus on power for collective (e.g., societal) rather than personal bene�it.

Personalized charismatics focus on power for personal rather than collective bene�it.

Research �indings suggest that charisma is not a bene�icial attribute for most chief executives.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note14) Studies of CEO charisma have shown that �inancial performance was predicted by past performance but not by CEO charisma. Although charismatics are often able to persuade boards of directors to give them higher compensation, there is no evidence that these CEOs improve �inancial performance for their companies. One exception is in times of

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crisis or change management. For example, Steve Jobs’s charisma was critical to the turnaround of Apple Computer in the late 1990s.

Dangers of Charismatic Leadership Charisma is a powerful force, and can be a dangerous one. Because charismatic leaders arouse strong emotions among followers, they can produce radical behaviors, even when that is not their intention. This occurs because followers often have psychological needs causing them to want hero �igures who make them feel motivated, special, or secure.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note15) This can lead followers to interpret leaders as wanting them to do things even when leaders do not. For example, in the movie Dead Poet’s Society, Robin Williams plays a charismatic teacher, John Keating, who inspires students in a conservative and aristocratic boarding school in Vermont to “seize the day” and live their lives to the fullest. His charisma goes out of control, however, when one of the students, Neil Perry, interprets Keating’s message to mean he should rebel against his parents. When that doesn’t work, Neil is so distraught that he commits suicide.

Followers’ heroizing of charismatic leaders can also lead to disbelief and frustration when leaders don’t live up to their expectations. Followers of charismatic leaders often put the leader on a pedestal and expect superhuman behavior. But the problem is all leaders are human, and rarely will they live up to these expectations.

Charismatic leaders can try to address these problems by reducing power distance. Power distance is the extent to which followers see the leader as having much higher status than them.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note16) When power distance is high, followers are reluctant to speak up or question because they believe the leader knows best. Leaders can address these problems by empowering followers to think critically and encouraging them to push back when they have concerns. They can also share in the credit for success, letting followers know that it is the combined actions that allowed the success—not the leader acting alone.

Power distance is the extent to which followers see leaders as having much higher status than them.

Burns’s Transforming Leadership Theory Transformational leadership theory is another approach that helped lift leadership out of the doom and gloom period in leadership studies. It began with publication of a book by political scientist James MacGregor Burns in 1978 analyzing the leadership styles of prominent political leaders.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note17) Burns’s approach focused on leadership from the standpoint of power, purpose, and relationships.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note18) Key to his analysis was the distinction between leaders and power wielders.

According to Burns, leaders take followers’ goals, motivations, needs, and feelings into consideration and use power for good. Power wielders, on the other hand, are egocentric and Machiavellian. They use power to advance their own interests without considering followers’ needs. Whereas leaders elevate followers (and themselves) to new heights, power wielders gain power over followers in ways that cause followers to engage in behaviors they otherwise would not. In Burns’s view, power wielders are not leaders.

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Power wielders use power to advance their own interests without considering followers’ needs.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Patricia Karter Uses Core Values as Her Guide

Sweet is what one gets when digging into one of Dancing Deer Baking’s Cherry Almond Ginger Chew cookies. Co-founded by Trish Karter, Dancing Deer sells over $10 million of cookies, cakes, and brownies each year. Each product is made with all-natural ingredients, packaged in recycled materials, and comes from inner-city Boston.

This story began for Karter in 1994 when she and her husband made a $20,000 angel investment in a talented baker and set her up in a former pizza shop. Karter hadn’t planned on working in the company, but growth came quickly and their baker partner, Suzanne Lombardi, needed more support for the company to prosper and Karter jumped in. Customer demand led to product development and expansion; many positive press callouts and industry awards, such as being recognized on national TV as having the “best cake in the nation” and winning (the �irst of eleven) Sophie awards, the food industry’s equivalent of the Oscars, fueled growth further.

It isn’t always easy for a leader to stay on course and in control while changing structures, adding people, and dealing with competition. For Karter, though, the anchor point has always been clear: let core values be the guide. Dancing Deer’s employees get stock options and a package of bene�its well above the industry standard; 35 percent of the sales price from the �irm’s Sweet Home line of cake and cookie gifts are donated to fund scholarships for homeless and at-risk mothers. When offered a chance to make a large cookie sale to Williams-Sonoma, Karter declined. Why? Because to ful�ill the order would have required the use of preservatives, and that violated the company’s values.

Williams-Sonoma was so impressed that it contracted to develop bakery mixes and, eventually, many more products and a substantial relationship. Instead of losing an opportunity, by sticking with her values Karter’s �irm gained more sales.

“There’s more to life than selling cookies,” says the Dancing Deer’s Web site, “but it’s not a bad way to make a living.” Karter hopes growth will soon make Dancing Deer “big enough to make an impact, to be a social economic force.” As she says on www.dancingdeer.com (http://www.dancingdeer.com) : “It has been an interesting journey. Our successes are due to luck, a tremendous amount of dedication and hard work, and a commitment to having fun while being true to our principles. We have had failures as well—and survived them with a sense of humor.”

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Courtesy Dancing Deer Baking Company, Inc.

What’s the Lesson Here?

Do you know your core values? Do those core values guide your leadership decisions? Have you ever had your core values tested, and how did you respond?

Through his analysis, Burns noticed different styles and approaches used by leaders. Some used transactional leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo458) styles, in which they focused on exchanging valued goods in return for something they want (e.g., economic, political, or social exchanges, such as exchange of money for goods or support for votes). The focus here is purely instrumental. There is no expectation beyond the exchange. Other leaders—the ones Burns was most interested in learning about—used what he called transformational leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo460) styles. Transformational leaders developed inspirational relationships with followers in which both leaders and followers were positively transformed in the process. This transformation raised human conduct and enhanced the moral aspirations of both leaders and followers. In Burns’s transforming leadership theory, the transformation is based on both leaders and followers attaining higher levels of moral purpose as they accomplished common goals.

Transactional leadership involves a focus on exchanging valued goods in return for something leaders want.

Transformational leadership involves inspirational relationships in which both leaders and followers are positively transformed in the process.

The key element of Burns’s theory is the moral foundation upon which transforming leadership rests.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note19) A transforming leader is one who,

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though initially impelled by the quest for individual recognition, ultimately advances collective purpose by being attuned to the aspirations and needs of his or her followers. In Burns’s theory, the transformation is a moral accomplishment because its outcome raises human conduct. According to Burns, Mao and Gandhi were quintessential transforming leaders. Instead of exploiting power they remained sensitive to higher purposes and aspirations.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note20) Hitler, on the other hand, was not a leader in Burns’s analysis, but a power wielder who used his power for sel�ish and destructive purpose.

Bass’s Transactional/Transformational Leadership Theory Bernard Bass drew from Burns’s theory of political leadership to develop a theory of leadership for organizations. He called his approach “performance beyond expectations.” Contrary to Burns’s focus on transformation as a higher moral purpose and values, Bass’s focus on transformation was on organizational performance. In his theory, the transformation occurs when followers are inspired to set aside their self-interest for organizational interest. In other words, they accept the purpose is attainment of pragmatic task objectives for the good of the organization.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note21)

Bass’s Transformational Leadership Bass’s transformational leadership styles move the follower beyond immediate self-interests by using four types of leader behaviors shown in Figure 14.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#r�ig14-2) . Idealized in�luence and inspirational leadership are similar to charismatic leadership, described earlier in this chapter. They are displayed when the leader envisions a desirable future, articulates how it can be reached, sets an example to be followed, sets high standards of performance, and shows determination and con�idence. Intellectual stimulation is displayed when the leader helps followers to become more innovative and creative. Individualized consideration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo185) is displayed when leaders pay attention to the developmental needs of followers by providing support, encouragement, and coaching.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note22)

Bass’s transformational leadership involves leaders motivating followers to transcend self- interest for the sake of the organization or team.

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FIGURE 14.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#�ig14-2) Key Differences in Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles.

Transformational leaders articulate a shared vision of the future, intellectually stimulate subordinates, provide a great deal of support to individuals, recognize individual differences, and set high expectations for the work unit.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note23) They increase followers’ social identity by enhancing pride in contributing to a higher purpose, and make followers feel more secure in their membership and status in the group.

Bass’s Transactional Leadership Bass’s transactional leadership is based in self-interest, and use exchanges between leaders and followers to attain desired behavior and outcomes. The transactional leadership styles shown in Figure 14.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#r�ig14-2) are associated with several kinds of behavior. Contingent rewards involve exchanging rewards for mutually agreed-upon goal accomplishment. Active management by exception involves watching for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective action. Passive management by exception involves intervening only if standards are not met. And laissez-faire leadership involves abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note25)

Bass’s transactional leadership refers to the exchange relationship between leaders and followers to meet their own self-interests.

Findings from Bass’s Approach Bass’s transactional and transformational leadership theory is one of the most prominent theories in organizational leadership research. To advance his work, Bass began by

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developing a measure known as the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). This measure assesses transformational and transactional leadership styles.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note24) Hundreds of studies have used the MLQ to investigate transformational and transactional styles of managerial leaders as perceived by their subordinates. Findings largely support Bass’s premise that transformational leadership is associated with increased follower motivation and performance (more so than transactional leadership) and that effective leaders use a combination of both types of leadership.

Meta-analyses show that composite measures of transformational and transactional leadership are related to leadership effectiveness, particularly when ratings are provided by subordinates (e.g., subordinate satisfaction). One likely reason for this is that transformational leadership is highly correlated with trust. In other words, much of the relationship between transformational leaders and outcomes is likely due to the trust subordinates have in transformational leaders.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note26)

One criticism of Bass’s approach is that in focusing on organizational performance as the ultimate goal, Bass lost the moral underpinnings upon which Burns’s theory is based. Burns’s theory is based on the leader’s allegiance to followers and to uplifting society. Bass’s theory is based on allegiance to the organization and performance. Some argue that this makes the approach susceptible to problems of narcissism and exploitation when leaders interpret the transformation from self-interest to organizational interest to mean their wishes take precedence over others.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note27) It is also morally questionable to ask subordinates to put aside their self-interest for organizational good.

Problems of “Heroic” Leadership Views Charismatic and transformational approaches were key to revitalizing leadership studies after the doom and gloom period, so they hold a prominent place in leadership theory and practice. One side effect of these approaches, however, is the rise of heroic leadership views. Heroic views see leadership as the acts of great leaders who inspire and motivate others to accomplish extraordinary things. Heroic views create pictures of leaders as white knights swooping in to save the day, and followers as weak and passive subordinates who are fully reliant on leaders for direction, trust and hope.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note28)

Heroic leadership views see leadership as the result of acts of great leaders who inspire and motivate others to accomplish extraordinary things.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Lincoln and Leadership

From the time we are young, we are told stories of great leaders. In American culture one of these heroes is Abraham Lincoln. Known as Honest Abe, Lincoln’s story conveys a man of great integrity and conviction.

But the movie Lincoln directed by Stephen Spielberg shows a more nuanced view of the realities and complexities facing Lincoln as a leader, and the sacri�ices to personal integrity he made to accomplish his

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goal of abolishing slavery. Contrary to views of leaders as inspiring others to follow through vision and transformation, the story of Lincoln shows how very transactional Lincoln had to be to procure the votes needed to pass the Thirteenth Amendment. Much like our politicians today, Lincoln engaged in deal making and buying votes. In the process he resorted to relying on sleazy political operatives, and at times even misrepresented the truth.

Lincoln’s key strengths, as portrayed in the movie, were his understanding of the complexities he faced and the need for a keen sense of timing. Speaking to Thaddeus Stevens, Lincoln says, “When the people disagree, bringing them together requires going slow until they’re ready to make up the distance. . . . [I]f I’d listened to you I’d have declared every slave freed the minute the �irst shell struck Fort Sumter. And the border states would have gone over to the Confederacy, the war would have been lost, and the Union along with it, and instead of abolishing slavery . . . we’d be watching helpless as infants as it spread from the American South into South America.”

Lincoln clearly motivated his followers through inspirational storytelling that diffused tension and helped maintain their support, but he also had to rely on his position power. In one scene with his cabinet secretaries, he tells them, “Two votes stand in its way. These votes must be procured . . . now get the hell out of here and get ’em!” When one member asks, “Yes, but how?” Lincoln responds in frustration, “Buzzard’s guts, man. I am the president of the United States of America clothed in immense power. You will procure me these votes.”

Dreamworks/20th Century Fox/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better Assessment 12, “TT” Leadership Style, in the OB Skills Workbook measures your transformational and transactional leadership styles. What does it show? Would you, like Lincoln, be able to draw from both transformational and transactional leadership as needed to accomplish goals? Do you understand the importance of timing? What do you think about the ethics of Lincoln’s approach? Some question the methods Lincoln used—going to war in which 600,000 people lost their lives. Do the ends justify the means, or was there another way to accomplish his goals?

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In so doing, heroic views overlook the signi�icance of everyday leaders in�luencing throughout the organization. They also miss the importance of process, and the key role of followers in the leadership process. They overestimate the in�luence of the leader and underestimate the importance of context and timing. To address these issues and others, new approaches such as complexity leadership theory are being introduced to leadership research.

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14.4 Complexity Leadership Views LEARNING ROADMAP

TODAY’S COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#sec295)

COMPLEXITY LEADERSHIP THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#sec296)

CHALLENGES OF COMPLEXITY LEADERSHIP APPROACHES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#sec297)

Complexity leadership approaches draw from complexity science to bring a more dynamic and contextual view to leadership.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note29) Complexity science originates in �ields such as biology, physics, mathematics, economics, and meteorology. It is the study of complex adaptive systems—systems that adapt and evolve in the process of interacting with dynamic environments.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note30)

Complex adaptive systems are systems that adapt and evolve in the process of interacting with dynamic environments.

Complex adaptive systems offer a valuable lens for organizational behavior because, contrary to bureaucratic organizing approaches, complex systems have no centralized coordination and control. Coordination comes from within the system, occurring through interactive dynamics and emergence among system components.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note31) Many are beginning to see complex adaptive systems as powerful mechanisms for explaining phenomena in the physical and economic world, including weather (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes), anthills, swarming �ish, bee colonies, economies, and markets.

Complex adaptive systems help us think about how organizations can make themselves more adaptive rather than bureaucratic. They emphasize that a key goal of organizations and criteria for leadership effectiveness should be the extent to which they are able to adapt to survive.

Today’s Complex Environments Interest in complexity approaches is increasing because our environments today are radically different from those of the industrial era when management theories �irst developed.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note32) In the Industrial Age managers were trying to �igure out how to organize semiskilled laborers in assembly lines and factories. To do this they turned to bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo29) , which allowed managers to use hierarchy and control to achieve ef�iciency and results.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note33)

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Bureaucracy is an organizing form in which division of labor, speci�ication of titles and duties, and hierarchical reporting relationships provide ef�iciency and control.

In today’s environments these approaches are no longer working. Managers no longer have control over information, and employees are less willing to just go along or do what they are told. They expect to be engaged at work and to be treated as active partners in the leadership process. Moreover, problems are too complex to be solved by one person. They require teams of people and distributed intelligence, rather than the limited intelligence of the leader at the top.

As seen in Figure 14.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#r�ig14-2) , these changes are requiring radical differences in assumptions about what leaders need to do to be effective in today’s workplace. We are gradually moving away from a hierarchical world into a more connectionist one. In this highly connected world leaders need to rely more on personal power than position power, and we need both “bottom up” and “top down” in�luence and information �lows in organizations. This requires more proactive than passive followership, and leadership responsibility needs to be distributed throughout the organization. It is no longer just the responsibility of leaders (i.e., accountability up) but instead the responsibility of all (i.e., accountability all).

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FIGURE 14.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#�ig14-3) Major Differences Between Bureaucratic and Complexity Assumptions.

The major differences in complexity and bureaucratic assumptions are shown in Figure 14.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#r�ig14-3) .34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note34) Perhaps the biggest difference lies in the nature of control. Unlike the Industrial Age when managers could control events, today’s interconnected world means that things happen unexpectedly and without our ability to stop them. Managers today operate in workplaces where they are expected to think on their feet and respond quickly and creatively. And they can’t respond to complex problems by themselves. All of this requires that leaders enable their organizations to cope with complexity by being more adaptive.

Complexity Leadership Theory

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Today’s leaders enable adaptability by fostering innovation, �lexibility, and learning. These characteristics are the key to survival in complex (ever-changing) environments. That said, organizations are still bureaucracies: They still have hierarchical organizing systems, and they still need ef�iciency and control. Therefore, the key lies in effectively combining bureaucratic organizing structures with complex adaptive systems.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note35)

Complexity leadership theory says we can do this by understanding three types of leadership systems in organizations.36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note36) The �irst, administrative leadership, focuses on how we can gain ef�iciency and meet the �inancial and performance needs of the organization. The goal of administrative leadership is to drive business results through tools such as policy, ef�iciency, strategic planning, resource allocation, budgeting, and scheduling. It occurs in formal roles (i.e., the administrative system) and is mainly performed by managers.

Administrative leadership occurs in formal, managerial roles and focuses on alignment and control aimed at driving business results.

Entrepreneurial leadership represents the bottom-up, emergent forces that drive innovation, learning, and change in organizations. This form of leadership can be subtle, such as when people develop new ways of working as part of their day-to-day functioning and these changes dissipate into the system. Or it can be more intentional, as in the case of entrepreneurial leaders acting as intrapreneurs: individuals who work to create and actively champion new ideas and innovations. These types of entrepreneurial leaders are often highly proactive, self-motivated, and action oriented in the pursuit of innovative products or services.

Entrepreneurial leadership fuels innovation, adaptability, and change.

New Venture Start-ups Led by Women More Likely to Succeed

Could it be that having women in executive roles could be a performance asset for start-up �irms receiving venture capital? Research reported by Dow Jones VentureSource that the median presence of females on boards and in executive roles of successful start-ups was 73 percent versus only 31 percent in unsuccessful ones. Even though a small minority of �irms in the survey—13 percent—had female founders, the presence of females as board members, vice presidents, and senior executives was a differentiating success factor. Still, women founders aren’t getting their fair share of new venture start-up capital. Especially in the tech industry, venture capitalist Cameron Lester says, money tends to �low toward men who better �it the entrepreneurial stereotype. But the research on start-up success is refocusing attention on the advantages women bring to the situation—for example, they are more in tune with different customer and market groups, and more �inancially conservative in managing a �irm’s money.

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© Mark Bowden/iStockphoto

Top-down and bottom-up forces alone are not suf�icient, however. They need to function together effectively to make the overall system adaptive. Therefore, complexity leadership adds a third function called adaptive leadership. Adaptive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo7) operates in the interface between administrative and entrepreneurial systems.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note37) Its job is to foster the conditions for productive emergence by helping generate new ideas and then enabling them within the formal administrative system to produce results (i.e., innovation). It does this by sponsoring ideas from the entrepreneurial system, providing critical resources, and helping innovations to �low into the formal administrative system to increase �itness for the �irm.

Adaptive leadership operates in the interface between the administrative and entrepreneurial systems and fosters conditions for emergence.

Research �indings provide support for complexity leadership models. They offer evidence for emergence and the importance of adaptive leadership in organizations. One of the most signi�icant �indings, however, is the overwhelming predominance of sti�ling bureaucratic leadership in organizations. This is because traditional leadership theories have socialized managers and organizational members into control- oriented approaches that respond to complexity with order and stability. Findings are beginning to show that traditional top-down approaches are not only insuf�icient in complex environments—they may even be harmful to organizational health when they sti�le the adaptive dynamics needed to respond in complex environments.

Challenges of Complexity Leadership Approaches Because complexity leadership is a new approach, more study is needed. Early �indings are supportive, but we need greater understanding of how these processes work in organizations, particularly with respect to the adaptive system. Complexity is a broad and technical �ield so it needs to be translated appropriately for business leaders. It also represents a paradigm shift that will be uncomfortable to many. Although research �indings show that leaders who use complexity approaches are successful in driving business results and adaptability, these approaches are so different that some individuals may not be recognized as leaders because they are not as directive and controlling as described in predominant thinking about leadership. As we continue to transition from a hierarchical to a complex world, however, these styles will not only be more recognized, they will be more expected.

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CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Tackling Unethical Leadership in the Workplace

A 2013 report released by the Institute of Leadership and Management reveals that unethical practices are common in U.K. workplaces. Over three-�ifths (63 percent) of managers in the United Kingdom indicate that they have been expected to engage in unethical behavior at work. Among managers, 9 percent say they have been asked to break the law at some point in their career, and 1 in 10 say they left a job because they were asked to do something that made them feel uncomfortable.

It seems that efforts by organizations to curtail unethical leadership may not be working. Over 90 percent of the respondents said their organizations have a values statement, but 43 percent of respondents said they were pressured to act in direct violation of it. Worse, 12 percent of the managers said the association between employee behavior and company-stated values was “not close at all” in their workplace. Over a quarter of the respondents were concerned that their career would suffer if they reported an ethical violation, with whistle-blowing fears higher among more junior managers than directors.

The researchers recommend that businesses have a clear policy to encourage staff to report concerns over breaches and ethical violations. They also call for the need for ethical leadership from the top. Given the seeming severity of the problem, do you think this will work? It seems value statements are not enough to stem the problems of unethical leadership in the workplace.

© LuminaStock/iStockphoto

What Do You Think? We know that ethical problems exist in organizations and that much of this comes from managers asking employees to engage in unethical behavior. What can be done to stem this problem? Ethical statements and reporting programs do not seem to be working. What would you do to design a more ethical workplace, and what structural factors would you identify to help promote more ethical leadership? How would you deal with cases of ethical violations in your workplace?

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14.5 Leadership Ethics LEARNING ROADMAP

SHARED VALUE VIEW (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#sec299)

SERVANT LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#sec300)

EMPOWERING LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#sec301)

ETHICAL LEADERSHIP THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#sec302)

At the core of leadership is the issue of the moral and ethical dilemmas that arise in leadership contexts. And leadership contexts are ripe for moral challenges. Leaders can be seduced by power, and pressure for results can tempt achievement-oriented leaders to cheat to avoid failure. The hierarchical nature of manager–subordinate relationships can make followers afraid to speak up, and the lack of checks and balances on leaders can lead to devastating outcomes.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note38)

To address these challenges, scholars are focusing more seriously on leadership ethics. Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note39) It is concerned with the ethical use of power and the morality of leadership outcomes (e.g., fairness, equality, liberty). Paralleling the study of ethics more generally, leadership ethics examines right, wrong, good, evil, virtue, duty, obligation, rights, justice, and fairness as they apply to leadership relationships and leader and follower behaviors.

Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following.

Shared Value View In organizational contexts, a challenge to leadership ethics comes from the way we socialize individuals into the purpose of business. Nearly all businesspeople have been indoctrinated in to Milton Friedman’s dictum that the “social responsibility of business is to increase its pro�its.”40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note40) This is known as the pro�it motive, and it drives the belief that the sole purpose of business is to make money.

The pro�it motive is based on Milton Friedman’s view that the sole purpose of business is to make money.

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The pro�it motive is being seriously questioned in today’s environment. Leaders such as John Mackey, the CEO of Whole Foods, and Michael Porter of Harvard University are offering alternative views based on conscious capitalism and creating shared value. These views, developed from purpose-driven mind-sets, argue that the problem is not pro�it but pro�it at what cost? To address this issue, recent discussions of the role of pro�it in business are arguing for a shared value view, stating that organizations should create economic value in a way that also creates value for society by addressing societal needs and challenges.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note41) In a shared value view, the focus is on both pro�it and societal gain.

The shared value view states that organizations should create economic value in a way that also creates value for society.

This more modern take advocates the need for business to reconnect company success with social progress. In the process, it addresses the issue at the very core of the debate in leadership ethics: Whose interests matter more . . . those of the individual (or company) or the collective (i.e., the “greater good”)? Shared value argues that the answer is both.

Characteristics of Servant Leadership

Empowerment: fostering a proactive, self-con�ident attitude among followers

Accountability: showing con�idence in followers by giving them responsibility and then holding them accountable for performance; allows them control and ensures they know what is expected of them

Standing back: giving priority to the interest of others �irst and giving them necessary support and credit

Humility: the ability to put one’s own accomplishments and talents in a proper perspective and remain modest

Authenticity: being true to oneself, adherence to a generally perceived moral code, keeping professional role secondary to whom the individual is as a person

Courage: daring to take risks and try new approaches; challenging conventional modes of working and using values and convictions to govern one’s actions

Forgiveness: having the ability to understand and experience the feelings of others, let go of perceived wrongdoings, and not carry a grudge into other situations

Stewardship: demonstrating the willingness to take responsibility for the larger institution sense of obligation to a common good that includes the self but that stretches beyond one’s own self-interest

Servant Leadership

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Servant leadership, developed by Robert K. Greenleaf, is based on the notion that the primary purpose of business should be to create a positive impact on the organization’s employees as well as the community. In an essay that Greenleaf wrote about servant leadership in 1970, he stated, “The servant-leader is servant �irst. . . . It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve �irst. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead.”42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note42)

Servant leadership is a view in which servant leaders sel�lessly serve others �irst.

The core characteristic of servant leadership as described by Greenleaf is “going beyond one’s self- interest.” Compared to other leadership styles, such as transformational leadership where the primary allegiance is to the organization, the servant leader emphasizes how the organization can create opportunities for followers to grow. It is a person-oriented approach focused on building safe and strong relationships in organizations. Leaders use power not for self-interest but for the growth of employees, survival of the organization, and responsibility to the community.43 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note43)

The servant leader is attuned to basic spiritual values and in serving these assists others, including colleagues, the organization, and society. Servant leaders see their responsibility as increasing the autonomy of followers and encouraging them to think for themselves. They complement their focus on followers with a leadership style that places primary emphasis on humility and remaining true to themselves and their moral convictions in the face of power. Servant leaders accomplish this by empowering and developing people, having high integrity, accepting people for who they are, and being stewards who work for the good of the whole.44 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note44)

Empowering Leadership Empowering leadership is similar to servant leadership in its focus on valuing and developing people. Although it was not developed as an ethical leadership theory, it is consistent with leadership ethics in its core premise that employees should be treated with dignity and respect.

Empowering leadership is in direct contrast to authoritarian (or autocratic) leadership styles that involve leaders dictating policies and procedures, making all decisions about what goals are to be achieved, and directing and controlling all activities without any meaningful participation by subordinates. Empowering leadership focuses instead on conveying the signi�icance of the work, allowing participation in decision making, removing bureaucratic constraints, and instilling con�idence that performance will be high.45 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note45) Empowering leadership emphasizes the importance of leaders delegating authority and employees assuming responsibility. It argues that by sharing knowledge and information, and allowing employees responsibility and self-control, organizations will be rewarded with a more dedicated and intrinsically motivated workforce.

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Authoritarian (or autocratic) leadership involves making decisions independently with little or no input from others.

Empowering leadership enables power sharing with employees by clarifying the signi�icance of the work, providing autonomy, expressing con�idence in the employee’s capabilities, and removing hindrances to performance.

Research �indings show that empowering leadership is related to increased employee creativity and, to some extent, performance.46 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note46) Most views assume that empowering leadership is most appropriate for those with high follower readiness (e.g., high ability and experience). Interestingly, however, research �indings have shown the opposite. A study of sales representatives showed that, contrary to expectations, empowering leadership was most bene�icial for those with low levels of product and industry knowledge and low experience rather than those with high readiness. For those with high knowledge and experience, empowering leadership appeared to reap no bene�its. Perhaps experienced individuals have little to gain from leader efforts toward empowerment.

Corruption Raises Leadership Questions in International Business

Avon and Walmart share a common problem. They are spending lots of money for attorney fees and internal audits relating to the 1977 U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The act makes it illegal for a U.S. �irm to pay bribes to get international business opportunities. And it’s become increasingly important as corruption in international business comes under great scrutiny around the world. If a corporate leader loses control or makes the wrong ethics decisions and runs afoul of this law, the �inancial costs and damage to his or her reputation can be huge. When claims emerged that Walmart was paying bribes in Mexico, a situation subject to the FCPA, internal investigations cost the �irm $51 million. When Avon faced the same problem in China, the cost of its compliance review was $280 million. And those �igures don’t include any FCPA prosecution or �ines.

Ronaldo Schemidt/AFP/Getty Images

Ethical Leadership Theory Ethical leadership theory is a normative theory focused on understanding how ethical leaders behave. A normative theory implies or prescribes a norm or standard. Ethical leadership theory prescribes that leaders should be role models of appropriate behavior—such as openness, honesty, and trustworthiness —who are motivated by altruism, meaning they are unsel�ish and concerned for others (e.g., treating

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employees fairly and considerately). Ethical leaders should (1) communicate to followers what is ethical and allow followers to ask questions and provide feedback regarding ethical issues; (2) set clear ethical standards, and ensure followers comply with those standards by rewarding ethical conduct and disciplining those who don’t follow standards; and (3) take into account ethical principles in making decisions and ensure that followers observe and follow this process.47 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note47)

A normative theory implies or prescribes a norm or standard.

Ethical leaders create ethical climates by allowing followers voice and ensuring that processes are fair. Ethical climates are the ethical values, norms, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors of employees in an organization.48 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note48) Ethical leaders foster such climates by creating moral awareness and concern, enhancing moral reasoning, clarifying moral values, and encouraging moral responsibility. They consider the consequences of their decisions and make principled and fair choices that can be observed and emulated by others.49 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note49)

Ethical climates are the ethical values, norms, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors of employees in an organization.

Research shows that ethical leadership is linked to higher levels of follower performance and innovative behavior. Evidence also suggests a mitigating effect of ethical leadership on followers’ misconduct, unethical behaviors, and workplace bullying.50 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c14-note50) Despite this, ethical leadership theory is limited in that it focuses primarily on leaders’ responsibilities for ethics. For ethical leadership to truly take hold in organizations, it needs to be the responsibility of both leaders and followers.

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14 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What do we know about leader traits and behaviors?

Trait approaches investigate the personal qualities and characteristics associated with leader emergence and effectiveness.

Trait approaches �ind signi�icant but small relationships between leadership and four of the Big Five traits, including extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.

Behavioral approaches identify categories of managerial leadership behavior to examine their relationships with outcomes.

The majority of leader behaviors represent two meta-categories: relations-oriented and task- oriented behavior.

What do contingency approaches tell us about leadership?

Contingency approaches say that whether a leader style or behavior is positively associated with leadership effectiveness depends on (i.e., is contingent upon) the situation.

In situations that require more direction and structure, task-oriented behavior will be more effective and desired; in situations requiring more support and consideration, relations- oriented behavior will be more effective.

Fiedler’s LPC model differs from other contingency approaches in that it argues that leaders cannot change their style, and therefore must match the situation to their style.

What are charismatic and transformational theories of leadership?

Charismatic leaders are seen as exceptional people endowed with extraordinary characteristic and abilities that set them apart from ordinary people.

Research on charismatic leadership in organizations suggests that charisma is not a bene�icial attribute for most chief executives, and it is particularly dangerous in cases of personalized charismatics who use their skills primarily for personal bene�it.

Burns’s transforming leadership theory says that leadership is a transforming process that ultimately becomes a moral achievement when it raises human conduct and the aspirations of both leaders and followers, having a “transforming” effect on both.

Bass adapted Burns’s theory to focus on organizational performance; in his theory, the transformation is getting people to set aside self-interest for organizational interest.

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What are complexity leadership views?

Complexity leadership views are grounded in complexity science and describe leadership in the context of complex adaptive systems.

Complexity leadership views offer an alternative to traditional leadership approaches, grounded in bureaucratic organizing principles; instead of hierarchy and control, they focus on emergence and adaptability.

A key contribution of complexity is emergence; emergence describes processes in which higher-level order emanates out of interactions of agents operating within the system.

Complexity leadership theory describes three types of leadership in organizations: administrative leadership, entrepreneurial leadership, and adaptive leadership. These forms of leadership need to function together effectively to create productive emergence and adaptability in organizations.

How do we address leadership ethics?

Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges that are distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following.

In organizations, the greatest challenge to ethics comes from pressures for results (e.g., pro�its) at all cost (e.g., individual or societal harm) and the tension between self-interest and the “greater good.”

Servant leaders use power not for self-interest but for the growth of employees, survival of the organization, and responsibility to the community.

Empowering leadership focuses on valuing and developing people by allowing autonomy and removing bureaucratic constraints.

Ethical leadership theory is a normative theory that says leaders should be role models for ethics and create ethical climates that enforce high ethical standards.

Terms to Know Achievement-oriented leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key1)

Adaptive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#key2)

Administrative leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#key3)

Authoritarian (or autocratic) leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key4)

Behavioral approach (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#key5)

Bass’s transactional leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key6)

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Bass’s transformational leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key7)

Bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#key8)

Charisma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key9)

Complex adaptive systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#key10)

Contingency approaches (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key11)

Directive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key12)

Empowering leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key13)

Entrepreneurial leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec294#key14)

Ethical climates (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key15)

Follower readiness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key16)

Heroic leadership views (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key17)

Leader-match (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key18)

Leader position power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key19)

Leadership ethics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key20)

Normative theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key21)

Participative leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key22)

Personalized charismatic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key23)

Power distance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key24)

Power wielders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key25)

Pro�it motive (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key26)

Relations-oriented behavior (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#key27)

Servant leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key28)

Shared value view (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec298#key29)

Socialized charismatic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key30)

Supportive leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key31)

Task structure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec284#key32)

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Task-oriented behavior (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#key33)

Trait approaches (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec279#key34)

Transactional leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key35)

Transformational leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec289#key36)

Self-Test 14 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str1) . ____________ study the personal qualities and characteristics of leaders to identify their association with leader emergence and effectiveness.

a. (a) Implicit leadership approaches

b. (b) Managerial approaches

c. (c) Behavior approaches

d. (d) Trait approaches

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str2) . The two meta- categories of leader behaviors found in the behavioral approaches are ____________.

a. (a) transformational and transactional leader behaviors

b. (b) achievement-oriented and participative leadership

c. (c) relations-oriented and task-oriented behaviors

d. (d) directive and authoritarian behavioral styles

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str3) . The “born” argument in leadership implies that leaders should be ____________.

a. (a) developed

b. (b) selected

c. (c) trained

d. (d) transformed

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str4) . According to ____________, whether leader behaviors will be effective depends on the situation.

a. (a) trait approaches

b. (b) behavior approaches

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c. (c) contingency theories

d. (d) transactional theories

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str5) . The best leadership style to use when tasks are highly repetitive is ____________.

a. (a) supportive

b. (b) directive

c. (c) charismatic

d. (d) entrepreneurial

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str6) . Charisma is most aptly described as a ____________ process.

a. (a) leader

b. (b) relational

c. (c) follower

d. (d) situational

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str7) . Research has shown that charisma is ____________ for most chief executives.

a. (a) a neutralizer

b. (b) a substitute

c. (c) bene�icial

d. (d) not bene�icial

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str8) . To help avoid the dangers of charisma, leaders should reduce ____________.

a. (a) transactions

b. (b) task-oriented behaviors

c. (c) power distance

d. (d) networks

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str9) . According to Burns’s theory, ____________ are not leaders.

a. (a) bureaucrats

b. (b) power wielders

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c. (c) managers

d. (d) socialized charismatics

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str10) . Bass modi�ied Burns’s theory to focus on ____________ rather than moral interests.

a. (a) organizational

b. (b) societal

c. (c) follower

d. (d) collective

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str11) . Complexity leadership approaches offer an alternative to ____________ organizing principles.

a. (a) systems

b. (b) political

c. (c) transformational

d. (d) bureaucratic

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str12) . The key contribution complexity offers to leadership is the understanding of ____________.

a. (a) emergence

b. (b) administrative leadership

c. (c) entrepreneurial leadership

d. (d) empowerment

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str13) . Ethical leadership theory is a ____________ theory of leadership.

a. (a) transformational

b. (b) transactional

c. (c) normative

d. (d) complexity

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str14) . When leaders create moral awareness and concern, enhance moral reasoning, and encourage moral responsibility, they are creating more ____________.

a. (a) transformational leadership

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b. (b) ethical climates

c. (c) empowering climates

d. (d) authenticity

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str15) . ____________ are attuned to spiritual values and see their responsibility as being stewards for the good of the whole.

a. (a) Servant leaders

b. (b) Transformational leaders

c. (c) Authoritarian leaders

d. (d) Empowering leaders

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str16) . Why did the early trait approaches fall out of favor?

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str17) . What are the problems with contingency approaches?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str18) . Why are complexity approaches being developed?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str19) . What are the challenges associated with leadership ethics?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c14str20) . Jonathan knows he has a charismatic style of leadership. When he speaks, others listen, and when he leads, others are passionate in their desire to follow him. Although he has bene�ited from this style and enjoys the effects it has on others, he also knows there are risks associated with charismatic leadership. What are these risks, and how can he avoid them?

Steps to Further Learning 14 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch14#ch14) .

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Cases for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Zappos Does It With Humor

My Best Manager

My Best Job

Graf�iti Needs Assessment

Leadership Skills Inventory

Learning Styles

Student Leadership Practices Inventory

Managerial Assumptions

21st-Century Manager

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Part 5 Organizational Context

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Trust builds performance bonds

© Figure8Photos/iStockphoto.com (http://iStockphoto.com)

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15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

The Key Point

An organization’s culture provides meaning, guidance, and a sense of stability to members, but most organizations also contain a number of subcultures and countercultures. We need to understand the types and layers of culture, the important roles of stories, rites, and rituals, and the links between cultures, performance, and innovation.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

RAISING THE OWNERSHIP STAKES TO BOOST INNOVATION

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

IS IT TIME TO MAKE THE WORKPLACE A FUN PLACE?

Checking Ethics in OB

AGE BECOMES AN ISSUE IN JOB LAYOFFS

Finding the Leader in You

CHRISTINE SPECHT PUTS A SMILE ON COUSINS SUBS

OB in Popular Culture

CORPORATE CULTURE AND THE FIRM

Research Insight

CEO VALUES, CULTURE, AND ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE

Chapter at a Glance

What Is Organizational Culture?

How Do You Understand an Organizational Culture?

How Can We Manage Organizational Culture and Innovation?

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What Is Innovation, and Why Is It Important?

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15.1 Organizational Culture LEARNING ROADMAP

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#sec305)

SUBCULTURES AND COUNTERCULTURES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#sec306)

NATIONAL CULTURE AND CORPORATE CULTURE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#sec307)

Organizational culture is the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note1) In the business setting, this system is often referred to as the corporate culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo298) . Each organization has its own unique culture. Just as no two individual personalities are the same, no two organizational cultures are identical. Yet, there are some common cultural elements that yield stability and meaning for organizations.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note2)

Organizational culture or corporate culture is the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members.

Functions of Organizational Culture It is important to recognize that the organizational culture of a �irm emerges from (1) the dialogue and discourse among its members and their collective experience over time, (2) the attempts by managers to in�luence subordinates, and (3) pressures from the larger environment in which the members, the managers, and the organization operate. In this chapter we will examine the functions of organizational culture and various levels of cultural analysis to understand the powerful force of organizational culture. We will then turn to innovation and link innovation to managing organizational culture.

External Adaptation An important function of organizational culture is to provide historically successful answers to external adaptation.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note3) Issues of external adaptation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo131) deal with ways of reaching goals, tasks to be accomplished, methods used to achieve the goals, and cope with success and failure. Through their shared experiences, members can develop common views that help guide their day-to-day activities toward commonly shared goals.

External adaptation deals with reaching goals, the tasks to be accomplished, the methods used to achieve the goals, and the methods of coping with success and failure.

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Although managers attempt to in�luence members and the organization in many ways, they have an important in�luence by emphasizing a limited number of goals that shape the shared actions, values, and beliefs of all organizational members and key external contributors.

For managers, this goal-setting aspect of external adaptation involves answering important instrumental or goal-related questions concerning reality: How do we (the organization) contribute? What is the real mission? What are our goals? How do we reach our goals? Organizational members need to know the real mission of the organization, not just the pronouncements to key constituencies, such as stockholders. If they know and accept organizational goals, members will develop an understanding of how they contribute to the mission.

Each group of individuals in an organization tends to (1) separate more important from less important external forces, (2) develop ways to measure accomplishments, and (3) create explanations for why goals are not always met. At Dell, for example, managers have moved away from judging their progress against speci�ic targets to estimating the degree to which they are moving a development process forward. They work on improving participation and commitment.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note4)

The �inal issues in external adaptation deal with two important, but often neglected, aspects of coping with external reality. First, individuals need to develop ways of promoting the �irm and themselves. At 3M, for example, employees talk about the quality of their products and the many new, useful products the organization has brought to the market. Second, individuals must collectively know when and how to admit defeat. At the beginning of 3M’s development process, team members establish “drop” points where they will quit the development effort and redirect it if necessary. When the decision is made to quit, project managers are careful not to suggest that the group has failed but stress that what they have learned increases the chances that the next project will succeed to market.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note5)

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Is It Time to Make the Workplace a Fun Place?

Do employees that have fun at work actually perform better? Should employers build fun into daily work routines?

“Goo�ing off” time is considered valuable time at the online retailer Zappos.com (http://www.Zappos.com) . Employees are encouraged to take breaks and have fun at work. The company even has a “cultural evangelist,” John Walkses, whose job it is to make sure the organizational culture continues to be happy and productive. He says, “By allowing team members to participate in non-work activities and have fun, the of�ice keeps a positive vibe and people are much happier. Also, they don’t burn out as they are free to take time away from their duties.”

Zappos isn’t alone in its commitment to turning the workplace into a fun and interesting place for employees. At? What If?, an innovation consulting �irm, PechaKucha, a presentation style in which twenty slides are shown for twenty seconds each, is used to engage employees in sharing interesting things about themselves and their activities outside of work. Presenters narrate their slide show as a way of helping co- workers get to know them better.

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Are organizations like Zappos and? What If! ahead of the curve with others likely to follow? Or is this trend a fad that applies to just a few employers and work settings?

© Jared McMillen/Aurora Photos /Corbis

Do the Analysis

What do the scholars say about creating a happy and productive workplace? Should managers spend time and money to remake organizational cultures so that the workplace also becomes a fun place?

In sum, external adaptation involves answering important instrumental or goal-related questions concerning coping with reality: What is the real mission? How do we contribute? What are our goals? How do we reach our goals? What external forces are important? How do we measure results? What do we do if we do not meet speci�ic targets? When do we quit?

Internal Integration A second important function of the organizational culture, internal integration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo204) , centers on the collective identity of members and how they live and work together.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note6) The process of internal integration often begins with the establishment of a unique identity. Through dialogue and interaction, members begin to characterize their world. They may see it as malleable or �ixed, �illed with opportunities or threats. As with external adaptation, there are important issues. These include a series of membership issues: Who is a group member, what behavior is acceptable, who is a friend?

Internal integration deals with the creation of a collective identity and with ways of working and living together.

For all organizational members, the three most important aspects of working together are (1) deciding who is a member of the group and who is not, (2) developing an informal understanding of acceptable and unacceptable behavior, and (3) separating friends from enemies. Aetna, one of the nation’s leading health care bene�its companies, describes its corporate culture as one in which employees “work together openly, share information freely and build on each other’s ideas to continually create the next better way. Nothing

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is impossible to our Aetna team. We are eager, ambitious learners and continuous innovators. And we are succeeding. Every day.”7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note7)

To work together effectively, individuals need to decide collectively how to allocate power, status, and authority. They need to establish a shared understanding of who will get rewards and sanctions for speci�ic types of actions. Too often, managers fail to recognize these important aspects of internal integration. A manager may fail, for example, to explain the basis for a promotion and to show why this reward, the status associated with it, and the power given to the newly promoted individual are consistent with commonly shared beliefs.

Organizations with More Engaged Employees Perform Better

The Gallup organization uses an “engagement ratio” as an indicator of organizational health. And research �inds that engagement can have a big performance impact. Data show that in the best organizations, actively engaged employees out number the disengaged ones by a ratio of 9.57 to 1. By contrast, the ratio falls to 1. 83 to 1 in average organizations.

The bene�its derived from an actively engaged workforce extend to pro�itability, safety records, employee retention, and customer orientation. Gallup points out that in high-performing organizations “engagement is more than a human resources initiative—it is a strategic foundation for the way they do business.”

© moodboard/Corbis

Individuals also need to work out acceptable ways to communicate and develop guidelines for relationships at work. Although these aspects of internal integration may appear esoteric, they are vital. For example, to function effectively as a team, all must recognize that some members will be closer than others; friendships are inevitable.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note8)

Resolving the issues of internal integration helps individuals develop a shared identity and a collective commitment. It may well lead to longer-term stability and provide a lens for members to make sense of their part of the world. In sum, internal integration involves answers to important questions associated with living together. What is our unique identity? How do we allocate power, status, and authority? How

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do we communicate? Answering these questions is important to organizational members because the organization is more than just a place to work.

Subcultures and Countercultures Whereas smaller �irms often have a single dominant culture with a universal set of shared actions, values, and beliefs, most larger organizations contain several subcultures as well as one or more countercultures.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note9)

Subcultures Subcultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo437) are groups of individuals who exhibit a unique pattern of values and a philosophy that is consistent with the organization’s dominant values and philosophy.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note10) Although subcultures are unique, their members’ values do not clash with those of the larger organization. Strong subcultures are often found in task forces, teams, and special-project groups in organizations. The subculture emerges, binding individuals to work together intensely to accomplish a speci�ic task. For example, there are strong subcultures of stress engineers and liaison engineers in the Boeing plant in Renton, Washington. These highly specialized groups must solve technical issues to ensure that Boeing planes are safe. Although they are distinct, these groups of engineers share in the core values at Boeing.

Subcultures are groups of individuals who exhibit unique patterns of values and philosophies consistent with the dominant culture of the larger organization or system.

Countercultures In contrast, countercultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo68) are groups whose patterns of values and philosophies reject those of the larger organization or social system.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note11) The infamous story of Steve Jobs’s return to Apple illustrates a counterculture. When Jobs returned to Apple as its CEO, he formed a counterculture within the company that did not follow the values and philosophies of the former CEO, Gil Amelio. Numerous clashes occurred as the followers of the former CEO fought to maintain their place in Apple and maintain the old culture. Job’s counterculture took off and so did Apple. His counterculture became dominant, and the company has continued to thrive, even after his death.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note12)

Countercultures are groups in which the patterns of values and philosophies outwardly reject those of the organization or social system.

Every large organization imports subcultural groupings when it hires employees from the larger society. In North America, for instance, subcultures and countercultures may naturally form based on ethnic, racial, gender, generational, or locational similarities. In Japanese organizations, subcultures often form based on the date of graduation from a university, gender, or geographic location. In European �irms, ethnicity and language play an important part in developing subcultures, as does gender.

Within an organization, mergers and acquisitions may produce adjustment problems for established subcultures and countercultures.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note13) Employers and managers of an acquired �irm may hold values and assumptions that are inconsistent with

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those of the acquiring �irm. This is known as the “clash of corporate cultures.” One example of culture clash occurred at Bank of America when it acquired Merrill Lynch, the Wall Street trading �irm. Old-line bank employees objected to the huge bonuses given to traders in its new Merrill Lynch unit.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note14)

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Corporate Culture and The Firm

Corporate culture is re�lected in the shared values, beliefs, and actions of an organization’s employees. Culture is not only important, it can be a competitive advantage. Consider the cultures of the United States Marine Corps, for example, or most college fraternities and sororities. Membership in any of these organizations may create an identity that can de�ine a person for life.

In The Firm, hotshot lawyer Mitch McDeere (Tom Cruise) accepts a position at the Memphis law �irm of Bendini, Lambert & Locke. After graduating �irst in his Harvard Law School class, he knows what it means to work hard. He shows up early on the �irst day and �inds himself alone in the �irm’s law library. Sometime later, Lamar Quin (Terry Kinney) arrives to show him around. When Mitch says he “thought he would jump start the bar exam,” Lamar quickly responds, “Good, because no associate of the �irm ever failed the bar exam.” Throughout the day, McDeere is greeted by a series of lawyers bringing binders and offering help. Each leaves the of�ice with the same admonishment: “No associate of the �irm has ever failed the bar exam.”

Corporate culture is reinforced through stories, rites, rituals, and symbols. Rites are special activities that hold important meaning throughout the organization. Like rites of passage, these activities may represent tests that employees are expected to pass. At Bendini, Lambert & Locke, passing the bar exam on the �irst try was the measure of success.

Paramount Pictures/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better Do you think much about organizational culture? Take a look at “Assessment 22, Which Culture Fits You?” in the OB Skills Workbook. What does it reveal about your preference? Although person–organization �it is important, you may not have the luxury of choosing the “right”

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organization upon graduating. Could you work in an organization that had any one of the other three cultures? What challenges might this present for you?

National Culture and Corporate Culture Most organizations originate in one national culture and incorporate many features from this host culture even when they expand internationally. The difference between Toyota’s corporate emphasis on group achievements and Ford’s emphasis on individual engineering excellence, for example, can be traced to the Japanese emphasis on collective action versus the U.S. emphasis on individualism. National cultural values may also become embedded in the expectations of organizational constituencies and in generally accepted solutions to problems.

When moving across cultures, managers need to be sensitive to cultural differences so that their actions do not violate common assumptions in the underlying national culture. To improve morale at General Electric’s French subsidiary, Chi. Générale de Radiologie, American managers invited the European managers to a get-acquainted meeting near Paris. The Americans gave out colorful T-shirts for everyone to wear, embellished with the GE slogan “Go for One.” One outspoken employee said, “It was like Hitler was back, forcing us to wear uniforms. It was humiliating.”15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note15) Firms often face problems like this in developing strong ethical standards, particularly when they import societal subgroups.

Importing Societal Subgroups Beyond culturally sensitivity, dif�iculties often arise with importing groupings from the larger society. Some of these groupings are relevant to the organization, whereas others may be quite destructive. At the one extreme, senior managers can merely accept societal divisions and work within the con�ines of the larger culture. This approach presents three primary dif�iculties. First, subordinated groups, such as members of a speci�ic religion or ethnic group, may form into a counterculture and to work more diligently to change their status than to better the �irm. Second, the �irm may �ind it dif�icult to cope with broader cultural changes. For instance, in the United States the treatment of women, ethnic minorities, and the disabled has changed dramatically over the last 20 years. Firms that don’t change with the times and accept old customs and prejudices have experienced a greater loss of key personnel and increased communication dif�iculties, as well as greater interpersonal con�lict, than have their more progressive counterparts. Third, �irms that accept and build on natural divisions from a single larger culture may �ind it challenging to develop sound international operations. For example, some Japanese �irms continue to experience dif�iculties adjusting to the equal treatment of women in their U.S. operations.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note16)

Building on National Cultural Diversity At the other extreme, managers can work to eradicate all naturally occurring national subcultures and countercultures. Firms are struggling to develop what Taylor Cox calls the multicultural organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo263) , a �irm that values diversity but systematically works to block the transfer of societally based subcultures into the fabric of the organization.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note17) Because Cox focuses on some problems unique to the United States, his prescription for change may not apply to organizations located in other countries with more homogeneous populations.

Multicultural organization is a �irm that values diversity but systematically works to block the transfer of societally based subcultures into the fabric of the organization.

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Cox suggests a �ive-step program for developing the multicultural organization. First, the organization should develop pluralism with the objective of multibased socialization. To accomplish this objective, members of different occurring groups need to educate one another to increase knowledge and information and to help eliminate stereotyping. Second, the �irm should fully integrate its structure so that there is no direct relationship between a naturally occurring group and any particular job—for instance, there are no distinct male or female jobs. Third, the �irm must integrate the informal networks by eliminating barriers and increasing participation—that is, it must break down existing societally based informal groups. Fourth, the organization should break the linkage between naturally occurring group identity and the identity of the �irm. Finally, the organization must actively work to eliminate interpersonal con�lict based on either the group identity or the backlash of the largest societally based grouping.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Age Becomes an Issue in Job Layoffs

Sarah is young, single, and graduated from college just a few years ago; she is hard working, topped the performance ratings this year, and always steps forward when volunteers are needed for evening work or travel. Mary is in her mid-forties, has two children, and a husband who is a pediatrician; her performance is good, always at or above average during performance reviews, but she has limited time available for evening work and out-of-town travel.

Who gets picked for the layoff, Sarah or Mary? Chances are it’s going to be Sarah. The Wall Street Journal reports that younger workers are at greater risk of layoffs because many employers use a “last in/�irst out” rule when cutting back on staff. This is true even though the younger workers tend to earn less than their older counterparts and may even be outperforming them. One reason is con�lict avoidance; who wants to face an age discrimination lawsuit? Another is the emotional toll that making layoff decisions places on managers; it just seems easier to let go the younger person who probably has fewer complicating personal and family situations.

David Schauer, a school superintendent in Phoenix, says he sent layoff notices to sixty-eight teachers all in their �irst year of employment. He says, “My worst fear is that really good people will leave teaching.” Nicole Ryan, a teacher in New York, received just such a notice. She says, “I knew it was coming because, based on seniority, I was lower on the totem pole.” But, she adds, “It didn’t make it any easier.”

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Image Source/Getty Images, Inc.

What’s Right? Are managers doing the right thing when they lay off younger workers �irst, even when they are high performers? Is it right to take personal and family factors into account when making decisions about who gets to keep their jobs and who doesn’t? Is it fair that younger workers have more to fear about keeping their jobs because some managers are unwilling to face possible age discrimination claims from older workers?

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15.2 Understanding Organizational Cultures LEARNING ROADMAP

LAYERS OF CULTURAL ANALYSIS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#sec309)

STORIES, RITES, RITUALS, AND SYMBOLS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#sec310)

CULTURAL RULES AND ROLES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#sec311)

SHARED VALUES, MEANINGS, AND ORGANIZATIONAL MYTHS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#sec312)

Some aspects of organizational culture are easy to see. But not all aspects of organizational culture are readily apparent because they are buried deep in the shared experience of organizational members. It may take years to understand some deeper aspects of the culture. This complexity has led researchers to examine different layers of analysis ranging from easily observable to deeply hidden aspects of corporate culture.

Layers of Cultural Analysis Figure 15.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#r�ig15-1) illustrates the observable aspects of culture, shared values, and underlying assumptions as three layers.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note18) The deeper one digs, the more dif�icult it is to discover the culture but the more important an aspect becomes.

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FIGURE 15.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#�ig15-1) Three levels of analysis in studying organizational culture.

The �irst layer concerns observable culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo278) , or “the way we do things around here.” Important parts of an organization’s culture emerge from the collective experience of its members. These emergent aspects of the culture help make it unique and may well provide a competitive advantage for the organization. Some of these aspects may be observed directly in day-to-day practices. Others may have to be discovered—for example, by asking members to tell stories of important incidents in the history of the organization. We often learn about the unique aspects of the organizational culture through descriptions of speci�ic events.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15- note19) By observing employee actions, listening to stories, and asking members to interpret what is going on, one can begin to understand the organization’s culture. The observable culture includes the unique stories, ceremonies, and corporate rituals that make up the history of the �irm or a group within the �irm.

Observable culture is the way things are done in an organization.

The second layer recognizes that shared values can play a critical part in linking together people and can provide a powerful motivational mechanism for members of the culture. Many consultants suggest that organizations should develop a “dominant and coherent set of shared values.”20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note20) The term shared in cultural analysis implies that the group is a whole. Not every member of an organization may agree with the shared values, however, but they will continue to be exposed to them. At Microsoft, for example, a shared culture value is a passion for technology.

At the deepest layer of cultural analysis are common cultural assumptions. These are the taken-for- granted truths that collections of corporate members share as a result of their joint experience. It is often

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dif�icult to isolate these patterns, but doing so can help explain why culture invades every aspect of organizational life.

Stories, Rites, Rituals, and Symbols To understand a corporate culture, it is often easiest to start with stories. Organizations are rich with tales of winners and losers, successes and failures. Perhaps one of the most important stories concerns the founding of the organization. The founding story often contains the lessons learned from the heroic efforts of an embattled entrepreneur, whose vision may still guide the �irm. The story of the founding may be so embellished that it becomes a saga (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo381) —a heroic account of accomplishments.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note21) Sagas are important because they are used to tell new members the mission of the organization, how the organization operates, and how individuals can �it into the company. Rarely is the founding story totally accurate, and it often glosses over some of the more negative aspects of the founders.

Saga is an embellished heroic account of accomplishments.

Such is the case with Monterey Pasta22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note22) before it was purchased by a Korea-based holding company and its name was changed to Monterey Gourmet Foods. “The Monterey Pasta Company was launched from a 400-square-foot storefront on Lighthouse Avenue in Monterey, California in 1989. . . . The founders started their small fresh pasta company in response to the public’s growing interest in healthy gourmet foods. Customers were increasingly excited about fresh pasta given its superior quality and nutritional value, as well as ease of preparation. . . . The company soon accepted its �irst major grocery account. . . . In 1993, the company completed its �irst public offering.” An unsuccessful venture into the restaurant business in the mid-1990s provided a signi�icant distraction, and substantial losses were incurred before the company refocused on its successful retail business. But why ruin a good founding story?

If you have job experience, you may have heard stories that address the following questions: How will the boss react to a mistake? Can someone move from the bottom to the top of the company? What will get me �ired?23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note23) Often, the stories provide valuable but hidden information about who has the most power, whether or not jobs are secure, and how things are controlled within the organization. In essence, the stories begin to suggest how organizational members view the world and work together.

Some of the most obvious aspects of organizational culture are rites and rituals.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note24) Rites (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo371) are standardized and recurring activities that are used at special times to in�luence the behaviors and understanding of organizational members; rituals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo372) are systems of rites. It is common for Japanese workers and managers to start their workdays with group exercises and singing of the “company song.” Separately, the exercises and song are rites. Together, they form part of a ritual. Another example is, Mary Kay Cosmetics, where scheduled ceremonies are reminiscent of the Miss America pageant (a ritual) and are used to spotlight positive work achievements and reinforce high- performance expectations with awards, including gold and diamond pins, and top performers are rewarded with a pink Cadillac.

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Rites are standardized and recurring activities used at special times to in�luence the behaviors and understanding of organizational members.

Rituals are systems of rites.

Rituals and rites may be unique to particular groups within the organization. Subcultures often arise from the type of technology deployed by the unit, the function being performed, and the collection of specialists in the unit. A unique language may well maintain the boundaries of the subculture. Often, the language of a subculture, and its rituals and rites, emerge from the group as a form of jargon. In some cases, the special language starts to move outside the �irm and begins to enter the larger society. For instance, look at Microsoft Word’s specialized language, with such words as hyperlink, frames, and quick parts, that has become commonplace outside of the organization.

Another observable aspect of corporate culture centers on the symbols found in organizations. A cultural symbol (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo75) is any object, act, or event that serves to transmit cultural meaning. Examples are the uniforms worn by UPS and Federal Express delivery personnel.

A cultural symbol is any object, act, or event that serves to transmit cultural meaning.

Cultural Rules and Roles Organizational culture often speci�ies when various types of actions are appropriate and where individual members stand in the social system. These cultural rules and roles are part of the normative controls of the organization and emerge from its daily routines.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note25) For instance, the timing, presentation, and methods of communicating authoritative directives are often quite speci�ic to each organization. In one �irm, meetings may follow a set rigid agenda. The manager could go into meetings to tell subordinates what to do and how to accomplish tasks. Private conversations prior to the meeting might be the place for any new ideas or critical examination. In other �irms, meetings might be forums for dialogue and discussion, for which managers set agendas and then let others offer new ideas, critically examine alternatives, and fully participate.

Healthy Living Sets the Values Tone At Clif Bar

Have you had your Clif Bar today? Lots of people have, thanks to a long bike ride during which Gary Erickson decided he just couldn’t eat another of the available energy bars. He went back to experiment in his mother’s kitchen and produced the �irst Clif Bar two years later. Despite its growth from a one-man operation to one employing 270+ people, Clif remains committed to what it calls the “5 aspirations”—“sustaining our planet . . . community . . . people . . . business . . . brands.” Clif ’s core values are also evident in the quality of working life offered employees. Picture “Cli�ies” working this way:

Every employee an owner

Paid sabbatical leaves of 6 to 8 weeks after seven years

Flexible schedule to get every other Friday free

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Pay for 2.5 hours of workout time each week

Bring your pet to work and wear casual clothes

Get $6,500 toward a hybrid or biodiesel automobile

MCT/Getty Images

Shared Values, Meanings, and Organizational Myths To describe an organization’s culture more fully, it is necessary to go deeper than the observable aspects. To many researchers and managers, shared common values lie at the very heart of organizational culture.

Shared Values Shared values help turn routine activities into valuable and important actions, tie the corporation to the important values of society, and possibly provide a distinctive source of competitive advantage. Important values are then attributed to these solutions to everyday problems. By linking values and actions, the organization taps into some of the strongest and deepest realms of the individual. The tasks a person performs are given not only meaning but also value.

Successful organizations often share common cultural characteristics.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note26) Those with “strong cultures” possess a

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broad and deeply shared value system. Unique, shared values can provide a strong corporate identity, enhance collective commitment, provide a stable social system, and reduce the need for formal and bureaucratic controls. When consultants suggest that organizations develop strong cultures, they basically mean the following:27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note27)

Characteristics of strong culture organizations

A widely shared understanding of what the organization stands for, often embodied in slogans

A concern for individuals over rules, policies, procedures, and adherence to job duties

A recognition of heroes whose actions illustrate the company’s shared philosophy and concerns

A belief in ritual and ceremony as important to members and to building a common identity

A well-understood sense of the informal rules and expectations so that employees and managers understand what is expected of them

A belief that what employees and managers do is important and that it is important to share information and ideas

A strong culture and value system can reinforce a singular and sometimes outdated view of the organization and its environment. If dramatic changes are needed, it may be very dif�icult to change the organization. For years General Motors had a strong culture. But as the global auto industry changed, GM did not. It took bankruptcy to shake it to its foundations and provide the impetus for radical change.

Shared Meanings When you are observing the actions within an organization, it is important to keep in mind the three levels of analysis discussed earlier. What you see as an outside observer may not be what organizational members experience because members may link actions to values and unstated assumptions. For instance, in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, a new building and its meaning are contested. Is it just another gleaming of�ice tower or the Freedom Tower symbolizing the resilience of the American people and New York City’s ability to recover from the attacks?28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note28)

In this sense, organizational culture is a “shared” set of meanings and perceptions. The members of most organizations create and learn a deeper aspect of their shared culture.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note29) Often one �inds a series of common assumptions known to most everyone: “We are different.” “We are better at. . . .” “We have unrecognized talents.” Cisco Systems provides an excellent example. Senior managers often share common assumptions, such as “We are good stewards” and “We are competent managers” and “We are practical innovators.” Like values, such assumptions become re�lected in the organizational culture. Of course, shared meanings and perceptions can create a double-edged sword. In his book How Do the Mighty Fall, consultant Jim Collins notes that organizations may begin to decline if managers share an unrealistic positive perception of them.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note30)

Organizational Myths In many �irms, a key aspect of the shared common assumptions involves organizational myths. Organizational myths (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo297) are unproven and frequently unstated beliefs that are accepted without criticism. Often corporate mythology focuses on cause–effect relationships and assertions by senior management that cannot be empirically supported.31

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note31) Although some may scoff at organizational myths and want to see rational analysis replace mythology, each �irm needs a series of managerial myths.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note32) Myths allow executives to rede�ine impossible problems into more manageable components. Myths can facilitate experimentation and creativity, and they allow managers to govern.

Organizational myth is a commonly held cause–effect relationship or assertion that cannot be supported empirically.

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15.3 Managing Organizational Culture LEARNING ROADMAP

DIRECT ATTEMPTS TO CHANGE VALUES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#sec314)

DEVELOPING SHARED GOALS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#sec315)

MODIFYING VISIBLE ASPECTS OF THE CULTURE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#sec316)

The process of managing organizational culture is a complex challenge of the �irst order. A leader or manager must �irst understand the subculture at the top of the system be it the whole organization or just a department. A series of cascading goals from the societal contribution of the organization to the expectations for each unit and individual must be put into place. Once these goals are shared by all, reward systems consistent with the goals must be developed and consistently used to reward groups and individuals for the appropriate actions. This top-down view must also be accompanied by an understanding of the emergent aspects of organizational culture and a focus on helping individuals cope with the challenges of external adaptation and internal integration.

Direct Attempts to Change Values Early research on culture and cultural change often emphasized direct attempts by senior management to alter the values and shared meanings of individuals by resocializing them—that is, trying to change their hearts so that their minds and actions would follow the desires of senior management.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note33) Many top-level managers wanted all employees to adopt the organization’s subculture in order to establish one clear, consistent organization- wide consensus. Key aspects of the top-down management subculture are often referred to in the OB literature by the term management philosophy. A management philosophy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo245) links important goals with key collaboration issues and comes up with a series of general ways by which the �irm will manage its affairs.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note34) Speci�ically, it (1) establishes generally understood boundaries for all members of the �irm, (2) provides a consistent way of approaching new and novel situations, and (3) helps bond employees by ensuring them of a path toward success. In other words, it is the way in which top management addresses the questions of external adaptation.

A management philosophy links key goal-related issues with key collaboration issues to come up with general ways by which the �irm will manage its affairs.

More recent work suggests that this uni�ied approach of working through the values of the top management subculture may not possible.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-

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note35) Although there are many reasons, two stand out. The �irst is that shared values and meanings evolve from the shared experiences, dialogue, and discussion of members, and that the “world” of top executives is often fundamentally different from the “world” of other employees. The second reason is that trying to change people’s values from the top down without changing how the organization operates and rewards individuals and groups usually doesn’t work.

In addition a narrowly diverse culture may not be desirable.36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note36) As the diversity of opinions values, and meaning in an organization narrows, it becomes more vulnerable to external change and less able to capitalize on external opportunities. The management philosophy at the top is often too narrow. For instance, recent research on the link between corporate culture and �inancial performance reaf�irms the importance of helping employees adjust to the environment. And it suggests that a narrow emphasis is not suf�icient. Neither is an emphasis solely on stockholders or customers associated with long-term economic performance. Instead, managers must emphasize responsiveness to competitive pressures, stockholder demands, and customer desires simultaneously.

How to Become a Better Culture Manager

To develop a strong management culture, managers need to:

Emphasize a shared understanding of what the unit stands for.

Stress a concern for members over rules and procedures.

Talk about heroes of the past and their contributions.

Develop rituals and ceremonies for the members.

Reinforce informal rules and expectations consistent with shared values.

Promote the sharing of ideas and information.

Provide employees with emotional support.

Make a commitment to understand all members.

Support progressive thinking by all members.

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Southern Stock/Blend/Getty Images, Inc.

Developing Shared Goals One of the most powerful ways managers in�luence organizational culture is through commonly shared goals that are speci�ic to the organization. The choice of speci�ic goals often begins with the type of contribution the �irm makes to society and the types of outputs it seeks.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note37) Astute managers recognize that they should specify a desired set of internal conditions that can be used to evaluate progress.

Societal Goals, Output Goals, and Mission Statements Organizations normally serve a speci�ic function or an enduring need of society. By emphasizing their contributions to the larger society, organizations gain legitimacy, a social right to operate, discretion to adopt non-societal goals, and freedom for operating practices. Societal goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo420) represent an organization’s intended contributions to the broader society.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note38) By claiming to provide speci�ic societal contributions, an organization can also make legitimate claims over resources, individuals, markets, and products. And a clear articulation of the organization’s societal contribution can become a foundation for positively shared meanings and values.

Societal goals represent an organization’s intended contributions to the broader society.

For most organizations, the societal goals are just the beginning and lead to more detailed statements concerning their products and services. These product and service goals provide not only an important basis for judging the �irm but also a common basis for members to evaluate the organization’s progress. Output goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo304) de�ine the type of business an organization is in and provide some substance to the more general social contribution.

Output goals de�ine the type of business an organization is in.

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Often, the social contribution of the �irm and its stated output goals are part of its mission statement. Mission statements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo255) are written statements of organizational purpose. Weaving a mission statement together with an emphasis on implementation to provide direction and motivation is an executive order of the �irst magnitude. A good mission statement, in addition to specifying outcomes, also includes whom the �irm will serve and how it will go about accomplishing its societal purpose.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note39)

Mission statements are written statements of organizational purpose.

We would expect to see the mission statement of a political party linked to generating and allocating power for the betterment of citizens. Mission statements for universities often profess to both develop and disseminate knowledge. Courts are expected to integrate the interests and activities of citizens. Finally, business �irms are expected to provide economic sustenance and material well-being.40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note40) As managers consider how they will accomplish their �irm’s mission, many begin by clarifying with re�ined output goals which business they are in.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note41) This re�inement spells out how managers hope to deal with external adaptation. The re�ined mission often targets efforts toward a very speci�ic group and recognizes secondary contributions to powerful outsiders42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note42) —that is, organizations have a primary bene�iciary, but the re�ined mission also recognizes the interests of many other parties. For example, business mission statements often stress pro�itability to shareholders but recognize the organization’s obligations to customers as well as its intention to support the community.

Research Insight

CEO Values, Culture, and Aspects of Performance

Although there has been a lot of discussion about the link between the values of the CEO, corporate culture, and performance, few comprehensive studies have been done. Recently, Berson, Oreg, and Dvir started to remedy this gap with a study of CEO values, organizational culture, and performance. They suggested that individuals are drawn to and stay with organizations that have value priorities similar to their own. That includes the CEO. Furthermore, the CEO reinforces some values over others, and this has a measurable impact on the organizational culture. The organizational culture, then, emphasizes some aspects of performance over others. This emphasis on selected aspects of the culture naturally favors some aspects of performance over others.

The researchers hypothesized and found the following in a study of some twenty-two CEOs and their �irms in Israel: CEOs tend to place a high priority on self-direction or security or benevolence. This priority tends to emphasize a particular aspect of organizational culture. Speci�ically, when a CEO values self- direction, there is more cultural emphasis on innovation; when a CEO values security, there is more cultural emphasis on bureaucracy; and when a CEO values benevolence, the culture is more supportive of its members.

The researchers then linked aspects of organizational culture with speci�ic elements of performance. More innovation was associated with higher sales growth. A bureaucratic culture was linked to ef�iciency,

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whereas a supportive culture was associated with greater employee satisfaction. Schematically, it looks like this:

Do the Research Do you think this study would transfer to �irms located in North America? Is it possible that �irms with an established innovative culture select a CEO that values self-direction?

Source: Yair Berson, Shaul Oreg, and Taly Dvir, “CEO Values, Organizational Culture and Firm Outcomes,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 29 (2008), pp. 615–633.

Systems Goals Managers also recognize that regardless of the mission or output goals, the organization needs to survive. Systems goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo445) are concerned with the conditions within the organization that are expected to increase the organization’s survival potential.43 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note43) The list of systems goals is almost endless. For many organizations, however, the list includes growth, productivity, stability, harmony, �lexibility, prestige, innovation, quality, and human-resource maintenance. Although technically market share and current pro�itability are not internal conditions, many businesses analysts consider them as important systems goals because of the link from pro�itability and market share to survival.

Systems goals are concerned with the conditions within the organization that are expected to increase the organization’s survival potential.

Systems goals must be balanced against one another and collectively present members with a natural tension among competing desires. For instance, a productivity and ef�iciency drive, if taken too far, may reduce the �lexibility of an organization. To effectively manage the culture, systems goals must be well- de�ined, practical, and easy to understand. They must help focus attention on what should be done and provide a basis for employees to understand their contributions.

Modifying Visible Aspects of Culture Beyond focusing on goals and reward systems, managers can modify the visible aspects of culture, such as the language, stories, rites, rituals, and sagas. Because of their positions, senior managers can interpret situations in new ways and can adjust the meanings attached to important corporate events. They can create new rites and rituals. Executives can support these initiatives with both words and actions. All of this takes time and an enormous amount of energy, but the long-run bene�its can be great. For example, examine the actions of Christine Specht of Cousins Subs in the “Finding the Leader in You” feature.

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Reinforcing Ethical Standards Although it seems obvious that managers at all levels need to establish and reinforce ethical cultural standards, in far too many cases this has not happened. The need to provide an ethics emphasis in managing culture can be seen when executives violate ethical and legal standards, as in the case of �irms publishing misleading earning statements. One key study found that whereas the �ines levied for “cooking the books” may appear small, other costs were far more substantial. The real costs to these �irms came from a loss of their reputation in the business community. Customers lost con�idence, suppliers demanded greater assurances, and the �inancial community undervalued the �irm so that loan costs were higher, stock prices were lower, and scrutiny was more extensive. How big is big? The �ines averaged about $23 million a �irm. But the �inancial cost from the loss of reputation was estimated at 7.5 times the average �ine. That yielded a loss of an average of $196 million.44 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note44)

Modifying Reward Systems To change the culture, managers need to develop a new, powerful, and meaningful reward system. In many larger U.S.-based �irms, the reward system matches the overall way the �irm competes and reinforces the culture emerging from day-to-day activities. Two patterns are common. The �irst is a steady-state way of competing matched with hierarchical rewards and consistent with what can be labeled a clan culture. Speci�ically, rewards emphasize and reinforce a culture characterized by long-term commitment, fraternal relationships, mutual interests, and collegiality with heavy pressures to conform from peers, and with superiors acting as mentors. Firms with this pattern are in power generation, chemicals, mining, and pharmaceuticals industries.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Christine Specht Puts a Smile on Cousins Subs

As the second generation to head Cousins Subs, Christine Specht stresses the importance of culture. She makes it perfectly clear that her focus is on the key attributes of the organization founded by her father and his cousin.

Specht notes, “Our food is better; our sandwiches are bigger. More importantly, they are made by people who really care about serving the guests . . . we have a great organizational culture of people who really care about the company and the guest.”

For Christine Specht, it is imperative to continue the cultural traditions of Cousins while at the same time making sure the �irm is new, vital, and viable. When Specht unveiled a new logo and restaurant design for Cousins Subs, she explained that it was a great time to evolve the company’s look with a logo that, while fresh and modern, incorporated the “pride of our family heritage” and shared the story of Cousins Subs with their loyal patrons.

Although Specht emphasizes tradition at Cousins, she also looks to the future. When she �irst became president of the organization, she visited all of the franchise operations. Based on this experience, she reorganized the central of�ice operations. The visits helped build trust, and as the economy entered the recession the new central of�ice operations were instrumental in reducing costs for all the franchise holders. These changes also led to a revamped training program for those who own, or want to own, a Cousins franchise.

Since becoming president, Specht continues to focus on the cornerstone of the brand: “Better Bread. Better Subs.” And it is as true today as it was 30 years ago when cousins Bill Specht and Jim Sheppard started the company. The cousins worked with a local baker to create a unique recipe for their bread that is still baked fresh several times a day in every Cousins’ store.

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COURTESY OF COUSINS SUBMARINES, INC.

What’s the Lesson Here?

How comfortable are you with managing change? How can you use stories, rituals, and symbols to reinforce aspects of the culture you want to keep? How much innovation would you introduce and how quickly?

In contrast is a second pattern in which the �irm competes by stressing evolution and change. Here the rewards emphasize and reinforce a more market culture. That is, rewards emphasize a contractual link between employee and employer, focus on short-term performance, and stress individual initiative with little pressure from peers to conform, and with supervisors acting as resource allocators. Firms with this pattern are often in restaurants, consumer products, and industrial services industries.45 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note45)

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15.4 Innovation in Organizations LEARNING ROADMAP

THE PROCESS OF INNOVATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#sec318)

PRODUCT AND PROCESS INNOVATIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#sec319)

BALANCING EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#sec320)

MANAGING TENSIONS BETWEEN CULTURAL STABILITY AND INNOVATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#sec321)

When analysis stresses commonly shared actions, values, and assumptions across the entire organization, �irms can appear to be static, unchanging entities. It is clear that much of an organization’s culture and its structure emphasize stability and control. Yet, the world is changing and �irms must change with it. The best organizations don’t stagnate; they consistently innovate to the extent that innovation becomes a part of everyday operations.

Innovation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo192) is the process of creating new ideas and putting them into practice.46 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note46) It is the means by which creative ideas �ind their way into everyday practices—ideally ones that contribute to improved customer service or organizational productivity. There are a variety of ways to look at innovation. Here we will examine it as a process and a separate product from process innovation, and we will note the tensions between the early development of ideas and the task of implementation.

Innovation is the process of creating new ideas and putting them into practice.

The Process of Innovation One easy way to look at the complex process of innovation is to break it down into four steps as shown in Figure 15.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#r�ig15-2) .

Idea creation—to create an idea through spontaneous creativity, ingenuity, and information processing

Initial experimentation—to establish the idea’s potential value and application

Feasibility determination—to identify anticipated costs and bene�its

Final application—to produce and market a new product or service, or to implement a new approach to operations

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It takes many creative ideas to establish a base for initial experimentation. Moreover, many successful initial experiments are just not feasible. Even among the few feasible ideas, only the rare idea actually makes it into application. Finally, innovative entities bene�it from and require top-management support. Senior managers can and must provide good examples for others, eliminate obstacles to innovation, and try to get things done that make innovation easier.

By emphasizing the innovation process, innovative entities often adapt a different culture from the ones typically found where more routine operations are paramount. Innovative entities look to the future, are willing to cannibalize existing products in their development of new ones, have a high tolerance for risk and mistakes, respect well-intentioned ideas that do not work, prize creativity, and reward and give special attention to idea generators, information keepers, product champions, and project leaders. They also prize empowerment and emphasize communication up, down, and across all individuals in the unit.47 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note47)

Although it is convenient to depict the process as a sequential four-step affair, in practice the process of innovation is often messy. Take a look at Figure 15.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#r�ig15-2) . With initial experimentation, for example, the act of sharing ideas with others can, and often does, yield a completely new set of ideas. Even in �inal application, the process does not stop, as astute innovators listen to customers and clients to make further improvements. Also note that organizational support for innovation is needed in each step in this ongoing process.

FIGURE 15.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#�ig15-2) The innovation process: a case of new product development.

Although the desire to improve �inancial performance is important in stimulating innovation, it is also essential to note that innovation can arise from the �irm’s desire to be more legitimate in the eyes of key stakeholders, such as government regulators. For example, one recent study suggested that pressures from regulators and a prior record of poor environmental performance yielded more innovative environmental responses from �irms. There was an exception, however, in that �irms with greater slack

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resources did not respond as positively to regulatory pressures even if they had a record of poorer prior environmental performance.48 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note48)

Research also shows the results of the team factors associated with greater innovation.49 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note49) It is clear from this work that a number of signi�icant team processes are consistently linked to greater innovation. First, goal interdependence among the team members is important. Goal interdependence is the degree to which individuals can reach their goals only if other team members reach theirs. The higher the goal interdependence, the greater the innovation. Second, for a number of teams, a higher-quality process was linked to more innovation. Six team processes were particularly important for innovative success:

Team processes for successful innovation

Vision—the degree of clarity and commitment to goals

Support for innovation—support both within and from outside

Task orientation—a climate for excellence

Cohesion—a commitment to the team and maintenance of group membership

Internal communications—quality interactions within the group

External communications—quality interactions with outsiders

Product and Process Innovations Product innovations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo343) result in the introduction of new or improved goods or services to better meet customer needs. A number of studies suggest that the key dif�iculty associated with product development is the integration across all of the units needed to move from the idea stage to �inal implementation.50 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note50) Culturally, new product development often challenges existing practice and existing value structures, and common understandings. For instance, product innovation means that the de�inition of the business will change. Many �irms �ind it dif�icult to cannibalize their existing product lineup in the hope that new products will be even more successful. Yet, this is what often needs to be done.51 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note51)

Product innovations introduce new goods or services to better meet customer needs.

Product innovation is so crucial that a number of government-based initiatives have been launched to help spur the development of new products. Individuals proposing initiatives point to the revolution that has resulted from development of the Internet, green technologies, and medical breakthroughs with the potential to change the human condition. One recent study suggests that corporate culture, rather than national policy, makes the biggest difference with radical product innovation.52 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note52)

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A number of interrelated �irms may share the product innovation process.53 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note53) Generally speaking, complex products are often the result of a combinations of individual components from a variety of corporations. Control is exercised by a common design, often under the direction of a single integrator who maintains the dominant design. This is often the model in computer software, for example. It is important to note that the development and control of the dominant design can be linked to pro�itability.54 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note54) Furthermore, the dominant design is often not the best technical solution—it is the solution most often adopted by a large number of users.

Where the product innovation process is less open, �irms often �ind that coordination with lead users can help provide design insights.55 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note55) Although no solution is perfect, several studies suggest that the development of multidisciplinary teams can help maintain broader commitment. Of course, just the inclusion of individuals with diverse skills, interests, and perspectives calls for astute management.

Process innovations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo340) result in the introduction of new and better work methods and operations. Perhaps one of the most interesting and dif�icult types of process improvement is that of management innovation.56 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note56) Much management innovation comes from the vast industry known as management consulting. Unfortunately, many of the new management practices emanating from these outside units are more fashions and fads than workable solutions to the problems faced by individual �irms. The key to successful managerial innovation often involves extensive interaction with peers, subordinates, and superiors. As astute managers try new practices, they compare initial implementation with the reactions of peers and subordinates to re�ine and modify the practice. Often this process of trial and error takes several iterations before the practice becomes accepted enough to provide the intended bene�its.

Process innovations introduce into operations new and better ways of doing things.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“Every Friday you’ll �ind Fusenet engineers working on their own ideas. They do so knowing that if the ideas are good, they’ll own any business that comes from them.”

Raising the Ownership Stakes to Boost Innovation

Google borrowed 3M’s time-tested willingness to let engineers take a portion of their work time—up to 20 percent—and devote it to free time to think about things outside their everyday jobs. At Fusenet, a Toronto based software developer, every Friday is a free day for employees to work on their own ideas. They end their week on a creative note, knowing that if their innovations are good, they will own any business that comes from them.

The goal is to break people free from tight job descriptions and organization structures, and encourage innovation. It’s a move that OB researchers say is necessary to avoid the downsides of too much bureaucracy in dynamic environments.

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Armed with a freedom to “tinker,” the expectation is that employees will generate new ideas that have the potential to fuel useful and pro�itable innovation. Some call this “scheduled playtime at work.” At 3M, such play brought us the Post-it note. At Google, it drove Gmail.

But what happens when free time doesn’t result in innovation? Can you order someone to play? Can you take away what employees create and expect them to innovate willingly and successfully again?

When employees feel a sense of ownership, they tend to work harder. Think participation in goal setting and pro�it-sharing compensation, for example. If ownership motivates, why not give innovative employees ownership rights and let them gain �inancially and emotionally from their creativity?

David Paul Morris/Bloomberg/Getty

Balancing Exploration and Exploitation In the early stages of innovation, time, energy, and exploration are necessary. These early phases are the result of the research and development units found in many companies. Yet, too much emphasis on exploration will yield a whole list of potential ideas for products and processes to new clients and customers in new markets, but will result in little payoff. It is important to stress exploitation to capture the economic value stemming from exploration.57 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note57) Exploitation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo129) often focuses on re�inement and reuse of existing products and processes. Re�ining an existing product to make it more saleable in a new market is an example of exploitation. Of course, too much emphasis on exploitation and the �irm loses its competitive edge because its products become obsolete and its processes less effective and ef�icient than their competitors.

Exploitation focuses on re�inement and reuse of existing products and processes.

The admonition to balance exploration and exploitation sounds simple, but it comes with a major problem. Exploration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo130) calls for the organization and its managers to stress freedom and radical thinking and opens the �irm to big

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changes—or what some call radical innovations.58 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note58) Although some radical departures are built on existing competencies, often the adoption of a radically new product or process means that the existing knowledge within a �irm is invalidated.59 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note59) Conversely, an emphasis on exploitation stresses control and evolutionary development. Such exploitation can be planned with tight budgets, careful forecasts, and steady implementation. It is often easier to stress exploitation because most organizations have a structure and culture that emphasizes stability and control.60 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note60)

Exploration calls for the organization and its managers to stress freedom and radical thinking and opens the �irm to big changes–or what some call radical innovations.

Managers may attempt to solve this tension between exploration and exploitation in a variety of ways. One partial solution is to have separate units for the two types of activities. For example, some �irms rely heavily on cooperative research and development (R&D) arrangements with other �irms for exploration and keep a tight rein on exploitation within the �irm.61 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note61) Others rely on middle managers to reconcile the tensions stemming from attempts to link explorative and exploitative groups. However, the desired mix of explorative and exploitative may well depend on the industry setting.

Recent research suggests a more culturally oriented solution based on the notion of an ambidextrous organization. There appear to be four critical factors in building an ambidextrous organization:

How to build an ambidextrous organization

Managers must recognize the tension between exploration and exploitation.

Managers should realize that one form of thinking based on a single perspective is inappropriate.

Managers must discuss with their subordinates the paradoxes arising from simultaneously thinking about big ideas and sound incremental improvements.

Managers must encourage subordinates to embrace these paradoxes and use them as motivations to provide creative solutions.62 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note62)

Managing Tensions between Cultural Stability and Innovation Although organizational cultures help individuals cope with external adaptation and internal integration, the enduring pattern of observable actions, shared values, and common assumptions often does not evolve as quickly as required by innovations.

Organizational Cultural Lag Organizational cultural lag (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo291) is a condition in which dominant cultural patterns are inconsistent with new emerging innovations.63

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note63) As we suggested earlier, observable aspects of organizational culture such as rites, rituals, and cultural symbols often have powerful underlying meaning for organizational members. In a way they are symbols of successful ways of coping with external adaptation and internal integration. Individuals are often wary of abandoning successful strategies for an unproven new approach. One scholar notes that there can be a major “cultural drag on innovation from cultural legacies.”64 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note64) These legacy effects come from an overreliance on rule following and reinforcement of existing patterns of action.

Organizational cultural lag is a condition in which dominant cultural patterns are inconsistent with new emerging innovations.

One of the key challenges to management in promoting innovation where there are widely held and strong attachments to shared values and common assumptions, is to show how they apply to the new innovations. When managers see an opportunity to develop new visions, create new strategies, and move the organization in new directions, they need to balance rule changing and rule following.65 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note65) If left uncontrolled, rule changing can yield runaway industry change that can quickly lead to chaos. Rule following can lead to a more stable industry structure and/or controlled industry change, yet there is also a danger of reinforcing cultural lag.

Purposeful Unintended Consequences With substantial innovation, three common myths may combine to present major risk problems.66 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note66) The �irst common myth is the presumption that at least senior management has no risk bias. This myth is often expressed as “Although others may be biased, I am able to de�ine problems and develop solutions objectively.” We are all subject to bias in varying degrees and in varying ways. As an issue becomes more complex, it is also much more likely there are several biased viable interpretations.

A second common myth is the presumption of administrative competence. Managers at all levels are subject to believing that their part of the �irm is okay and just needs minor improvements. This is rarely the case. In almost all �irms, there is considerable room for improvement. One particularly damaging manifestation of this myth is that new process and product innovations can be managed in the same way as older ones.

A third common myth is the denial of trade-offs; where the group, unit, or �irm can avoid making undesirable trade-offs and simultaneously please nearly every constituency. Whereas the denial of trade- offs is common, it can be a dangerous myth in some �irms. An emphasis on a single goal often means that other goals are neglected. For example, ethics does not stem from the search for higher ef�iciency. It is a worthy goal among several.

As illustrated in Figure 15.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#r�ig15- 3) , these myths may combine to yield purposeful, yet unintended consequences. Purposeful, unintended consequences arise from the collective application of these three myths. Purposeful, unintended consequences are dramatic, unanticipated bene�its or costs arising from the implementation of a way of doing business. Often these unintended consequences are dire. They are purposeful because they stem from unexamined myths—myths managers think apply to others and not themselves.

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FIGURE 15.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#�ig15-3) Purposeful unintended consequences arising from organizational myths.

The �inancial meltdown that took place between 2007–2009 is an example of purposeful unintended consequences.67 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c15-note67) Banks and �inancial institutions had bought and sold mortgage-backed derivatives (complex �inancial instruments) under the myths that they could (1) accurately judge the risk themselves and value them accurately (they were not risk biased); (2) administer these complex instruments in a manner similar to traditional mortgages (the presumption of administrative competence); and (3) gain great short-term returns without risking long- term pro�itability (denial of trade-offs). Combining these myths allowed the managers to dismiss the potential of a systematic meltdown of the entire �inancial system (the dire unintended consequence). Yet, by the end of 2008 and the beginning of 2009, the global �inancial system almost collapsed from these and related problems. Was the unintended consequence pursued on purpose? No one manager sought a meltdown. Yet millions of mortgages were granted to individuals with questionable credit and were then used to develop new types of �inancial instruments. It took unprecedented actions by many central banks and governments to avert a total collapse.

That said, mortgage-backed securities and derivatives were one of the �inancial system’s major innovations toward the turn of the century. They were an important way to broaden the �inancial support for housing. And initially, they appeared successful and provided �inancial institutions with a way to grow and prosper. However, managers forgot that they needed to manage their corporate culture in the face of innovation.

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15 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is organizational culture?

Organizational culture or corporate culture is the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members.

The functions of the corporate culture include responding to both external adaptation and internal integration issues.

Most organizations contain a variety of subcultures, and a few have countercultures that can sometimes become the source of potentially harmful con�licts.

The corporate culture also re�lects the values and implicit assumptions of the larger national culture.

How do you understand an organizational culture?

Organizational cultures may be analyzed in terms of observable actions, shared values, and common assumptions (the taken-for-granted truths).

Observable aspects of culture include the stories, rites, rituals, and symbols that are shared by organization members.

Cultural rules and roles specify when various types of actions are appropriate and where individual members stand in the social system.

Shared meanings and understandings help everyone know how to act and expect others to act in various circumstances.

Common assumptions are the taken-for-granted truths that are shared by collections of corporate members.

How can we manage organizational culture and innovation?

Executives may manage many aspects of the observable culture directly.

Nurturing shared values among the membership is a major challenge for executives.

Adjusting actions to common understandings limits the decision scope of even the CEO.

What is innovation, and why is it important?

Innovation is the process of creating new ideas and then implementing them in practical applications.

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Steps in the innovation process normally include idea generation, initial experimentation, feasibility determination, and �inal application.

Common features of highly innovative organizations include supportive strategies, cultures, structures, staf�ing, and senior leadership.

Product innovations result in improved goods or services; process innovations result in improved work methods and operations.

Process innovations introduce into operations new and better ways of doing things.

Although it is necessary to balance exploration and exploitation, it is dif�icult to accomplish.

There are tensions between the tendency for cultural stability in most �irms and the need to innovate.

Terms to Know Corporate culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key1)

Countercultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key2)

Cultural symbol (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key3)

Exploitation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key4)

Exploration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key5)

External adaptation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key6)

Innovation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key7)

Internal integration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key8)

Management philosophy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#key9)

Mission statements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#key10)

Multicultural organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key11)

Observable culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key12)

Organizational cultural lag (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key13)

Organizational culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key14)

Organizational myths (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key15)

Output goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#key16)

Process innovations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key17)

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Product innovations (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec317#key18)

Rites (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key19)

Rituals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key20)

Saga (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec308#key21)

Societal goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#key22)

Subcultures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec304#key23)

Systems goals (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec313#key24)

Self-Test 15 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str1) . Culture concerns all of the following except ____________.

a. (a) the collective concepts shared by members of a �irm

b. (b) acquired capabilities

c. (c) the personality of the leader

d. (d) the beliefs of members

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str2) . The three levels of cultural analysis highlighted in the text concern ____________.

a. (a) observable culture, shared values, and common assumptions

b. (b) stories, rites, and rituals

c. (c) symbols, myths, and stories

d. (d) manifest culture, latent culture, and observable artifacts

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str3) . External adaptation concerns ____________.

a. (a) the unproven beliefs of senior executives

b. (b) the process of coping with outside forces

c. (c) the vision of the founder

d. (d) the processes working together

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str4) . Internal integration concerns ____________.

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a. (a) the process of deciding the collective identity and how members will live together

b. (b) the totality of the daily life of members as they see and describe it

c. (c) expressed unproven beliefs that are accepted uncritically and used to justify current actions

d. (d) groups of individuals with a pattern of values that rejects those of the larger society

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str5) . When Japanese workers start each day with the company song, this is an example of a(n) ____________.

a. (a) symbol

b. (b) myth

c. (c) underlying assumption

d. (d) ritual

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str6) . ____________ is a sense of broader purpose that workers infuse into their tasks as a result of interaction with one another.

a. (a) A rite

b. (b) A cultural symbol

c. (c) A foundation myth

d. (d) A shared meaning

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str7) . The story of a corporate turnaround attributed to the efforts of a visionary manager is an example of ____________.

a. (a) a saga

b. (b) a foundation myth

c. (c) internal integration

d. (d) a latent cultural artifact

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str8) . The process of creating new ideas and putting them into practice is ____________.

a. (a) innovation

b. (b) creative destruction

c. (c) product innovation

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d. (d) process innovation

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str9) . Any object, act, or event that serves to transmit cultural meaning is called ____________.

a. (a) a saga

b. (b) a cultural symbol

c. (c) a cultural lag

d. (d) a cultural myth

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str10) . Groups where the patterns of values outwardly reject those of the larger organization are ____________.

a. (a) external adaptation rejectionist

b. (b) cultural lag

c. (c) countercultures

d. (d) organizational myths

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str11) . Groups with unique patterns of values and philosophies that are consistent with the dominant organizational culture are called ____________.

a. (a) countercultures

b. (b) subcultures

c. (c) sagas

d. (d) rituals

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str12) . A ____________ links key goal-related issues with key collaboration issues to come up with general ways by which the �irm will manage its affairs.

a. (a) managerial philosophy

b. (b) cultural symbol

c. (c) ritual

d. (d) saga

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str13) . Commonly held cause–effect relationships that cannot be empirically supported are referred to as ____________.

a. (a) cultural lags

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b. (b) rituals

c. (c) management philosophy

d. (d) organizational myths

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str14) . The patterns of values and philosophies that outwardly reject those of the larger organization or social system are called ____________.

a. (a) sagas

b. (b) organizational development

c. (c) rituals

d. (d) countercultures

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str15) . ____________ is a condition in which dominant cultural patterns are inconsistent with new emerging innovations.

a. (a) Organizational cultural lag

b. (b) Management philosophy

c. (c) Internal integration

d. (d) External adaptation

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str16) . Describe the �ive steps Taylor Cox suggests need to be developed to help generate a multicultural organization or pluralistic company culture.

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str17) . List the three aspects that help individuals and groups work together effectively, and illustrate them through practical examples.

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str18) . Give an example of how cultural rules and roles affect the atmosphere in a college classroom. Provide speci�ic examples from your own perspective.

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str19) . What are the major elements of a strong corporate culture?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c15str20) . Discuss why managers should balance exploration and exploitation when seeking greater innovation.

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Steps to Further Learning 15 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch15#ch15) .

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Never on a Sunday

How We View Differences

Work Team Culture

Fast-Food Technology

Alien Invasion

Are You Cosmopolitan?

Team Effectiveness

Which Culture Fits You?

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16 Organizational Structure and Design

The Key Point

Organizations are collections of people working together to achieve common goals. In this chapter, we discuss how organizations design and structure themselves to reach their goals. Effective managers need to know how to establish a hierarchy and control it, and how to organize the work to be done and effectively coordinate with others.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

FLATTENING STRUCTURES BY CROWDSOURCING PEER EVALUATIONS

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

DO FLEXIBLE FACTORIES HAVE STAYING POWER?

Checking Ethics in OB

FLATTENED INTO EXHAUSTION

Finding the Leader in You

DENISE WILSON KEEPS STRUCTURE SIMPLE AT DESERT JET

OB in Popular Culture

HIERARCHY AND RATATOUILLE

Research Insight

COORDINATION IN TEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter at a Glance

What Is the Formal Structure of the Organization?

How Is Work Organized and Coordinated?

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What Is Organizational Design?

What Are Bureaucracies and Their Alternatives?

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16.1 Formal Organizational Structure LEARNING ROADMAP

ORGANIZATIONS AS HIERARCHIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#sec324)

CONTROLS AS A BASIC FEATURE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#sec325)

Once the goals of an organization are clear, managers must decide how to organize work to accomplish these goals.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note1) The static aspect of the process is known as organizational structure. Speci�ically, the formal structure of an organization outlines the jobs to be done, the people who are to perform speci�ic activities, and the ways the tasks of the organization are to be accomplished. In other words, the formal structure is the skeleton of the �irm.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note2)

The formal structure shows the planned pattern of positions, job duties, and the lines of authority among different parts of the company. Traditionally, the formal structure of the �irm also has been called the division of labor. This terminology is still used to isolate decisions concerning formal structure from choices regarding the division of markets and/or technology. We will deal with environmental and technology issues after we discuss the structure as a foundation for managerial action.

Organizations as Hierarchies In most organizations, there is a clear separation of authority and duties by rank. How authority is specialized is known as vertical specialization. Vertical specialization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo475) is an organization’s hierarchical division of labor that distributes formal authority and establishes where and how critical decisions will be made. This division creates a hierarchy of authority—an arrangement of work positions in order of increasing authority.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note3)

Vertical specialization is an organization’s hierarchical division of labor.

The Organization Chart Organization charts (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo287) are diagrams that depict the formal structures of organizations. A typical chart shows the various positions, the position holders, and the lines of authority that link them to one another. Figure 16.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#r�ig16-1) presents a partial organization chart for a large university. The chart allows university employees to locate their positions in the structure and to identify the lines of authority linking them with others in the organization. For instance, in this �igure, the treasurer reports to the vice president of administration, who, in turn, reports to the president of the university.

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Organization charts are diagrams that depict the formal structures of organizations.

Although an organization chart may indicate who each employee reports to, it is also important to recognize that it does not show how work is completed, who exercises the most power over speci�ic issues, or how the �irm will respond to its environment. However, organization charts can be important to the extent that they accurately represent the chain of command, a listing of who reports to whom up and down the �irm’s hierarchy and shows how executives, managers, and supervisors are connected. Traditional management theory suggests that each individual should have one boss, and each unit should have one leader. Under these circumstances, there is a unity of command which is necessary to avoid confusion, assign accountability to speci�ic individuals, and provide clear channels of communication throughout the organization.

FIGURE 16.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#�ig16-1) A partial organization chart for a state university.

Span of Control The number of individuals reporting to a supervisor is called the span of control (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo421) . Narrower spans of control are expected when tasks are complex, when subordinates are inexperienced or poorly trained, or when tasks call for team effort. Unfortunately, narrow spans of control yield many organizational levels. The excessive number of levels is not only expensive, but it also makes the organization unresponsive to necessary change. Communications often becomes less effective because information is successively screened and modi�ied and subtle but important changes can be ignored. When organizations have many levels, managers can get too far removed from the action and become isolated. Conversely with too few levels, organizations may experience coordination and control problems and managers are subject to burnout.

The span of control is the number of individuals reporting to a supervisor.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Flattened into Exhaustion

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Dear Stress Doctor:

My boss has come up with this great idea of cutting some supervisor positions, assigning more workers to those of us who remain, and calling us “coaches” instead of supervisors. She says this is all part of a new management approach to operate with a �latter structure and more empowerment.

For me this means a lot more work coordinating the activities of seventeen operators instead of the six that I previously supervised. I can’t get everything cleaned up on my desk most days, and I end up taking a lot of paperwork home.

As my organization “restructures” and cuts back staff, it puts a greater burden on those of us who remain. We get exhausted, and our families get shortchanged and even angry. I even feel guilty now taking time to watch my daughter play soccer on Saturday mornings. Sure, there’s some decent pay involved, but that doesn’t make up for the heavy price I’m paying in terms of lost family times.

© Jesper Elgaard/iStockphoto

But you know what? My boss doesn’t get it. I never hear her ask “Henry, are you working too much? Don’t you think it’s time to get back on a reasonable schedule?” No! What I often hear instead is “Look at Andy. He handles our new management model really well, and he’s a real go-getter. I don’t think he’s been out of here one night this week before eight P.M.”

What am I to do, just keep it up until everything falls apart one day? Is a �latter structure with fewer managers always best? Am I missing something in regard to this “new management?”

Sincerely,

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Overworked in Cincinnati

Get the Ethics Straight Is it ethical to restructure, cut management levels, and expect the remaining managers to do more work? Or is it simply the case that managers used to the “old” ways of doing things need extra training and care while learning “new” management approaches? And what about this person’s boss—is she on track with her management skills? Aren’t managers supposed to help people understand their jobs, set priorities, and ful�ill them, while still maintaining a reasonable work–life balance?

Line and Staff Units A useful way to examine the vertical division of labor is to separate line and staff units. Line units (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo237) and personnel conduct the major business of the organization. The production and marketing functions are two examples. In contrast, staff units (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo424) and personnel assist the line units by providing specialized expertise and services, such as accounting and public relations. For example, the vice president of administration in a university (see Figure 16.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#r�ig16-1) ) heads a staff unit, as does the vice president of student affairs.

Line units and personnel conduct the major business of the organization.

Staff units assist the line units by providing specialized expertise and services.

Staff units can be assigned predominantly to senior-, middle-, or lower-level managers. When staff is assigned predominantly to senior management, the capability of senior management to develop alternatives and make decisions and monitor progress is expanded.

Controls as a Basic Feature Distributing formal authority calls for control. Control is the set of mechanisms used to keep action or outputs within predetermined limits.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note4) Control deals with setting standards, measuring results versus standards, and instituting corrective action. We should stress that effective control occurs before action actually begins. For instance, in setting standards, managers must decide what will be measured and how accomplishment will be determined. Although there are a wide variety of organizational controls, they are roughly divided into output, process, and social controls.

Control is the set of mechanisms used to keep action or outputs within predetermined limits.

Output Controls We have de�ined output goals and suggested that systems goals should be a road map to desirable conditions that tie together units to achieve the organization’s output and societal goals. Output controls (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo303) focus on desired targets for each unit in the organization. Developing targets or standards, measuring results against these targets, and taking corrective action are all steps involved in developing effective output controls.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note5) When executives stress output controls,

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managers can use their own methods to reach de�ined targets. Most organizations use output controls as part of an overall method of managing by exception.

Output controls focus on desired targets for each unit.

Output controls are popular because they promote �lexibility and creativity and facilitate dialogue concerning corrective actions. Reliance on outcome controls separates what is to be accomplished from how it is to be accomplished, and the discussion of goals is separated from the dialogue concerning methods. This separation can facilitate the movement of power down the organization, as managers are reassured that individuals at all levels will be working toward the goals management believes are important, even as lower-level managers innovate and introduce new ways to accomplish these goals.

Process Controls Few organizations run on outcome controls alone. Once a solution to a problem is found and successfully implemented, managers do not want the problem to recur, so they institute process controls. Process controls (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo339) attempt to specify the manner in which tasks are accomplished.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note6) There are many types of process controls, but three groups have received considerable attention: (1) policies, procedures, and rules; (2) formalization and standardization; and (3) total quality management controls.

Process controls attempt to specify the manner in which tasks are accomplished.

Most organizations implement a variety of policies, procedures, and rules to help specify how goals are to be accomplished. Usually, we think of a policy as a guideline for action that outlines important objectives and broadly indicates how an activity is to be performed. It sets boundaries but typically allows for some individual discretion. Procedures indicate the best method for performing a task, show which aspects of a task are the most important, or outline how an individual is to be rewarded.

A policy sets forth a broad guideline for action.

A procedure sets forth the best method for performing a task.

Rules are more speci�ic, rigid, and impersonal than policies. They typically describe in detail how a task or a series of tasks is to be performed, or they indicate what cannot be done. They are designed to apply to all individuals, under speci�ied conditions. For example, most car dealers have detailed instruction manuals for repairing a new car under warranty, and they must follow strict procedures to obtain reimbursement from the manufacturer for warranty work.

Rules, procedures, and policies are often employed as substitutes for direct managerial supervision. In OB, formalization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo144) refers to the written documentation of rules, procedures, and policies to guide behavior and decision making. Under the guidance of written rules and procedures, the organization can speci�ically direct the activities of many individuals. Written instructions allow individuals with less training to perform sophisticated tasks, as more complicated activities can be broken down into simpli�ied steps. Written procedures may also ensure that a proper sequence of tasks is executed.

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Formalization is the written documentation of rules, procedures and policies to guide behavior and decision making.

Most organizations have developed additional methods for dealing with recurring problems or situations. Standardization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo426) is the allowable actions in a job or series of jobs. It involves the creation of guidelines so that similar work activities are repeatedly performed in a consistent fashion. Such standardized methods may come from years of experience in dealing with typical situations, or they may come from outside training. For instance, if you are late in paying your credit card, the bank will automatically send you a noti�ication and start an internal process of monitoring your account.

Standardization is the allowable actions in a job or series of jobs.

Total Quality Management The process controls discussed so far—policies, procedures, rules, formalization, and standardization—represent the lessons of experience within an organization. Often there is no overall philosophy for using controls to improve the operations of the company. One way of instituting process controls is to establish a total quality management process within the �irm.

The late W. Edwards Deming was the founder of the total quality management movement.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note7) When Deming’s ideas were not initially accepted in the United States, he found an audience in Japan. At the heart of Deming’s approach is instituting a process approach to continual improvement based on statistical analyses of the �irm’s operations. Around this core idea, Deming developed a series of fourteen points for managers to implement. In Figure 16.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#r�ig16-2) , note the emphasis on everyone working together using statistical controls in order to achieve continual improvement.

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FIGURE 16.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#�ig16-2) Deming’s 14 Points of Quality Management.

When an organization’s goals and outcomes are well de�ined, Deming’s system and emphasis on quality work well. The approach is particularly effective when implemented in conjunction with empowerment and participative management. Success with a quality program requires high involvement by everyone as well as strong management support for skills training and keeping quality themes visible.

Centralization and Decentralization Organizations use different mixes of vertical specialization, output controls, process controls, and managerial techniques to allocate the authority or discretion to act.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note8) The farther up the hierarchy of authority the discretion to spend money, to hire people, and to make similar decisions is moved, the greater the degree of centralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo30) . The more such decisions are delegated, or moved down the hierarchy of authority, the greater the degree of decentralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo78) . Greater centralization is often adopted when the �irm faces a single major threat to its survival. It is little wonder that armies tend to be centralized and that �irms facing bankruptcy increase centralization. Recent research even suggests that governmental agencies may improve their performance via centralization when in a defensive mode.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note9)

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Centralization is the degree to which the authority to make decisions is restricted to higher levels of management.

Decentralization is the degree to which the authority to make decisions is given to lower levels in an organizations hierarchy.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“We are decentralizing as much decision making as we can, so we also need to decentralize reviews.”

Flattening Structures by Crowdsourcing Peer Evaluations

As executives look for ways to �latten organization structures and reduce administrative costs, going online with performance reviews and crowdsourcing feedback are becoming increasingly popular.

OB scholars have long suggested that it’s good to get away from the traditional manager-driven, top-down performance evaluations. An example of how practice has responded to theory is the popularity of 360- degree reviews. They include feedback from peers and others working with or for the person under review.

Online reviews are in at the San Francisco-based social media out�it Hearsay Social, Inc. The �irm runs on teamwork and involves constantly shifting projects. All ninety employees are part of a crowdsourced feedback system that allows them to comment on one another’s work and the feedback is anonymous. Chief technology of�icer Steve Garrity says, “We are decentralizing as much decision making as we can, so we also need to decentralize reviews.”

The daily deal company LivingSocial takes crowdsourcing of reviews a step further. Its employees can go online anytime and comment—in public or in private, on someone else’s work. These peer reviews are factored into formal performance reviews done every three months, and are also used in making pay bonus decisions.

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Bill O’Leary/The Washington Post/Getty

With more employees on the giving and receiving ends of crowdsourced performance feedback, San Francisco State management professor John Sullivan worries that people may end up evaluating others whose jobs they don’t know enough about. As online peer reviews become more common, managers should make sure they understand how they affect those involved, and how they can best be implemented.

Greater decentralization generally provides higher subordinate satisfaction and a quicker response to a diverse series of unrelated problems. Decentralization also assists in the on-the-job training of subordinates for higher-level positions. Decentralization is now a popular approach in many industries.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note10) For instance, Union Carbide is pushing responsibility down the chain of command, as are SYSCO and Hewlett-Packard. In each case, the senior managers hope to improve both performance quality and organizational responsiveness.

Decentralization and Participation Closely related to decentralization is the notion of participation. Many people want to be involved in making decisions that affect their work. Participation results when a manager delegates some authority for such decision making to subordinates. For example, Macy’s has successfully experimented with moving decisions down the chain of command and increasing employee participation. In many cases, employees want a say both in what the unit objectives should be and in how they can be achieved.

The Illusion of Control One of the myths in management is the illusion of control. There are many variations of this, but one centers on the formal controls themselves. Many managers want to believe they can specify all of the relevant goals for subordinates as well as how they are to be accomplished. With too many output and process goals, subordinates appear to have very little �lexibility. However, as the number of output and process controls escalates, so do the con�licts between the two. The result is that subordinates begin to pick and choose which controls they follow and managers only have the illusion that subordinates are reaching toward the speci�ied goals.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note11)

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16.2 Organizing and Coordinating Work LEARNING ROADMAP

TRADITIONAL TYPES OF DEPARTMENTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#sec327)

COORDINATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#sec328)

Managers must divide the total task into separate duties and group similar people and resources together.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note12) Organizing work is formally known as horizontal specialization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo171) , which is a division of labor that establishes speci�ic work units or groups within an organization. This aspect of the organization is also called departmentation. Whatever is divided horizontally into two or more departments must also be integrated.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note13) Coordination (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo66) is the set of mechanisms that an organization uses to link the actions of its units into a consistent pattern. This includes mechanisms to connect managers and staff units, operating units, and divisions with each other. Managers use a mix of personal and impersonal methods of coordination to tie together the efforts of departments.

Horizontal specialization is a division of labor that establishes speci�ic work units or groups within an organization.

Coordination is the set of mechanisms that an organization uses to link the actions of their units into a consistent pattern.

Traditional Types of Departments Since the pattern of departmentation is so visible and important in a �irm, managers often refer to their pattern of departmentation as the departmental structure. Although most �irms use a mix of various types of departments, it is important to look at the traditional types and what they do and do not provide the �irm.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note14)

Functional Departments Grouping individuals by skill, knowledge, and action yields a pattern of functional departmentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo149) . Recall that Figure 16.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#r�ig16-1) shows the partial organization chart for a large university in which each department has a technical specialty. Marketing, �inance, production, and personnel are important functions in business. In many small companies, this functional pattern dominates. Even large organizations use this pattern in technically demanding areas. Figure 16.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#r�ig16-3) summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the functional pattern.

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Functional departmentation groups individuals by skill, knowledge, and action.

FIGURE 16.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#�ig16-3) Major advantages and disadvantages of functional specialization.

With all of these advantages, it is not surprising that the functional form is popular. It is used in most organizations, particularly toward the bottom of the hierarchy. The extensive use of functional departments does have some disadvantages. Organizations that rely heavily on functional specialization may expect the following tendencies to emerge over time: an emphasis on quality from a technical standpoint, rigidity to change, and dif�iculty in coordinating the actions of different functional areas.

Divisional Departments With divisional departments (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo95) , individuals and resources are grouped by products, territories, services, clients, or legal entities. A divisional pattern is often used to meet diverse external threats and opportunities. As shown in Figure 16.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#r�ig16-4) , the major advantages of the divisional pattern are its �lexibility in meeting external demands, spotting external changes, integrating specialized individuals deep within the organization, and focusing on the delivery of speci�ic products to speci�ic customers. Among its disadvantages are duplication of effort by function, the tendency for divisional goals to be placed above corporate interests, and con�lict among divisions. It is also not the structure most desired for training individuals in technical areas. Firms relying on this pattern may fall behind technically to competitors with a functional pattern.

Divisional departmentation groups individuals together by products, territories, services, clients, or legal entities.

Many larger, geographically dispersed organizations that sell to national and international markets may rely on departmentation by geography. The savings in time, effort, and travel can be substantial, and each territory can adjust to regional differences. Organizations that rely on a few major customers may organize their people and resources by client. Here, the idea is to focus attention on the needs of the individual customer. To the extent that customer needs are unique, departmentation by customer can also reduce confusion and increase synergy. Organizations expanding internationally may also form divisions to meet the demands of complex host-country ownership requirements. For example, NEC, Sony, Nissan, and many other Japanese corporations have developed U.S. divisional subsidiaries to service their customers in the U.S. market. Some European-based corporations such as Philips and Nestlé have also adopted a divisional structure in their expansion to the United States.

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Matrix Structures Originally from the aerospace industry, a third unique form of departmentation is called the matrix structure.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note15) In aerospace efforts, projects are technically complex, involving hundreds of subcontractors located throughout the world. Precise integration and control are needed across many functional specialties and corporations. This is often more than a functional or divisional structure can provide, for many �irms do not want to trade the responsiveness of the divisional form for the technical emphasis provided by the functional form. Therefore, matrix departmentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo251) uses both the functional and divisional forms simultaneously. Figure 16.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#r�ig16-5) shows the basic matrix arrangement for an aerospace program. Note the functional departments on one side and the project efforts on the other. Workers and supervisors in the middle of the matrix have two bosses—one functional and one project manager.

Matrix departmentation uses both the functional and divisional forms simultaneously.

FIGURE 16.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#�ig16-4) A divisional pattern of departmentation and the advantages and disadvantages of divisional specialization.

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Figure 16.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#r�ig16-5) summarizes the major advantages and disadvantages of the matrix form of departmentation. The key disadvantage of the matrix method is the loss of unity of command. Individuals can be unsure as to what their jobs are, who they report to for speci�ic activities, and how various managers are to administer the effort. It can also be an expensive method because it relies on individual managers to coordinate efforts deep within the �irm. Despite these limitations, the matrix structure provides a balance between functional and divisional concerns. Many problems can be resolved at the working level, where the balance among technical, cost, customer, and organizational concerns can be dealt with effectively.

Which form of departmentation should be used? As the matrix concept suggests, it is possible to departmentalize by two different methods at the same time. Actually, companies often use a mixture of departmentation forms. It is often desirable to divide the effort (group people and resources) by two methods at the same time in order to balance the advantages and disadvantages of each. These mixed forms help organizations use their division of labor to capitalize on environmental opportunities, capture the bene�its of larger size, and realize the potential of new technologies in pursuit of its strategy.

FIGURE 16.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#�ig16-5) A matrix pattern of departmentation in an aerospace division.

Coordination

Whatever is divided up horizontally in two departments should also be integrated.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note16) Coordination, as noted previously, is the set of mechanisms that an organization uses to link the actions of its units into a consistent pattern. Coordination is needed at all levels of management, not just across a few scattered units. Much of the coordination within a unit is handled by its manager. Smaller organizations may rely on their management hierarchy to provide the necessary consistency and integration.

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Personal Methods of Coordination Personal methods of coordination produce synergy by promoting dialogue and discussion, innovation, creativity, and learning, both within and across organizational units. Personal methods allow the organization to address the needs of distinct units and individuals simultaneously. There is a wide variety of personal methods of coordination.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note17) Perhaps the most popular is direct contact between and among organizational members. As new information technologies have moved into practice, the potential for developing and maintaining effective contact networks has expanded. For example, many executives use electronic communication to supplement direct personal communication. Direct personal contact is also associated with the ever-present “grapevine.” Although the grapevine is notoriously inaccurate in its role as a rumor mill, it is often accurate and quick enough that managers cannot ignore it. Instead, managers need to work with and supplement the rumor mill with accurate information.

Managers are often assigned to committees in order to improve coordination across departments. Committees can be effective in communicating complex qualitative information and in helping managers whose units must work together to adjust schedules, workloads, and work assignments to increase productivity.

The appropriate mix of personal coordination methods, and tailoring them to the individual skills, abilities, and experience of subordinates, also varies with the type of task. As the “Research Insight” feature suggests, a variety of personal methods can be tailored to match different individuals and the settings in which they operate. Personal methods are only one important part of coordination. The manager may also establish a series of impersonal mechanisms.

Research Insight

Coordination in Temporary Organizations

In today’s world, many individuals have jobs that take them to a number of different temporary settings such as a corporate task force, an alliance, or a special project. Coordinating the actions of the members in these temporary arrangements is often a challenge. However, recent research by Beth Bechky offers some insight. She studied the workers on a movie set—not the actors or producer—but the crew who set up and run the equipment, shoot the movie, and make sure the sound is perfect. These individuals are generally independent contractors whose work must mesh quickly even though they have only been together a few hours.

How do they do it in the short-lived organization of a movie set? According to Bechky, they negotiate their roles with each other. Each has his or her own specialization and assignment, and these must be coordinated with all others. Although each recognizes the others’ career progression (some have more experience and are looked to for help), all recognize that the current assignment is one among many they may want in the future. All are on their best behavior with the hopes that they will be hired for the next movie.

Bechky found that the more experienced crew may provide enthusiastic appreciation and polite admonishing to the less-experienced crew members. To enforce an emerging order and maintain coordination, many use humor, Sarcasm, and teasing. Public displays of anger are rare and frowned upon. With these mechanisms in place it only takes a few hours for the crew to emerge as an integrated unit.

To transfer the �indings to a student group, try and build a simpli�ied model of the factors mentioned in the description. It might look somewhat like this:

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Pick a student group to perform a team case study with majors in different areas (such as accounting, �inance, and management). See if the members self-assign to specialized areas based on their major. Look for variations in experience, and check if there is a common desire for high performance. As the group starts work on the project, observe if the members negotiate distinct roles. Do they use humor, teasing, or sarcastic comments to coalesce? Do they form an integrated group with an identi�ied order and coordinated action, or do just a few actually run the show?

Do the Research Would you expect a student group to form much the way that professionals do? If the student group does not use humor or teasing, what do members use to gain coordinated action?

Source: Beth A. Bechky, “Gaffers, Gofers, and Grips: Role-Based Coordination in Temporary Organizations” Organization Science 17.1 (2006), pp. 3–23.

Impersonal Methods of Coordination Impersonal methods of coordination produce synergy by stressing consistency and standardization so that individual pieces �it together. Impersonal coordination methods are often re�inements and extensions of process controls with an emphasis on formalization and standardization. Organizations often have written policies and procedures, such as schedules, budgets, and plans that are designed to mesh the operations of several units into a whole by providing predictability and consistency.

Managers often institute controls under the title of coordination. Since some of the techniques are used for both, many managers suggest that all efforts at control are for coordination. It is extremely important to separate these two functions because the reactions to controls and coordination are different. The underlying logic of control involves setting targets, measuring performance, and taking corrective action to meet goals normally assigned by higher management. Many employees see an increase in controls as a threat based on a presumption that they have been doing something wrong. The logic of coordination is to get unit actions and interactions meshed together into a uni�ied whole. Although control involves the vertical exercise of formal authority, coordination stresses cooperative problem solving. Experienced employees recognize the difference between controls and coordination regardless of what their manager calls it.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note18) Increasing controls rarely solves problems of coordination, and emphasizing coordination to solve control issues rarely works.

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16.3 Organizational Design LEARNING ROADMAP

SIZE AND THE SIMPLE DESIGN (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#sec330)

TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#sec331)

ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#sec332)

Organizational design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo293) is the process of choosing and implementing a structural con�iguration.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note19) It goes beyond indicating who reports to whom and what types of jobs are contained in each department. The design process takes the basic structural elements and molds them to the company’s desires, demands, constraints, and choices. When managers chose their overall approach to reaching their mission, the choice of an appropriate organizational design is contingent on several factors, including the size of the organization, its operations and information technology, and its environment.

Organizational design is the process of choosing and implementing a structural con�iguration.

Size and the Simple Design The simple design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo404) is a con�iguration involving one or two ways of specializing individuals and units. Vertical specialization and control typically emphasize levels of supervision without elaborate formal mechanisms (e.g., rulebooks and policy manuals), and the majority of the control resides in the manager. The simple design tends to minimize bureaucracy and rest more heavily on the leadership of the manager.

The simple design is a con�iguration involving one or two ways of specializing individuals and units.

The simple design pattern is appropriate for many small companies such as family businesses, retail stores, and small manufacturing �irms.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16- note20) The strengths of the simple design are simplicity, �lexibility, and responsiveness to the desires of a central manager—in many cases, the owner. Because a simple design relies heavily on the manager’s personal leadership, however, this con�iguration is only as effective as is the senior manager.

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Technology and Organizational Design Although the design for an organization should re�lect its size, it must also be adjusted to �it technological opportunities and requirements. Successful organizations arrange their internal structures to meet the dictates of their dominant “operations technologies” or work�lows and, more recently, information technology opportunities.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note21)

Operations Technology and Organizational Design Operations technology (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo281) is the combination of resources, knowledge, and techniques that creates a product or service output for an organization.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note22) As researchers in OB have charted the links between operations technology and organizational design, two common classi�ications for operations technology have received considerable attention: Thompson’s and Woodward’s classi�ications.

Operations technology is the combination of resources, knowledge, and techniques that creates a product or service output for an organization.

Thompson’s View of Technology A classic description of alternative technologies was developed by James D. Thompson. As shown in Figure 16.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#r�ig16-6) , it classi�ied technologies based on degrees of speci�ication and interdependence among work activities.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note23) Under intensive technology, there is uncertainty as to how to produce desired outcomes. A group of specialists must be brought together and use a variety of techniques to solve problems. Examples are found in a hospital emergency room or a research and development laboratory. Coordination and knowledge exchange are of critical importance with this kind of technology.

Mediating technology links parties that want to become interdependent. For example, banks link creditors and depositors and store money and information to facilitate such exchanges. Whereas all depositors and creditors are indirectly interdependent, the reliance is pooled through the bank. The degree of coordination among the individual tasks with pooled technology is reduced, and information management becomes more important than coordinated knowledge application.

Under long-linked technology, also called mass production or industrial technology, the way to produce the desired outcomes is known. The task is broken down into a number of sequential steps. A classic example is the automobile assembly line. Control is critical, and coordination is restricted to making the sequential linkages work in harmony.

Joan Woodward’s View of Technology Joan Woodward also divides technology into three categories: small-batch, mass production, and continuous-process manufacturing.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note24) In units of small-batch production, a variety of custom products are tailored to �it customer speci�ications, such as tailor-made suits. The machinery and equipment used are generally not very elaborate, but considerable craftsmanship is often needed. In mass production, the organization produces one or a few products through an assembly-line system. The work of one group is dependent on that of another, the equipment is typically sophisticated, and the workers are given detailed instructions. Automobiles and refrigerators are produced in this way. Organizations using continuous-process technology produce a few products using considerable automation. Classic examples are automated chemical plants and oil re�ineries.

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FIGURE 16.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#�ig16-6) Three Types of Operations Technologies: Intensive, Mediating, and Long linked.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Denise Wilson Keeps Structure Simple at Desert Jet

Founded in 2007, by Denise Wilson, Desert Jet provides private jet travel services to corporations throughout the United States. What makes this company, located in Thermal, California, really unique is that it also offers aircraft owners with professional aircraft management and the opportunity to generate revenue. When an aircraft would otherwise be sitting idle, Desert Jets enlists them in a certi�ied leasing program.

Under this program, Desert Jet can lease an aircraft to a member of the general public for about $1,500 to $3,500 per hour. “Our clients will call us and tell us where they want to go and what time they want to go. We provide them not only with the aircraft, but also with ground transportation, catering on the �light, and any other special requests,” says Wilson.

A quick look at the Desert Jet website shows that Wilson uses a simple organizational design. She has line positions (pilots) and staff slots (accountants). She has functional specialists (a certi�ied head of maintenance, an accountant, a chief pilot, and a director of safety) reporting to her. And recently, Desert Jet advertised for a specialist to clean aircrafts to join the team. Desert Jet is among the fastest-growing new �irms according to Inc., and it will probably take more than a decade of growth for the current simple design to be outmoded.

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Courtesy Denise Wilson

What’s the Lesson Here?

From the information provided in this chapter, speculate about the types of mechanisms you would likely see in use. What does the attention to the certi�ications and quali�ications of the employees tell you about the use of controls in this �irm?

From her studies, Woodward concluded that the combination of structure and technology was critical to the success of organizations. When technology and organizational design were matched properly, a �irm was more successful. Speci�ically, successful small-batch and continuous-process plants had �lexible structures with small workgroups at the bottom; more rigidly structured plants were less successful. In contrast, successful mass-production operations were rigidly structured and had large workgroups at the bottom. Since Woodward’s studies, other investigations supported this technological imperative. Today we recognize that operations technology is just one factor involved in the success of an organization.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note25)

Operating Technology and Adhocracy The in�luence of operations technology is seen in small organizations and in speci�ic departments within large organizations. In some instances, managers and employees do not know the appropriate way to service a client or to produce a particular product. This is an extreme example of Thompson’s intensive type of technology, and it may be found in some small-batch processes where a team of individuals must develop a unique product for a client.

Mintzberg suggests that at these technological extremes, the “adhocracy” may be an appropriate design.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note26) An adhocracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo8) is characterized by shared decentralized decision making, extreme horizontal specialization, few management levels and minimal formal controls with very few rules, policies, and procedures. This design emphasizes innovation. It is particularly useful when an operations technology presents two problems:

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An adhocracy is characterized by shared decentralized decision making, extreme horizontal specialization, few management levels and minimal formal controls with very few rules, policies, and procedures.

the tasks vary considerably and provide many exceptions, and

the problems are dif�icult to de�ine and resolve.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note27)

The adhocracy places a premium on professionalism and coordination in problem solving.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note28) Large organizations may use temporary task forces, form special committees, and even contract with consulting �irms to help solve problems the adhocracy promotes. For instance, Microsoft creates autonomous departments to encourage talented employees to develop new software programs. Allied Chemical and 3M set up groups to work through new ideas.

We should note that the adhocracy is notoriously inef�icient. Further, many managers are reluctant to adopt this form because they appear to lose control of day-to-day operations. The strategy consistent with the adhocracy is a stress on quality and individual service as opposed to ef�iciency. With more advanced information technology, �irms are beginning to combine an adhocracy with bureaucratic elements based on advanced information systems.

Information Technology and Organizational Design Information technology (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo190) is the combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, and systems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminate information for translating it into knowledge.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note29) Information technology (IT), the Web, and the computer (be it in tablet or phone form) are virtually inseparable and have fundamentally changed the organization design of �irms to capture new competencies.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note30)

Information technology (IT) is the combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, and systems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminate information for translating it into knowledge.

From an organizational standpoint, IT can be used, among other things, as a substitute for some operations as well as some process controls and impersonal methods of coordination. IT has the capability to transform information to knowledge. For instance, most �inancial �irms could not exist without IT, because it is now the base for the industry. Financial institutions created completely new aspects of their industry based on IT, such as exotic derivatives; it is now painfully obvious that these new aspects of the industry outpaced the ability of management to control them. Information technology, just as operations technology, can yield great good or great harm.

The Virtual Organization As IT has become widespread and it’s importance for attaining valued goals has increased, some executives have started to develop “virtual organizations.”31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note31)

A virtual organization is an ever-shifting constellation of �irms, with a lead corporation (such as Amazon) that pools skills, resources, and experiences to thrive jointly. This ever-changing collection most likely has

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a relatively stable group of participants (usually independent �irms) and includes key customers, research centers, suppliers, and distributors all connected to each other. The lead �irm possesses a critical competence that all need and therefore directs the constellation. Although this critical competence may be a key operations technology or access to customers, it always includes IT as a base for connecting the �irms.

The virtual organization works if it operates by some unique rules and is led in a most untypical way. First, the production system that yields the products and services needs to be a partner network among independent �irms where they are bound together by mutual trust and collective survival. As customers desire change, the proportion of work done by any member �irm might also change and the membership itself may change. Second, this partner network needs to develop and maintain (1) an advanced information technology (rather than just face-to-face interaction), (2) trust and cross-owning of problems and solutions, and (3) a common shared culture.

Too Much Technology May Cause Airline Flight Crews to Lose Critical Skills

As �light technology continues to evolve, pilots are spending more time monitoring computer readings. And that worries some observers. “They’re becoming dependent on using the autopilot, the auto-throttles, the auto �light system, the computers, to actually operate the entire �light,” says former pilot Kevin Hiatt.

Does the emphasis on computers in the cockpit reduce manual �lying skills and a pilot’s capacity to make judgments under unusual or crisis conditions?

Long ago the German sociologist Max Weber warned against trained incapacity in organizations when structure replaced human judgment. Are we at the point where it’s time to put more manual �light time back into pilot training?

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© carlosphotos/iStockphoto.com (http://iStockphoto.com)

The virtual organization can be highly resilient, extremely competent, innovative, and reasonably ef�icient —characteristics that are usually trade-offs. Executives in the lead �irm need to have the vision to see how the network of participants will both effectively compete with patterns consistent enough to be recognizable and still rapidly adjust to technological and environmental changes.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note32)

Many managers are involved with a “virtual” network of task forces and temporary teams in order to both de�ine and solve problems. Here the members will only connect electronically. Recent work on participants of the virtual teams suggests managers will need to rethink what it means to “manage.” Instead of telling others what to do, managers will need to treat colleagues as unpaid volunteers who expect to participate in governing the meetings and who are tied to the effort only by a commitment to identify and solve problems.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note33)

Environment and Organizational Design An effective organizational design re�lects powerful external forces as well as size and technological factors. Organizations, as open systems, need to receive input from the environment and in turn to sell output to their environment. Therefore, understanding the environment is important.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note34)

Segments of the Organization’s Environment The general environment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo153) is the set of cultural, economic,

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legal–political, and educational conditions found in the areas in which the organization operates. Firms expanding globally encounter multiple general environments.

The general environment is the set of cultural, economic, legal–political, and educational conditions found in the areas in which the organization operates.

The owners, suppliers, distributors, government agencies, and competitors with which an organization must interact in order to grow and survive constitute its speci�ic environment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo422) . A �irm typically has much more choice in the composition of its speci�ic environment than its general environment. Although it is often convenient to separate the general and speci�ic environmental in�luences on the �irm, managers need to recognize the combined impact of both.

The speci�ic environment is the set of owners, suppliers, distributors, government agencies, and competitors with which an organization must interact to grow and survive.

Environmental Complexity A basic concern to address when analyzing the environment of the organization is its complexity. A more complex environment provides an organization with more opportunities and more problems. Environmental complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo117) refers to the magnitude of the problems and opportunities in the organization’s environment, as evidenced by three main factors: the degree of richness, the degree of interdependence, and the degree of uncertainty stemming from both the general and the speci�ic environment.

Environmental complexity refers to the magnitude of the problems and opportunities in the organization’s environment.

Environmental Richness Overall, the environment is richer when the economy is growing, when individuals are improving their education, and when everyone that the organization relies on is prospering. For businesses, a richer environment means that economic conditions are improving, customers are spending more money, and suppliers (especially banks) are willing to invest in the organization’s future. In a rich environment, more organizations survive, even if they have poorly functioning organizational designs. A richer environment is also �illed with more opportunities and dynamism—the potential for change. The organizational design must allow the company to recognize these opportunities and capitalize on them. The opposite of richness is decline. For most business �irms, recession is a good example of a leaner environment.

Millennials Are Warming Up to Part-time Employment for Full-time Pay

As organizations streamline and adopt new forms, work preferences are also changing. Now it seems that free agency is in among millennials.

Look around your classroom and talk to friends. More and more of are opting to work freelance by personal choice, not just because there aren’t alternatives. The term permalancers is even being used to describe recent college graduates who opt to string together multiple and shifting freelance and part-time contracts to create full-time income.

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The key is employment independence and the personal �lexibility that goes along with it. Judith Watson, an associate dean at the City University of New York, refers to this trend as employment entrepreneurship. “You have to craft your own career,” she says.

Kzenon/Shutterstock

Environmental Interdependence The link between external interdependence and organizational design is often subtle and indirect. The organization may co-opt powerful outsiders by including them. For instance, many large companies have �inancial representatives from banks and insurance companies on their boards of directors.

The organization may also adjust its overall design strategy to absorb or buffer the demands of a more powerful external element. Perhaps the most common adjustment is the development of a centralized staff department to handle an important external group. Few large U.S. corporations lack some type of centralized governmental relations group.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16- note35)

Uncertainty and Volatility Environmental uncertainty and volatility can be particularly damaging to large organizations. In times of change, investments quickly become outmoded, and internal operations no longer work as expected. The organizational design response to uncertainty and volatility is to opt for a more �lexible organic form. At the extremes, movement toward an adhocracy may be important. However, these pressures may run counter to those that come from large size and operations technology. In these cases, it may be too hard or too time consuming for some organizations to make the design adjustments. The organization may continue to struggle while adjusting its design just a little bit at a time. Some �irms can deal with the con�licting demands from environmental change and need for internal stability by developing alliances.

Networks and Alliances for Highly Complex Environments In today’s complex global economy, organizational design must go beyond the traditional boundaries of the �irm.36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note36) Firms must learn to alter their environment as well as merely adjust to it. Two ways are becoming more popular: (1) the management of networks and (2) the development of alliances. Many North American �irms are learning from their European and Japanese counterparts to develop networks of linkages to the key �irms they rely upon. In

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Europe, for example, one �inds informal combines or cartels. Here, competitors work cooperatively to share the market in order to decrease uncertainty and improve favorability for all. Except in rare cases, these arrangements are often illegal in the United States.

In Japan, the network of relationships among well-established �irms in many industries is called a keiretsu. There are two common forms. The �irst is a bank-centered keiretsu, in which �irms link to one another directly through cross-ownership and historical ties to one bank. The Mitsubishi group is a good example of a company that grew through cross-ownership. In the second type, a vertical keiretsu, a key manufacturer, is at the hub of a network of supplier �irms or distributor �irms. The manufacturer typically has both long-term supply contracts with members and cross-ownership ties. These arrangements help isolate Japanese �irms from stockholders and provide a mechanism for sharing and developing technology. Toyota is an example of a �irm at the center of a vertical keiretsu.

Another option is to develop inter�irm alliances (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo201) , which are cooperative agreements or joint ventures between two independent �irms.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note37) Often, these agreements involve corporations that are headquartered in different nations. In high-tech areas, such as robotics, semiconductors, advanced materials (ceramics and carbon �ibers), and advanced information systems, a single company often does not have all of the knowledge necessary to bring new products to the market. Alliances are common in such high-technology industries. Via their international alliances, high-tech �irms seek to develop technology and to ensure that their solutions standardize across regions of the world.

Inter�irm alliances are cooperative agreements or joint ventures between two independent �irms.

Developing and effectively managing an alliance is a managerial challenge of the �irst order. Firms are asked to cooperate rather than compete. The alliance’s sponsors normally have different and unique strategies, cultures, and desires for the alliance itself. Both the alliance managers and sponsoring executives must be patient, �lexible, and creative in pursuing the goals of the alliance and each sponsor.

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16.4 Bureaucracy and Beyond LEARNING ROADMAP

MECHANISTIC STRUCTURES AND THE MACHINE BUREAUCRACY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#sec334)

ORGANIC STRUCTURES AND THE PROFESSIONAL BUREAUCRACY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#sec335)

HYBRID STRUCTURES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#sec336)

Modern complex societies are not just dominated by organizations but contain a number of large powerful organizations know as bureaucracies. In OB this term has a special meaning, beyond its negative connotation. The German sociologist Max Weber suggested that organizations would thrive if they became bureaucracies by emphasizing legal authority, logic, and order.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note38) Ideally, bureaucracies rely on a division of labor, hierarchical control, promotion by merit with career opportunities for employees, and administration by rule.

Bureaucracies rely on a division of labor, hierarchical control, promotion by merit with career opportunities for employees, and administration by rule.

Weber argued that the rational and logical idea of bureaucracy was superior to building the �irm based on charisma or cultural tradition. The “charismatic” ideal-type organization was overly reliant on the talents of one individual and could fail when the leader leaves. Too much reliance on cultural traditions blocked innovation, sti�led ef�iciency, and was often unfair. Since the bureaucracy prizes ef�iciency, order, and logic, Weber hoped that it could also be fair to employees and provide more freedom for individual expression than is allowed when tradition dominates or dictators rule. Many interpreted Weber as suggesting that bureaucracy or some variation of this ideal form, although far from perfect, would dominate modern society.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note39) For large organizations, the bureaucratic form is predominant. Yet, the bureaucracy poses a series of challenges for managers, including the following:

Challenges posed by bureaucracies

Overspecialization with con�licts between highly specialized units

Overreliance on the chain of command rather than bottom-up problem solving

Objecti�ication of senior executives as rulers rather than problem solvers for others

Overemphasis on conformity

Rules as ends in and of themselves

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Just as interpretations of Weber have evolved over time, so has the notion of a bureaucracy.40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note40) We will discuss some popular basic types of bureaucracies: the mechanistic structure and machine bureaucracy, the organic structure and professional bureaucracy, and some hybrid approaches. Each type is a different mix of the basic elements discussed in this chapter, and each mix yields �irms with a slightly different blend of capabilities and natural tendencies.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Hierarchy and Ratatouille

Bureaucracy tends to a get a bad rap most of the time. Yet organizations must have rules and structure to operate effectively. Large companies organize into departments and distribute responsibilities and authority in hierarchical fashion. This is known as vertical specialization, the division of labor that shows authority relationships, decision making, and the chain of command. This is usually spelled out in an organization chart.

Pixar’s �ilm Ratatouille is the story of a rat named Remy that aspires to be a great cook like his hero, Chef Auguste Gusteau. Following an accident, Remy is separated from the rest of his family and �inds himself in Paris. He is soon peering down through a skylight into the restaurant made famous by the now departed Gusteau. He observes the cooking activity taking place in the kitchen and can name all the roles and relationships that exist between the staff. Guided by an apparition of Gusteau himself, he learns that all positions in the kitchen are critical—even that of the garbage boy.

What we learn from Ratatouille is that hierarchy and authority are necessary to keep the work �lowing smoothly. Although some positions have more power and responsibility than others, each individual has a contribution to make and must be willing to do so if the organization is to be successful.

Buena Vista/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better By now, you are probably quite used to participating in organizations with a lot of structure. Take a look at Assessment 21, Organizational Design Preference, in the OB Skills Workbook to determine your comfort level with this environment. If you score high, you will probably function effectively in an organization with a high degree of vertical specialization. On the other hand, if

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your score is low, you may like working for a smaller, newer company in which the structure is a more �lexible.

Mechanistic Structures and the Machine Bureaucracy The mechanistic (or machine) type of bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo252) emphasizes vertical specialization and control.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note41) Organizations of this type stress rules, policies, and procedures; specify techniques for decision making; and emphasize developing well-documented control systems backed by a strong middle management and supported by a centralized staff. There is often extensive use of the functional pattern of departmentation throughout the company. Henry Mintzberg uses the term machine bureaucracy to describe an organization structured in this manner.42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note42)

The mechanistic (or machine) type of bureaucracy emphasizes vertical specialization and control.

The mechanistic design results in a management emphasis on routine for ef�iciency. Firms often used this design in pursuing a strategy of becoming a low-cost leader. Until the implementation of new information systems, most large-scale �irms in basic industries were machine bureaucracies. Included in this long list were all of the auto �irms, banks, insurance companies, steel mills, large retail establishments, and government of�ices. Ef�iciency was achieved through extensive vertical and horizontal specialization tied together with elaborate controls and impersonal coordination mechanisms.

There are, however, limits to the bene�its of specialization backed by rigid controls. Employees generally do not like rigid designs, so motivation becomes a problem. Unions further solidify narrow job descriptions by demanding �ixed work rules and regulations to protect employees from the extensive vertical controls. In short, using a machine bureaucracy can hinder an organization’s capacity to adjust to subtle external changes or new technologies.

Organic Structures and the Professional Bureaucracy The organic (or professional) type of bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo284) is less vertically oriented than its mechanistic counterpart is; it emphasizes horizontal specialization. Procedures are minimal, and those that do exist are not as formalized. The organization relies on the judgments of experts and personal means of coordination. When controls are used, they are often based on professional standards, training, and individual reinforcement. Staff units are placed toward the middle of the organization. Because this is a popular design in professional �irms, Mintzberg calls it a professional bureaucracy.43 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note43)

The organic (or professional) type of bureaucracy emphasizes horizontal specialization, use of personal coordination devices, and professional-based controls.

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Your university is probably a professional bureaucracy that looks like a broad, �lat pyramid with a large bulge in the center for the professional staff. Power in this ideal type rests with knowledge. Other examples of organic types include most hospitals and social service agencies.

Compared to the machine bureaucracy, the professional bureaucracy is better for problem solving and for serving individual customer needs. Since lateral relations and coordination are emphasized, centralized direction by senior management is less intense. This type is good at detecting external changes and adjusting to new technologies, but at the sacri�ice of responding to central management direction. Firms using this pattern have found it easier to pursue product quality, quick response to customers, and innovation as strategies.

Hybrid Structures Many large �irms have found that neither the mechanistic nor the organic approach is suitable for all of their operations. Adopting a machine bureaucracy overloads senior management and yields too many levels of management. Yet, adopting an organic type would mean losing control and becoming too inef�icient. Senior managers may opt for one of a number of hybrid types.

We have brie�ly introduced two of the more common hybrid types. One is an extension of the divisional pattern of departmentation and is sometimes called a divisional �irm. Here, the �irm is composed of quasi- independent divisions so that different divisions can be more or less organic or mechanistic. Although the divisions may be treated as separate businesses, they often share a similar mission and systems goals.44 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note44) When adopting this hybrid type, each division can pursue a different strategy.

A second hybrid is the true conglomerate. A conglomerate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo55) is a single corporation that contains a number of unrelated businesses. On the surface, these �irms look like divisionalized �irms, but when the various businesses of the divisions are unrelated, the term conglomerate is applied.45 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c16-note45) For instance, General Electric is a conglomerate that has divisions in unrelated businesses and industries, ranging from producing light bulbs, to designing and servicing nuclear reactors, to building jet engines. Most state and federal entities are also, by necessity, conglomerates. For instance, a state governor is the chief executive of�icer of those units concerned with higher education, welfare, prisons, highway construction and maintenance, police, and the like.

A conglomerate is a single corporation that contains a number of unrelated businesses.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Do Flexible Factories Have Staying Power?

Flexibility at Harley Davidson’s plant in York, Pennsylvania, means building “hogs” with less than half the workers previously employed. The factory has been consolidated from several buildings into one ef�icient facility. The thousand workers now fall into just �ive job classi�ications, versus sixty-two previously, and they perform many different tasks with a variety of skills. At least 10 percent are considered “casual

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workers” who are employed only as needed to meet production schedules. In addition, lots of robots are doing jobs once handled by human hands and computers are everywhere.

The company-wide cost savings due to Harley’s new manufacturing strategy are estimated at $275+ million. It’s enough to keep U.S.-made bikes on the road and at least some manufacturing jobs still in American hands. But �lexibility means that workers take on more responsibilities, must learn more skills, and have to be “�lexible” in working with management to solve problems and keep the production line moving.

Flexible manufacturing seems to be a way of saving some manufacturing jobs that might otherwise be lost overseas. However, companies need to invest in facilities and technology, and workers need to learn new skills and ways of working.

© Greg Dale/National GeographicSociety/Corbis

Do the Analysis

Just as organization structures and cultures are changing, work processes and human resource management practices are, too. Is this a win-win for everyone involved, or are there downsides to this move toward �lexibility that may come back to haunt us in the future? Can you identify products or situations where manufacturing �lexibility can’t work? Overall, can we say that the recession prompted a shift into a new world of manufacturing strength for U.S. �irms?

The conglomerate type illustrates three important points about organization structures. First, all structures are combinations of the basic elements. Second, no one structure is always best. What is best is situational and depends on a number of factors such as the size of the organization, its environment, its technology, and, of course, the goals it pursues. Third, no organization stands alone. It is always part of a larger complex network of other organizations and stakeholders.

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16 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is the formal structure of the organization?

The formal structure is also known as the �irm’s division of labor.

The formal structure de�ines the intended con�iguration of positions, job duties, and lines of authority among different parts of the enterprise often as depicted in an organizational chart.

Typically, a chain of command exists to link lower-level workers with senior managers.

The distinction between line and staff units also indicates how authority is distributed, with line units conducting the major business of the �irm and staff providing support.

Control is the set of mechanisms the organization uses to keep action or outputs within predetermined levels.

Output controls focus on desired targets and allow managers to use their own methods for reaching these targets.

Process controls specify the manner in which tasks are to be accomplished through policies, rules, and procedures; formalization and standardization; and total quality management processes.

How is work organized and coordinated?

Horizontal specialization results in various work units and departments in the organization.

Three main types or patterns of departmentation are observed: functional, divisional, and matrix. Each pattern has a mix of advantages and disadvantages.

Organizations may successfully use any type, or a mixture, as long as the strengths of the structure match the needs of the organization.

Coordination is the set of mechanisms an organization uses to link the actions of separate units into a consistent pattern.

Personal methods of coordination produce synergy by promoting dialogue, discussion, innovation, creativity, and learning.

Impersonal methods of control produce synergy by stressing consistency and standardization so that individual pieces �it together.

What is organizational design?

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Organizational design is the process of choosing and implementing a structural con�iguration for an organization.

The design of a large organization is far more complex than that of a small �irm. Smaller �irms often adopt a simple structure because it works, is cheap, and emphasizes the in�luence of the leader.

Operations technology and organizational design should be interrelated to ensure that the �irm produces the desired goods and/or services. Adhocracy is an organizational design used in technology-intense settings.

Information technology is the combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, and systems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminate information for translating it into knowledge and forms the basis for the virtual organization.

The environment is more complex when it is richer and more interdependent with higher volatility and greater uncertainty. Firms need not stand alone but can develop network relationships and alliances to cope with greater environmental complexity.

What are bureaucracies and their alternatives?

The bureaucracy is an ideal form based on legal authority, logic, and order that provides superior ef�iciency and effectiveness.

Mechanistic, organic, and hybrid are common types of bureaucracies.

Hybrid types include the divisionalized �irm and the conglomerate. No one type is always superior to the others.

Terms to Know Adhocracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key1)

Bureaucracies (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#key2)

Centralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key3)

Conglomerates (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#key4)

Control (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key5)

Coordination (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#key6)

Decentralization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key7)

Divisional departmentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#key8)

Environmental complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key9)

Formalization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key10)

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Functional departmentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#key11)

General environment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key12)

Horizontal specialization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#key13)

Information technology (IT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key14)

Inter�irm alliances (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key15)

Line Units (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key16)

Matrix departmentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec326#key17)

Mechanistic (or machine) type of bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#key18)

Organic (or professional) type of bureaucracy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec333#key19)

Operations technology (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key20)

Organization charts (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key21)

Output controls (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key22)

Organizational design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key23)

Policy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key24)

Procedure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key25)

Process controls (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key26)

Simple design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key27)

Span of control (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key28)

Speci�ic environment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec329#key29)

Staff units (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key30)

Standardization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key31)

Vertical specialization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec323#key32)

Self-Test 16 Multiple Choice

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1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str1) . The formal structures of organizations may be shown in a(n) ____________.

a. (a) environmental diagram

b. (b) organization chart

c. (c) horizontal diagram

d. (d) matrix depiction

e. (e) labor assignment chart

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str2) . A major distinction between line and staff units concerns ____________.

a. (a) the amount of resources each is allowed to utilize

b. (b) linkage of their jobs to the goals of the �irm

c. (c) the amount of education or training they possess

d. (d) their use of computer information systems

e. (e) their linkage to the outside world

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str3) . Control involves all but ____________.

a. (a) measuring results

b. (b) establishing goals

c. (c) taking corrective action

d. (d) comparing results with goals

e. (e) selecting manpower

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str4) . Grouping individuals and resources in the organization around products, services, clients, territories, or legal entities is an example of ____________ specialization.

a. (a) divisional

b. (b) functional

c. (c) matrix

d. (d) mixed form

e. (e) outsourced specialization

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5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str5) . Grouping resources into departments by skill, knowledge, and action is the ____________ pattern.

a. (a) functional

b. (b) divisional

c. (c) vertical

d. (d) means-endchains

e. (e) matrix

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str6) . A matrix structure ____________.

a. (a) reinforces unity of command

b. (b) is inexpensive

c. (c) is easy to explain to employees

d. (d) gives some employees two bosses

e. (e) yields a minimum of organizational politics

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str7) . Compared to the machine bureaucracy (mechanistic type), the professional bureaucracy (organic type) ____________.

a. (a) is more ef�icient for routine operations

b. (b) has more vertical specialization and control

c. (c) is larger

d. (d) has more horizontal specialization and coordination mechanism

e. (e) is smaller

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str8) . Environmental complexity ____________.

a. (a) refers to the set of alliances formed by senior management

b. (b) refers to the overall level of problems and opportunities stemming from muni�icence, interdependence, and volatility

c. (c) is restricted to the general environment of organizations

d. (d) is restricted to other organizations with which an organization must interact in order to obtain inputs and dispose of outputs

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9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str9) . ____________ is grouping individuals by skill, knowledge, and action yields.

a. (a) Divisional departmentation

b. (b) Functional departmentation

c. (c) Hybrid structuration

d. (d) Matrix departmentation

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str10) . The division of labor through the formation of work units or groups within an organization is called ____________.

a. (a) control

b. (b) vertical specialization

c. (c) horizontal specialization

d. (d) coordination

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str11) . ____________ is the set of mechanisms used in an organization to link the actions of its subunits into a consistent pattern.

a. (a) Departmentation

b. (b) Coordination

c. (c) Control

d. (d) Formal authority

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str12) . The design of the organization needs to be adjusted to all but ____________.

a. (a) the environment of the �irm

b. (b) the strategy of the �irm

c. (c) the size of the �irm

d. (d) the operations and information technology of the �irm

e. (e) the personnel to be hired by the �irm

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str13) . Regarding the organizational design for a small �irm compared to a large �irm, ____________.

a. (a) they are almost the same

b. (b) they are fundamentally different

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c. (c) a large �irm is just a larger version of a small one

d. (d) the small �irm has more opportunity to use information technology

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str14) . Adhocracies tend to favor ____________.

a. (a) vertical specialization and control

b. (b) horizontal specialization and coordination

c. (c) extensive centralization

d. (d) a rigid strategy

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str15) . Which of the following is an accurate statement about an adhocracy?

a. (a) The design facilitates information exchange and learning.

b. (b) There are many rules and policies.

c. (c) Use of IT is always minimal.

d. (d) IT handles routine problems ef�iciently.

e. (e) IT is quite common in older industries

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str16) . Compare and contrast output goals with systems goals.

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str17) . Describe the types of controls that are used in organizations.

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str18) . Explain why a large �irm could not use a simple structure.

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str19) . Describe the effect of operations technology on an organization from both—Thompson’s and Woodward’s points of view.

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c16str20) . Describe some of the side effects of organizational controls in a large mechanistically structured organization such as the United States Postal Service.

Steps to Further Learning 16

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Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch16#ch16) .

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

First Community Financial

Tinkertoys

Organizations Alive

Fast-Food Technology

Alien Invasion

Force-Field Analysis

Organizational Design Preferences

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Great jobs aren’t easy to get. Career success today requires lots of initiative, self-awareness, and continuous personal improvement. The question is: “Are you ready?”

© skodonnell/iStockphoto

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THE OB SKILLS WORKBOOK

FEATURING

The Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer Classroom Collection

SUGGESTED USES AND APPLICATIONS OF WORKBOOK MATERIALS

1. Student Leadership Practices Inventory by Kouzes and Posner

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Activity Overview

1. Student Leadership Practices Inventory(LIP) —Student Workbook

This workbook includes a worksheet to help interpret feedback and plan improvement in each leadership practice assessed, sections on how to compare scores with the normative sample and how to share feedback with constituents, and more than 140 actual steps students can take to get results.

2. Student Leadership Practices Inventory— Self

This 30-item inventory will help students evaluate their performance and effectiveness as a leader. Results from the simple scoring process help students prepare plans for personal leadership development.

3. Student Leadership Practices Inventory— Observer

This version of the LPI is used by others to assess the individual’s leadership tendencies, thus allowing for comparison with self- perceptions.

2. Learning Styles

Activity Overview

1. Learning Styles Inventory—Online at: www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn (http://www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn)

This online inventory provides insight into a person’s relative strengths on seven alternative approaches to learning, described as Visual Learner, Print Learner, Auditory Learner, Interactive Learner, Haptic Learner, Kinesthetic Learner, and Olfactory Learner.

2. Study Tips for Different Learning Styles This reading included in the workbook provides study tips for learners with different tendencies and strengths.

3. Self-Assessment Portfolio See companion Web site for online versions of many assessments: www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn (http://www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn)

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Assessment Suggested Chapter Cross-References and Integration

1. Managerial Assumptions

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 5 Motivation 6 Motivation and Performance 14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles

leadership

2. A Twenty-First- Century Manager

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles 16 Organizational Structure and Design

leadership; decision making; globalization

3. Turbulence Tolerance Test

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

perception; individual differences; organizational change and stress

4. Global Readiness Index

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 13 The Leadership Process

diversity; culture; leading; perception; management skills; career readiness

5. Personal Values 2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 6 Motivation and Performance

perception; diversity and individual differences; leadership

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Assessment Suggested Chapter Cross-References and Integration

6. Intolerance for Ambiguity

3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

perception; leadership

7. Two-Factor Pro�ile

5 Motivation 6 Motivation and Performance

job design; perception; culture; human resource management

8. Are You Cosmopolitan?

6 Motivation and Performance 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

diversity and individual differences; organizational culture

9. Team Effectiveness

7 The Nature of Teams 8 Teamwork and Team Performance 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

organizational designs and cultures; leadership

10. Least Preferred Co-worker Scale

13 The Leadership Process 14 Leader Traits and Behavior Styles

diversity and individual differences; perception; group dynamics and teamwork

11. Leadership Style 13 The Leadership Process

diversity and individual differences; perception; group dynamics and teamwork

12. “TT”Leadership Style

11 Communication 13 The Leadership Process

diversity and individual differences; perception; group dynamics and teamwork

13. Empowering Others

8 Teamwork and Team Performance 11 Communication 12 Power and Politics 13 The Leadership Process

leadership; perception and attribution

14. Machiavellianism

12 Power and Politics leadership; diversity and individual differences

15. Personal Power Pro�ile

12 Power and Politics leadership; diversity and individual differences

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Assessment Suggested Chapter Cross-References and Integration

16. Your Intuitive Ability

9 Decision Making and Creativity

diversity and individual differences

17. Decision- Making Biases

7 The Nature of Teams 9 Decision Making and Creativity

teams and teamwork; communication; perception

18. Con�lict Management Strategies

10 Con�lict and Negotiation

diversity and individual differences; communication

19. Your Personality Type

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values

diversity and individual differences; job design

20. Time Management Pro�ile

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values

diversity and individual differences

21. Organizational Design Preference

16 Organizational Structure and Design

job design; diversity and individual differences

22. Which Culture Fits You?

15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

perception; diversity and individual differences

4. Team and Experiential Exercises

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

1. My Best Manager

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 14 Leader Traits and Behavior Styles

leadership

2. Graf�iti Needs Assessment

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 14 Leader Traits and Behavior Styles

human resource management; communication

3. My Best Job 1 Introducing Organizational Behavior 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 6 Motivation and Performance 12 Power and Politics 14 Leader Traits and Behavior Styles

motivation; job design; organizational cultures

4. What Do You Value in Work?

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 5 Motivation

diversity and individual differences; performance management and rewards; motivation; job design; decision making

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

5. My Asset Base 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction

perception and attribution; diversity and individual differences; groups and teamwork; decision making

6. Expatriate Assignments

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

perception and attribution; diversity and individual differences; decision making

7. Cultural Cues 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 13 Leadership Process

perception and attribution; diversity and individual differences; decision making; communication; con�lict; groups and teamwork

8. Prejudice in Our Lives

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction

perception and attribution; decision making; con�lict; groups and teamwork

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

9. How We View Differences

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

culture; international; diversity and individual differences; decision making; communication; con�lict; groups and teamwork

10. Alligator River Story

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

diversity and individual differences; decision making; communication; con�lict; groups and teamwork

11. Teamwork and Motivation

5 Motivation 7 The Nature of Teams

performance management and rewards; groups and teamwork

12. The Downside of Punishment

3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning 5 Motivation

motivation; perception and attribution; performance management and rewards

13. Tinkertoys 6 Motivation and Performance 16 Organizational Structure and Design

organizational structure; design and culture; groups and teamwork

14. Job Design Preferences

6 Motivation and Performance

motivation; job design; organizational design; change

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

15. My Fantasy Job 6 Motivation and Performance

motivation; individual differences; organizational design; change

16. Motivation by Job Enrichment

6 Motivation and Performance

motivation; job design; perception; diversity and individual differences; change

17. Annual Pay Raises

5 Motivation 6 Motivation and Performance

motivation; learning and reinforcement; perception and attribution; decision making; groups and teamwork

18. Serving on the Boundary

7 The Nature of Teams

intergroup dynamics; group dynamics; roles; communication; con�lict; stress

19. Eggsperiential Exercise

7 The Nature of Teams

group dynamics and teamwork; diversity and individual differences; communication

20. Scavenger Hunt —Team Building

8 Teamwork and Team Performance

groups; leadership; diversity and individual differences; communication; leadership

21. Work Team Dynamics

8 Teamwork and Team Performance

groups; motivation; decision making; con�lict; communication

22. Identifying Team Norms

8 Teamwork and Team Performance

groups; communication; perception and attribution

23. Work Team Culture

8 Teamwork and Team Performance 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

groups; communication; perception and attribution; job design; organizational culture

24. The Hot Seat 8 Teamwork and Team Performance

groups; communication; con�lict and negotiation; power and politics

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

25. Interview a Leader

12 Power and Politics 13 The Leadership Process

performance management and rewards; groups and teamwork; new workplace; organizational change and stress

26. Leadership Skills Inventories

13 The Leadership Process 14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles

individual differences; perception and attribution; decision making

27. Leadership and Participation in Decision Making

13 The Leadership Process

decision making; communication; motivation; groups; teamwork

28. My Best Manager: Revisited

12 Power and Politics

diversity and individual differences; perception and attribution

29. Active Listening 11 Communication

group dynamics and teamwork; perception and attribution

30. Upward Appraisal

6 Motivation and Performance 11 Communication

perception and attribution; performance management and rewards

31. 360° Feedback 6 Motivation and Performance 11 Communication

communication; perception and attribution; performance management and rewards

32. Role Analysis Negotiation

9 Decision Making and Creativity 10 Con�lict and Negotiation

communication; group dynamics and teamwork; making perception and attribution; communication; decision making

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

33. Lost at Sea 9 Decision Making and Creativity

communication; group dynamics and teamwork; making con�lict and negotiation

34. Entering the Unknown

9 Decision Making and Creativity 10 Con�lict and Negotiation

communication; group dynamics and teamwork; perception and attribution

35. Vacation Puzzle 10 Con�lict and Negotiation

con�lict and negotiation; communication; power; leadership

36. The Ugli Orange 9 Decision Making and Creativity 10 Con�lict and Negotiation

communication; decision making

37. Con�lict Dialogues

10 Con�lict and Negotiation

con�lict; communication; feedback; perception; stress

38. Force-Field Analysis

9 Decision Making and Creativity 16 Organization Structure and Design

decision making; organization structures, designs, cultures

39. Organizations Alive!

16 Organizational Structure and Design

organizational design and culture; performance management and rewards

40. Fast-Food Technology

15 Organizational Culture and Innovation 16 Organizational Structure and Design

organizational design; organizational culture; job design

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Exercise Suggested Chapter(s)

Cross-References and Integration

41. Alien Invasion 15 Organizational Culture and Innovation 16 Organizational Structure and Design

organizational structure and design; international; diversity and individual differences; perception and attribution

42. Power Circles Exercise

12 Power and Politics

in�luence; power; leadership; change management

5. Class Activities from the Pfeiffer Training Annuals

Activity Suggested Part(s)

Overview

A. Sweet Tooth: Bonding Strangers into a Team

Parts 1, 3, 4 perception, teamwork, decision making, communication

B. Interrogatories: Identifying Issues and Needs

Parts 1, 3, 4 current issues, group dynamics, communication

C. Decode: Working with Different Instructions

Parts 3, 4 decision making, leadership, con�lict, teamwork

D. Choices: Learning Effective Con�lict Management Strategies

Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

con�lict, negotiation, communication, decision making

E. Internal/External Motivators: Encouraging Creativity

Parts 2, 4, 5 creativity, motivation, job design, decision making

F. Quick Hitter: Fostering the Creative Spirit

Parts 4, 5 creativity, decision making, communication

6. Cases for Critical Thinking

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Case Suggested Chapter

Cross-References and Integration

1a. Trader Joe’s Keeps Things Fresh

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior

human resource management; organizational cultures; innovation; information technology; leadership

1b. Getting the Evidence: Leadership Training Dilemma

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior

ethics and decision making; communication; con�lict and negotiation

2. Diversity Leads the Way

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values

diversity and individual differences; performance management; communication; con�lict; decision making leadership

3. OB Classic: The Jim Donovan Case

3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

perception; attribution; personality; motivation; con�lict; leadership; organizational culture

4. Tough Situation at MagRec, Inc.

4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction

ethics and diversity; organizational structure, design, and culture; decision making; organizational change

5. “It Isn’t Fair. . .”

5 Motivation perception and attribution; performance management and rewards; communication; ethics and decision making

6a. Perfect Pizzeria, or Not?

6 Motivation and Performance

organizational design; motivation; performance management and rewards

6b. OB Classic: Hovey and Beard Company

6 Motivation and Performance

organizational cultures; globalization; communication; decision making

7. The Forgotten Team Member

7 The Nature of Teams

teamwork; motivation; diversity and individual differences; perception and attribution; performance management and rewards; communication; con�lict; leadership

8. Teams Drive the Fast Cars

8 Teamwork and Team Performance

organizational cultures; leadership; motivation and reinforcement; communication

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Case Suggested Chapter

Cross-References and Integration

9. Decisions, Decisions, Decisions

9 Decision Making and Creativity

organizational structure; organizational cultures; change and innovation; group dynamics and teamwork; diversity and individual differences

10. The Case of the Missing Raise

10 Con�lict and Negotiation

change; innovation and stress; job designs; communication; power and politics

11. The Poorly Informed Walrus

11 Communication

diversity and individual differences; perception and attribution

12. Political Behavior Analysis

12 Power and Politics

personality; values; communication; power and politics

13. Selecting The New Vice President

13 The Leadership Process

leadership; performance management and rewards; diversity and individual differences; communication; con�lict and negotiation; power and in�luence

14. Zappos Does it with Humor

14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles

leadership; performance management and rewards; diversity and individual differences; communication; con�lict and negotiation; power and in�luence

15. Never on a Sunday

15 Organizational Culture and Innovation

ethics and diversity; organizational structure, design, and culture; decision making; organizational change

16. First Community Financial

16 Organizational Structure and Design

organizational structure, designs, and culture; performance management and rewards

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Seize the opportunity. You’re leadership future begins today!

© RapidEye/iStockphoto

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STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY

Student Workbook

James M. Kouzes

Barry Z. Posner, Ph.D.

Jossey-Bass Publishers • San Francisco

Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer Classroom Collection

Copyright © 1998 by James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner. All rights reserved.

ISBN: 0-7879-4425-4

Jossey-Bass is a registered trademark of Jossey-Bass Inc., a Wiley Company.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as

permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750- 4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ. 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.

[email protected] (mailto:[email protected]) .

Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Jossey-Bass directly, call (888) 378-2537, fax to (800) 605-2665, or visit our Web site at www.josseybass.com

(http://www.josseybass.com) .

Substantial discounts on bulk quantities of Jossey-Bass books are available to corporations, professional associations, and other organizations. For details and discount information, contact the special sales

department at Jossey-Bass.

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This book is printed on acid-free, recycled stock that meets or exceeds the minimum GPO and EPA requirements for recycled paper.

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Leadership: What People Do When They’re Leading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#bc1)

CHAPTER 2 Questions Frequently Asked About the Student LPI (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#bc2)

CHAPTER 3 Recording Your Scores (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#bc3)

CHAPTER 4 Interpreting Your Scores (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#bc4)

CHAPTER 5 Summary and Action-Planning Worksheets (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#bc5)

About the Authors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#ata)

People WHO BECOME leaders

DON’T always seek

THE challenges

THEY face.

CHALLENGES

also SEEK leaders.

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1 Leadership: What People Do When They’re Leading “Leadership is everyone’s business.” That’s the conclusion we have come to after nearly two decades of research into the behaviors and actions of people who are making a difference in their organizations, clubs, teams, classes, schools, campuses, communities, and even their families. We found that leadership is an observable, learnable set of practices. Contrary to some myths, it is not a mystical and ethereal process that cannot be understood by ordinary people. Given the opportunity for feedback and practice, those with the desire and persistence to lead—to make a difference—can substantially improve their ability to do so.

The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) is part of an extensive research project into the everyday actions and behaviors of people, at all levels and across a variety of settings, as they are leading. Through our research we identi�ied �ive practices that are common to all leadership experiences. In collaboration with others, we extended our �indings to student leaders and to school and college environments and created the student version of the LPI.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#b1) The LPI is a tool, not a test, designed to assess your current leadership skills. It will identify your areas of strength as well as areas of leadership that need to be further developed.

The Student LPI helps you discover the extent to which you (in your role as a leader of a student group or organization) engage in the following �ive leadership practices:

Challenging the Process. Leaders are pioneers—people who seek out new opportunities and are willing to change the status quo. They innovate, experiment, and explore ways to improve the organization. They treat mistakes as learning experiences. Leaders also stay prepared to meet whatever challenges may confront them. Challenging the Process involves

Searching for opportunities

Experimenting and taking risks

As an example of Challenging the Process, one student related how innovative thinking helped him win a student class election: “I challenged the process in more than one way. First, I wanted people to understand that elections are not necessarily popularity contests, so I campaigned on the issues and did not promise things that could not possibly be done. Second, I challenged the incumbent positions. They thought they would win easily because they were incumbents, but I showed them that no one has an inherent right to a position.”

Challenging the Process for a student serving as treasurer of her sorority meant examining and abandoning some of her leadership beliefs: “I used to believe, ‘If you want to do something right, do it yourself.’ I found out the hard way that this is impossible to do. . . . One day I was ready to just give up the position because I could no longer handle all of the work. My adviser noticed that I was overwhelmed, and she turned to me and said three magic words: ‘Use your committee.’ The best piece of advice I would pass along about being an effective leader is that it is okay to experiment with letting others do the work.”

Inspiring a Shared Vision. Leaders look toward and beyond the horizon. They envision the future with a positive and hopeful outlook. Leaders are expressive and attract other people to their organization and teams through their genuineness. They communicate and show others how their interests can be met through commitment to a common purpose. Inspiring a Shared Vision involves

Envisioning an uplifting future

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Enlisting others in a common vision

Describing his experience as president of his high school class, one student wrote: “It was our vision to get the class united and to be able to win the spirit trophy. . . . I told my of�icers that we could do anything we set our minds on. Believe in yourself and believe in your ability to accomplish things.”

Enabling Others to Act. Leaders infuse people with energy and con�idence, developing relationships based on mutual trust. They stress collaborative goals. They actively involve others in planning, giving them discretion to make their own decisions. Leaders ensure that people feel strong and capable. Enabling Others to Act involves

Fostering collaboration

Strengthening people

It is not necessary to be in a traditional leadership position to put these principles into practice. Here is an example from a student who led his team as a team member, not from a traditional position of power: “I helped my team members feel strong and capable by encouraging everyone to practice with the same amount of intensity that they played games with. Our practices improved throughout the year, and by the end of the year had reached the point I was striving for: complete involvement among all players, helping each other to perform at our very best during practice times.”

Modeling the Way. Leaders are clear about their personal values and beliefs. They keep people and projects on course by behaving consistently with these values and modeling how they expect others to act. Leaders also plan projects and break them down into achievable steps, creating opportunities for small wins. By focusing on key priorities, they make it easier for others to achieve goals. Modeling the Way involves

Setting the example

Achieving small wins

Working in a business environment taught one student the importance of Modeling the Way. She writes: “I proved I was serious because I was the �irst one on the job and the last one to leave. I came prepared to work and make the tools available to my crew. I worked alongside them and in no way portrayed an attitude of superiority. Instead, we were in this together.”

Encouraging the Heart. Leaders encourage people to persist in their efforts by linking recognition with accomplishments and visibly recognizing contributions to the common vision. They express pride in the achievements of the group or organization, letting others know that their efforts are appreciated. Leaders also �ind ways to celebrate milestones. They nurture a team spirit, which enables people to sustain continued efforts. Encouraging the Heart involves

Recognizing individual contributions

Celebrating team accomplishments

While organizing and running a day camp, one student recognized volunteers and celebrated accomplishments through her actions. She explains: “We had a pizza party with the children on the last day of the day camp. Later, the volunteers were sent thank you notes and ‘valuable volunteer awards’ personally signed by the day campers. The pizza party, thank you notes, and awards served to encourage the hearts of the volunteers in the hopes that they might return for next year’s day camp.”

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1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b02#br1) For more information on our original work, see Barry Z. Posner and James M. Kouznes, The Leadership Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995).

Somewhere,

sometime,

THE leader within

EACH OF US

MAY get

THE CALL

to STEP forward.

2 Questions Frequently Asked About the Student LPI Question 1: What are the right answers?

Answer: There are no universal right answers when it comes to leadership. Research indicates that the more frequently you are perceived as engaging in the behavior and actions identi�ied in the Student LPI, the more likely it is that you will be perceived as an effective leader. The higher your scores on the Student LPI-Observer, the more others perceive you as (1) having personal credibility, (2) being effective in running meetings, (3) successfully representing your organization or group to non-members (4) generating a sense of enthusiasm and cooperation, and (5) having a high-performing team. In addition, �indings show a strong and positive relationship between the extent to which people report their leaders engaging in this set of �ive leadership practices and how motivated, committed, and productive they feel.

Question 2: How reliable and valid is the Student LPI?

Answer: The question of reliability can be answered in two ways. First, the Student LPI has shown sound psychometric properties. The scale for each leadership practice is internally reliable, meaning that the statements within each practice are highly correlated with one another. Second, results of multivariate analyses indicate that the statements within each leadership practice are more highly correlated (or associated) with one another than they are between the �ive leadership practices.

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In terms of validity (or “So what difference do the scores make?”), the Student LPI has good face validity and predictive validity. This means, �irst, that the results make sense to people. Second, scores on the Student LPI signi�icantly differentiate high-performing leaders from their less successful counterparts. Whether measured by the leader, his or her peers, or student personnel administrators, those student leaders who engage more frequently, rather than less frequently, in the �ive leadership practices are more effective.

Question 3: Should my perceptions of my leadership practices be consistent with the ratings other people give me?

Answer: Research indicates that trust in the leader is essential if other people (for example, fellow members of a group, team, or organization) are going to follow that person over time. People must experience the leader as believable, credible, and trustworthy. Trust—whether in a leader or any other person—is developed through consistency in behavior. Trust is further established when words and deeds are congruent.

This does not mean, however, that you will always be perceived in exactly the same way by every person in every situation. Some people may not see you as often as others do, and therefore they may rate you differently on the same behavior. Some people simply may not know you as well as others do. Also you may appropriately behave differently in different situations, such as in a crisis versus during more stable times. Others may have different expectations of you, and still others may perceive the rating descriptions (such as “once in a while” or “fairly often”) differently.

Therefore, the key issue is not whether your self-ratings and the ratings from others are exactly the same, but whether people perceive consistency between what you say you do and what you actually do. The only way you can know the answer to this question is to solicit feedback. The Student LPI-Observer has been designed for this purpose.

Research indicates that people tend to see themselves more positively than others do. The Student LPI-Self norms are consistent with this general trend; scores on the Student LPI-Self tend to be somewhat higher than scores on the Student LPI-Observer. Student LPI scores also tend to be higher than LPI scores of experienced managers and executives in the private and public sector.

Question 4: Can I change my leadership practices?

Answer: It is certainly possible—even for experienced people—to learn new skills. You will increase your chances of changing your behavior if you receive feedback on what level you have achieved with a particular skill, observe a positive model of that skill, set some improvement goals for yourself, practice the skill, ask for updated feedback on your performance, and then set new goals. The practices that are assessed with the Student LPI fall into the category of learnable skills.

But some things can be changed only if there is a strong and genuine inner desire to make a difference. For example, enthusiasm for a cause is unlikely to be developed through education or job assignments; it must come from within.

Use the information from the Student LPI to better understand how you currently behave as a leader, both from your own perspective and from the perspective of others. Note where there are consistencies and inconsistencies. Understand which leadership behaviors and practices you feel comfortable engaging in and which you feel uncomfortable with. Determine which leadership behaviors and practices you can

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improve on, and take steps to improve your leadership skills and gain con�idence in leading other people and groups. The following sections will help you to become more effective in leadership.

Perhaps NONE OF

us knows

OUR true strength

UNTIL challenged

TO bring

it forth.

3 Recording Your Scores On pages W-17 through W-20 are grids for recording your Student LPI scores. The �irst grid (Challenging the Process) is for recording scores for items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, and 26 from the Student LPI-Self and Student LPI-Observer. These are the items that relate to behaviors involved in Challenging the Process, such as searching for opportunities, experimenting, and taking risks. An abbreviated form of each item is printed beside the grid as a handy reference.

In the �irst column, which is headed “Self-Rating,” write the scores that you gave yourself. If others were asked to complete the Student LPI-Observer and if the forms were returned to you, enter their scores in the columns (A, B, C, D, E, and so on) under the heading “Observers’ Ratings.” Simply transfer the numbers from page W-18 of each Student LPI-Observer to your scoring grids, using one column for each observer. For example, enter the �irst observer’s scores in column A, the second observer’s scores in column B, and so on. The grids provide space for the scores of as many as ten observers.

After all scores have been entered for Challenging the Process, total each column in the row marked “Totals.” Then add all of the totals for observers; do not include the “self” total. Write this grand total in the space marked “Total of All Observers’ Scores.” To obtain the average, divide the grand total by the number of people who completed the Student LPI-Observer. Write this average in the blank provided. The sample grid shows how the grid would look with scores for self and �ive observers entered.

Sample Grid with Scores from Self and Five Observers

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The other four grids should be completed in the same manner.

The second grid (Inspiring a Shared Vision) is for recording scores to the items that pertain to envisioning the future and enlisting the support of others. These include items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, and 27.

The third grid (Enabling Others to Act) pertains to items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and 28, which involve fostering collaboration and strengthening others.

The fourth grid (Modeling the Way) pertains to items about setting an example and planning small wins. These include items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, and 29.

The �ifth grid (Encouraging the Heart) pertains to items about recognizing contributions and celebrating accomplishments. These are items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30.

Grids for Recording Student LPI Scores

Scores should be recorded on the following grids in accordance with the instructions on page W-17. As you look at individual scores, remember the rating system that was used:

“1” means that you rarely or seldom engage in the behavior.

“2” means that you engage in the behavior once in a while.

“3” means that you sometimes engage in the behavior.

“4” means that you engage in the behavior fairly often.

“5” means that you engage in the behavior very frequently.

After you have recorded all of your scores and calculated the totals and averages, turn to page W-20 and read the section on interpreting scores.

Challenging the Process

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Inspiring a Shared Vision

Enabling Others to Act

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Modeling the Way

Encouraging the Heart

THE unique ROLE

OF leaders

IS TO take us

TO places

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WE’VE never

been before.

4 Interpreting Your Scores This section will help you to interpret your scores by looking at them in several ways and by making notes to yourself about what you can do to become a more effective leader.

Ranking Your Ratings

Refer to the previous chapter, “Recording Your Scores.” On each grid, look at your scores in the blanks marked “Total Self-Rating.” Each of these totals represents your responses to six statements about one of the �ive leadership practices. Each of your totals can range from a low of 6 to a high of 30.

In the blanks that follow, write “1” to the left of the leadership practice with the highest total self-rating, “2” by the next-highest total self-rating, and so on. This ranking represents the leadership practices with which you feel most comfortable, second-most comfortable, and so on. The practice you identify with a “5” is the practice with which you feel least comfortable.

Again refer to the previous chapter, but this time look at your scores in the blanks marked “Average of All Observers.” The number in each blank is the average score given to you by the people you asked to complete the Student LPI-Observer. Like each of your total self-ratings, this number can range from 6 to 30.

In the blanks that follow, write “1” to the right of the leadership practice with the highest score, “2” by the next-highest score, and so on. This ranking represents the leadership practices that others feel you use most often, second-most often, and so on.

Self Observers

_____ Challenging the Process _____

_____ Inspiring a Shared Vision _____

_____ Enabling Others to Act _____

_____ Modeling the Way _____

_____ Encouraging the Heart _____

Comparing Your Self-Ratings to Observers’ Ratings

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To compare your Student LPI-Self and Student LPI-Observer assessments, refer to the “Chart for Graphing Your Scores.” On the chart, designate your scores on the �ive leadership practices (Challenging, Inspiring, Enabling, Modeling, and Encouraging) by marking each of these points with a capital “S” (for “Self”). Connect the �ive resulting “S scores” with a solid line and label the end of this line “Self” (see the following sample chart).

If other people provided input through the Student LPI-Observer, designate the average observer scores (see the blanks labeled “Average of All Observers” on the scoring grids) by marking each of the points with a capital “O” (for “Observer”). Then connect the �ive resulting “O scores” with a dashed line and label the end of this line “Observer” (see sample chart). Completing this process will provide you with a graphic representation (one solid and one dashed line) illustrating the relationship between your self-perception and the observations of other people.

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Percentile Scores

Look again at the “Chart for Graphing Your Scores.” The column to the far left represents the Student LPI- Self percentile rankings for more than 1,200 student leaders. A percentile ranking is determined by the percentage of people who score at or below a given number. For example, if your total self-rating for “Challenging” is at the 60th percentile line on the “Chart for Graphing Your Scores,” this means that you assessed yourself higher than 60 percent of all people who have completed the Student LPI; you would be in the top 40 percent in this leadership practice. Studies indicate that a “high” score is one at or above the 70th percentile, a “low” score is one at or below the 30th percentile, and a score that falls between those ranges is considered “moderate.”

Using these criteria, circle the “H” (for “High”), the “M” (for “Moderate”), or the “L” (for “Low”) for each leadership practice on the following “Range of Scores” table. Compared to other student leaders around the country, where do your leadership practices tend to fall? (Given a “normal distribution,” it is expected that most people’s scores will fall within the moderate range.)

Range of Scores

In my perception In others’ perception

Practice Rating Practice Rating

Challenging the Process H M L Challenging the Process H M L

Inspiring a Shared Vision H M L Inspiring a Shared Vision H M L

Enabling Others to Act H M L Enabling Others to Act H M L

Modeling the Way H M L Modeling the Way H M L

Encouraging the Heart H M L Encouraging the Heart H M L

Exploring Speci�ic Leadership Behaviors

Looking at your scoring grids, review each of the thirty items on the Student LPI by practice. One or two of the six behaviors within each leadership practice may be higher or lower than the rest. If so, on which speci�ic items is there variation? What do these differences suggest? On which speci�ic items is there agreement? Please write your thoughts in the following space.

Challenging the Process

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Inspiring a Shared Vision

Enabling Others to Act

Modeling the Way

Encouraging the Heart

Comparing Observers’ Responses to One Another

Study the Student LPI-Observer scores for each of the �ive leadership practices. Do some respondents’ scores differ signi�icantly from others? If so, are the differences localized in the scores of one or two people? On which leadership practices do the respondents agree? On which practices do they disagree? If you try to behave basically the same with all the people who assessed you, how do you explain the difference in ratings? Please write your thoughts in the following space.

Wanting TO LEAD AND

believing THAT

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YOU can lead ARE THE

departure POINTS

ON THE PATH TO leadership.

LEADERSHIP IS AN ART—

A performing art—

AND THE instrument

IS THE self.

5 Summary and Action-Planning Worksheets Take a few moments to summarize your Student LPI feedback by completing the following Strengths and Opportunities Summary Worksheet. Refer to the “Chart for Graphing Your Scores,” the “Range of Scores” table, and any notes you have made.

After the summary worksheet you will �ind some suggestions for getting started on meeting the leadership challenge. With these suggestions in mind, review your Student LPI feedback and decide on the actions you will take to become an even more effective leader. Then complete the Action-Planning Worksheet to spell out the steps you will take. (One Action-Planning Worksheet is included in this workbook, but you may want to develop action plans for several practices or behaviors. You can make copies of the blank form before you �ill it in or just use a separate sheet of paper for each leadership practice you plan to improve.)

Strengths and Opportunities Summary Worksheet

Strengths

Which of the leadership practices and behaviors are you most comfortable with? Why? Can you do more?

Areas for Improvement

What can you do to use a practice more frequently? What will it take to feel more comfortable?

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The following are ten suggestions for getting started on meeting the leadership challenge.

Prescriptions for Meeting the Leadership Challenge

Challenge the Process

Fix something

Adopt the “great ideas” of others

Inspire a Shared Vision

Let others know how you feel

Recount your “personal best”

Enable Others to Act

Always say “we”

Make heroes of other people

Model the Way

Lead by example

Create opportunities for small wins

Encourage the Heart

Write “thank you” notes

Celebrate, and link your celebrations to your organization’s values

Action-Planning Worksheet

1. What would you like to be better able to do?

2. What speci�ic actions will you take?

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3. What is the �irst action you will take? Who will be involved? When will you begin?

Action _____________________________________________

People Involved _____________________________________________

Target Date _____________________________________________

4. Complete this sentence: “I will know I have improved in this leadership skill when. . . .”

5. When will you review your progress? _________________

About the Authors

James M. Kouzes is chairman of TPG/Learning Systems, which makes leadership work through practical, performance-oriented learning programs. In 1993 The Wall Street Journal cited Jim as one of the twelve most requested “nonuniversity executive-education providers” to U.S. companies. His list of past and present clients includes AT&T, Boeing, Boy Scouts of America, Charles Schwab, Ciba-Geigy, Dell Computer, First Bank System, Honeywell, Johnson & Johnson, Levi Strauss & Co., Motorola, Paci�ic Bell, Stanford University, Xerox Corporation, and the YMCA.

Barry Z. Posner, Ph.D., is dean of the Leavey School of Business, Santa Clara University, and professor of organizational behavior. He has received several outstanding teaching and leadership awards, has published more than eighty research and practitioner-oriented articles, and currently is on the editorial review boards for The Journal of Management Education, The Journal of Management Inquiry, and The Journal of Business Ethics. Barry also serves on the board of directors for Public Allies and for The Center for Excellence in Non-Pro�its. His clients have ranged from retailers to �irms in health care, high technology, �inancial services, manufacturing, and community service agencies.

Kouzes and Posner are co-authors of several best-selling and award-winning leadership books. The Leadership Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (2nd ed., 1995), with over 800,000 copies in print, has been reprinted in �ifteen languages, has been featured in three video programs, and received a Critic’s Choice award from the nation’s newspaper book review editors. Credibility: How Leaders Gain and Lose It, Why People Demand It (1993) was chosen by Industry Week as one of the �ive best management books of the year.

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permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate percopy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750- 4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ, 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.

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STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – SELF Your Name: _____________________________________________

Instructions

What follows are thirty statements describing various leadership behaviors. Please read each statement carefully. Then rate yourself in terms of how frequently you engage in the behavior described. This is not a test (there are no right or wrong answers).

Consider each statement in the context of the student organization (e.g., club, team, chapter, group, unit, hall, program, project) with which you are most involved. The rating scale provides �ive choices:

(1) If you RARELY or SELDOM do what is described in the statement, circle 1.

(2) If you do what is described ONCE IN A WHILE, circle 2.

(3) If you SOMETIMES do what is described, circle 3.

(4) If you do what is described FAIRLY OFTEN, circle 4.

(5) If you do what is described VERY FREQUENTLY or ALMOST ALWAYS, circle 5.

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Please respond to every statement.

In selecting the response, be realistic about the extent to which you actually engage in the behavior. Do not answer in terms of how you would like to see yourself or in terms of what you should be doing. Answer in terms of how you typically behave. The usefulness of the feedback from this inventory will depend on how honest you are with yourself about how frequently you actually engage in each of these behaviors.

For example, the �irst statement is “I look for opportunities that challenge my skills and abilities.” If you believe you do this “once in a while,” circle 2. If you believe you look for challenging opportunities “fairly often,” circle 4.

When you have responded to all thirty statements, please transfer your responses as instructed. Thank you.

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY - SELF How frequently do you typically engage in the following behaviors and actions? Circle the number that applies to each statement.

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1 SELDOM OR RARELY

2 ONCE IN A WHILE

3 SOMETIMES

4 FAIRLY OFTEN

5 VERY FREQUENTLY

 1. I look for opportunities that challenge my skills and abilities.

1 2 3 4 5

 2. I describe to others in our organization what we should be capable of accomplishing.

1 2 3 4 5

 3. I include others in planning the activities and programs of our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

 4. I share my beliefs about how things can be run most effectively within our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

 5. I encourage others as they work on activities and programs in our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

 6. I keep current on events and activities that might affect our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

 7. I look ahead and communicate about what I believe will affect us in the future.

1 2 3 4 5

 8. I treat others with dignity and respect. 1 2 3 4 5

 9. I break our organization’s projects down into manageable steps.

1 2 3 4 5

10. I make sure that people in our organization are recognized for their contributions.

1 2 3 4 5

11. I take initiative in experimenting with the way we do things in our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

12. I am upbeat and positive when talking about what our organization is doing.

1 2 3 4 5

13. I support the decisions that other people in our organization make on their own.

1 2 3 4 5

14. I set a personal example of what I expect from other people.

1 2 3 4 5

15. I praise people for a job well done. 1 2 3 4 5

16. I look for ways to improve whatever project or task I am involved in.

1 2 3 4 5

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1 SELDOM OR RARELY

2 ONCE IN A WHILE

3 SOMETIMES

4 FAIRLY OFTEN

5 VERY FREQUENTLY

17. I talk with others about how their own interests can be met by working toward a common goal.

1 2 3 4 5

18. I foster cooperative rather than competitive relationships among people I work with.

1 2 3 4 5

19. I talk about the values and principles that guide my actions. 1 2 3 4 5

20. I give people in our organization support and express appreciation for their contributions.

1 2 3 4 5

21. I ask, “What can we learn from this experience?” when things do not go as we expected.

1 2 3 4 5

22. I speak with conviction about the higher purpose and meaning of what we are doing.

1 2 3 4 5

23. I give others a great deal of freedom and choice in deciding how to do their work.

1 2 3 4 5

24. I follow through on the promises and commitments I make in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5

25. I �ind ways for us to celebrate our accomplishments publicly.

1 2 3 4 5

26. I let others experiment and take risks even when outcomes are uncertain.

1 2 3 4 5

27. I show my enthusiasm and excitement about what our organization is doing.

1 2 3 4 5

28. I provide opportunities for others to take on leadership responsibilities.

1 2 3 4 5

29. I make sure that we set goals and make speci�ic plans for the projects we undertake.

1 2 3 4 5

30. I make it a point to tell others about the good work done by our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

Transferring the Scores

After you have responded to the thirty statements on the previous two pages, please transfer your responses to the blanks. This will make it easier to record and score your responses. Notice that the

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numbers of the statements are listed horizontally. Make sure that the number you assigned to each statement is transferred to the appropriate blank. Fill in a response for every item.

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Further Instructions

Please write your name here: _______________________________

Please bring this form with you to the workshop (seminar or class) or return this form to:

If you are interested in feedback from other people, ask them to complete the Student LPI-Observer, which provides you with perspectives on your leadership behaviors as perceived by others.

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – OBSERVER Name of Leader: _________________________________________

Instructions

What follows are thirty descriptive statements about various leadership behaviors. Please read each statement carefully. Then rate the person who asked you to complete this form in terms of how frequently he or she typically engages in the described behavior. This is not a test (there are no right or wrong answers).

Consider each statement in the context of the student organization (e.g., club, team, chapter, group, unit, hall, program, project) with which that person is most involved or with which you have had the greatest opportunity to observe him or her. The rating scale provides �ive choices:

(1) If this person RARELY or SELDOM does what is described in the statement, circle 1.

(2) If this person does what is described ONCE IN A WHILE, circle 2.

(3) If this person SOMETIMES does what is described, circle 3.

(4) If this person does what is described FAIRLY OFTEN, circle 4.

(5) If this person does what is described VERY FREQUENTLY or ALMOST ALWAYS, circle 5.

Please respond to every statement.

In selecting the response, be realistic about the extent to which this person actually engages in the behavior. Do not answer in terms of how you would like to see this person behaving or in terms of what this person should be doing. Answer in terms of how he or she typically behaves. The usefulness of the

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feedback from this inventory will depend on how honest you are about how frequently you observe this person actually engaging in each of these behaviors.

For example, the �irst statement is, “He or she looks for opportunities that challenge his or her skills and abilities.” If you believe this person does this “once in a while,” circle 2. If you believe he or she looks for challenging opportunities “fairly often,” circle 4.

When you have responded to all thirty statements, please transfer your responses as instructed. Thank you.

STUDENT LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY – OBSERVER How frequently does this person typically engage in the following behaviors and actions? Circle the number that applies to each statement:

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1 SELDOM OR RARELY

2 ONCE IN A WHILE

3 SOMETIMES

4 FAIRLY OFTEN

5 VERY FREQUENTLY

He or she:

1. looks for opportunities that challenge his or her skills and abilities.

1 2 3 4 5

2. describes to others in our organization what we should be capable of accomplishing.

1 2 3 4 5

3. includes others in planning the activities and programs of our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

4. shares his or her beliefs about how things can be run most effectively within our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

5. encourages others as they work on activities and programs in our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

6. keeps current on events and activities that might affect our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

7. looks ahead and communicates about what he or she believes will affect us in the future.

1 2 3 4 5

8. treats others with dignity and respect. 1 2 3 4 5

9. breaks our organization’s projects down into manageable steps.

1 2 3 4 5

10. makes sure that people in our organization are recognized for their contributions.

1 2 3 4 5

11. takes initiative in experimenting with the way we do things in our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

12. is upbeat and positive when talking about what our organization is doing.

1 2 3 4 5

13. supports the decisions that other people in our organization make on their own.

1 2 3 4 5

14. sets a personal example of what he or she expects from other people.

1 2 3 4 5

15. praises people for a job well done. 1 2 3 4 5

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1 SELDOM OR RARELY

2 ONCE IN A WHILE

3 SOMETIMES

4 FAIRLY OFTEN

5 VERY FREQUENTLY

16. looks for ways to improve whatever project or task he or she is involved in.

1 2 3 4 5

17. talks with others about how their own interests can be met by working toward a common goal.

1 2 3 4 5

18. fosters cooperative rather than competitive relationships among people he or she works with.

1 2 3 4 5

19. talks about the values and principles that guide his or her actions.

1 2 3 4 5

20. gives people in our organization support and expresses appreciation for their contributions.

1 2 3 4 5

21. asks “What can we learn from this experience?” when things do not go as we expected.

1 2 3 4 5

22. speaks with conviction about the higher purpose and meaning of what we are doing.

1 2 3 4 5

23. gives others a great deal of freedom and choice in deciding how to do their work.

1 2 3 4 5

24. follows through on the promises and commitments he or she makes in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5

25. �inds ways for us to celebrate our accomplishments publicly.

1 2 3 4 5

26. lets others experiment and take risks even when outcomes are uncertain.

1 2 3 4 5

27. shows his or her enthusiasm and excitement about what our organization is doing.

1 2 3 4 5

28. provides opportunities for others to take on leadership responsibilities.

1 2 3 4 5

29. makes sure that we set goals and make speci�ic plans for the projects we undertake.

1 2 3 4 5

30. makes it a point to tell others about the good work done by our organization.

1 2 3 4 5

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Transferring the Scores

After you have responded to the thirty statements, please transfer your responses to the blanks below. This will make it easier to record and score your responses. Notice that the numbers of the statements are listed horizontally. Make sure that the number you assigned to each statement is transferred to the appropriate blank. Fill in a response for every item.

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Further Instructions

The preceding scores are for (name of person): __________________

Please bring this form with you to the workshop (seminar or class) or return this form to:

ISBN: 0-7879-4427-0

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Jossey-Bass Publishers

350 Sansome Street

San Francisco, California 94104

(888) 378-2537

Fax (800) 605-2665

www.josseybass.com (http://www.josseybass.com)

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LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY

This is a Wiley resource (www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn (http://www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn) ).

Step 1. Take the Learning Style Instrument at www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn (http://www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn) .

Step 2. The instrument will give you scores on seven learning styles:

Visual learner—focus on visual depictions such as pictures and graphs

Print learner—focus on seeing written words

Auditory learner—focus on listening and hearing

Interactive learner—focus on conversation and verbalization

Haptic learner—focus on sense of touch or grasp

Kinesthetic learner—focus on physical involvement

Olfactory learner—focus on smell and taste

Step 3. Consider your top four rankings among the learning styles. They suggest your most preferred methods of learning.

Step 4. Read the following study tips for the learning styles. Think about how you can take best advantage of your preferred learning styles.

WHAT ARE LEARNING STYLES? Have you ever repeated something to yourself over and over to help remember it? Or does your best friend ask you to draw a map to someplace where the two of you are planning to meet, rather than just tell

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her the directions? If so, then you already have an intuitive sense that people learn in different ways. Researchers in learning theory have developed various categories of learning styles. Some people, for example, learn best by reading or writing. Others learn best by using various senses: seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, or even smelling. When you understand how you learn best, you can make use of learning strategies that will optimize the time you spend studying. To �ind out what your particular learning style is, go to www.wiley.com/college/boone (http://www.wiley.com/college/boone) and take the learning styles quiz you �ind there. The quiz will help you determine your primary learning style:

Visual Learner Auditory Learner Haptic Learner Olfactory Learner

Print Learner Interactive Learner Kinesthetic Learner

Then consult the following information as well as the following pages for study tips for each learning style. This information will help you better understand your learning style and how to apply it to the study of business.

Study Tips for Visual Learners If you are a Visual Learner, you prefer to work with images and diagrams. It is important that you see information.

Visual Learning

Draw charts/diagrams during lecture.

Examine textbook �igures and graphs.

Look at images and videos on WileyPLUS and other Web sites.

Pay close attention to the charts, drawings, and handouts your instructor uses.

Underline; use different colors.

Use symbols, �lowcharts, graphs, different arrangements on the page, white spaces.

Visual Reinforcement

Make �lash cards by drawing tables/charts on one side and de�inition or description on the other side.

Use art-based worksheets; cover labels on images in text and then rewrite the labels.

Use colored pencils/markers and colored paper to organize information into types.

Convert your lecture notes into “page pictures.” To do this:

–Use the visual learning strategies outlined above.

–Reconstruct images in different ways.

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–Redraw pages from memory.

–Replace words with symbols and initials.

–Draw diagrams where appropriate.

–Practice turning your visuals back into words.

If visual learning is your weakness: If you are not a Visual Learner but want to improve your visual learning, try re-keying tables/charts from the textbook.

Study Tips for Print Learners If you are a Print Learner, reading will be important, but writing will be much more important.

Print Learning

Write text lecture notes during lecture.

Read relevant topics in textbook, especially textbook tables.

Look at text descriptions in animations and Web sites.

Use lists and headings.

Use dictionaries, glossaries, and de�initions.

Read handouts, textbooks, and supplementary library readings.

Use lecture notes.

Print Reinforcement

Rewrite your notes from class, and copy classroom handouts in your own handwriting.

Make your own �lash cards.

Write out essays summarizing lecture notes or textbook topics.

Develop mnemonics.

Identify word relationships.

Create tables with information extracted from textbook or lecture notes.

Use text-based worksheets or crossword puzzles.

Write out words again and again.

Reread notes silently.

Rewrite ideas and principles into other words.

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Turn charts, diagrams, and other illustrations into statements.

Practice writing exam answers.

Practice with multiple choice questions.

Write paragraphs, especially beginnings and endings.

Write your lists in outline form.

Arrange your words into hierarchies and points.

If print learning is your weakness: If you are not a Print Learner but want to improve your print learning, try covering labels of �igures from the textbook and writing in the labels.

Study Tips for Auditory Learners If you are an Auditory Learner, then you prefer listening as a way to learn information. Hearing will be very important, and sound helps you focus.

Auditory Learning

Make audio recordings during lecture. Do not skip class; hearing the lecture is essential to understanding.

Play audio �iles provided by your instructor and textbook.

Listen to narration of animations.

Attend lecture and tutorials.

Discuss topics with students and instructors.

Explain new ideas to other people.

Leave spaces in your lecture notes for later recall.

Describe overheads, pictures, and visuals to somebody who was not in class.

Auditory Reinforcement

Record yourself reading the notes and listen to the recording.

Write out transcripts of the audio �iles.

Summarize information that you have read, speaking out loud.

Use a recorder to create self-tests.

Compose “songs” about information.

Play music during studying to help focus.

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Expand your notes by talking with others and with information from your textbook.

Read summarized notes out loud.

Explain your notes to another auditory learner.

Talk with the instructor.

Spend time in quiet places recalling the ideas.

Say your answers out loud.

If auditory learning is your weakness: If you are not an Auditory Learner but want to improve your auditory learning, try writing out the scripts from pre-recorded lectures.

Study Tips for Interactive Learners If you are an Interactive Learner, you will want to share your information. A study group will be important.

Interactive Learning

Ask a lot of questions during lecture or TA review sessions.

Contact other students, via e-mail or discussion forums, and ask them to explain what they learned.

Interactive Reinforcement

“Teach” the content to a group of other students.

Talking to an empty room may seem odd, but it will be effective for you.

Discuss information with others, making sure that you ask as well as answer questions.

Work in small group discussions, making a verbal and written discussion of what others say.

If interactive learning is your weakness: If you are not an Interactive Learner but want to improve your interactive learning, try asking your study partner questions and then repeating them to the instructor.

Study Tips for Haptic Learners If you are a Haptic Learner, you prefer to work with your hands. It is important to physically manipulate material.

Haptic Learning

Take blank paper to lecture to draw charts/tables/diagrams.

Using the textbook, run your �ingers along the �igures and graphs to get a “feel” for shapes and relationships.

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Haptic Reinforcement

Trace words and pictures on �lash cards.

Perform electronic exercises that involve drag-and-drop activities.

Alternate between speaking and writing information.

Observe someone performing a task that you would like to learn.

Make sure you have freedom of movement while studying.

If haptic learning is your weakness: If you are not a Haptic Learner but want to improve your haptic learning, try spending more time in class working with graphs and tables while speaking or writing down information.

Study Tips for Kinesthetic Learners If you are a Kinesthetic Learner, it will be important that you involve your body during studying.

Kinesthetic Learning

Ask permission to get up and move during lecture.

Participate in role-playing activities in the classroom.

Use all your senses.

Go to labs; take �ield trips.

Listen to real-life examples.

Pay attention to applications.

Use trial-and-error methods.

Use hands-on approaches.

Kinesthetic Reinforcement

Make �lash cards; place them on the �loor, and move your body around them.

Move while you are teaching the material to others.

Put examples in your summaries.

Use case studies and applications to help with principles and abstract concepts.

Talk about your notes with another kinesthetic person.

Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.

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Write practice answers.

Role-play the exam situation.

If kinesthetic learning is your weakness: If you are not a Kinesthetic Learner but want to improve your kinesthetic learning, try moving �lash cards to reconstruct graphs, tables, and the like.

Study Tips for Olfactory Learners If you are an Olfactory Learner, you will prefer to use the senses of smell and taste to reinforce learning. This is a rare learning modality.

Olfactory Learning

During lecture, use different scented markers to identify different types of information.

Olfactory Reinforcement

Rewrite notes with scented markers.

If possible, go back to the computer lab to do your studying.

Burn aromatic candles while studying.

Try to associate the material that you’re studying with a pleasant taste or smell.

If olfactory learning is your weakness: If you are not an Olfactory Learner but want to improve your olfactory learning, try burning an aromatic candle or incense while you study, or eating cookies during study sessions.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT PORTFOLIO

Find online versions of many assessments at www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn (http://www.wiley.com/college/schermerhorn) .

ASSESSMENT 1 Managerial Assumptions

Instructions Read the following statements. Write “Yes” if you agree with the statement, or “No” if you disagree with it. Force yourself to take a “yes” or “no” position for every statement.

Are good pay and a secure job enough to satisfy most workers?

Should a manager help and coach subordinates in their work?

Do most people like real responsibility in their jobs?

Are most people afraid to learn new things in their jobs?

Should managers let subordinates control the quality of their work?

Do most people dislike work?

Are most people creative?

Should a manager closely supervise and direct work of subordinates?

Do most people tend to resist change?

Do most people work only as hard as they have to?

Should workers be allowed to set their own job goals?

Are most people happiest off the job?

Do most workers really care about the organization they work for?

Should a manager help subordinates advance and grow in their jobs?

Scoring

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Count the number of “yes” responses to items 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12; write that number here as [X = ____]. Count the number of “yes” responses to items 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 14; write that score here [Y = ____].

Interpretation This assessment gives insight into your orientation toward Douglas McGregor’s Theory X (your “X” score) and Theory Y (your “Y” score) assumptions. It’s an opportunity to consider the ways in which you are likely to behave toward other people at work. Think, in particular, about the types of self-ful�illing prophecies you are likely to create.

__________________

Source: John R. Schermerhorn, Management, 5th ed. (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996), p. 51. By permission.

ASSESSMENT 2 A Twenty-First-Century Manager

Instructions Rate yourself on the following personal characteristics. Use this scale.

Resistance to stress: The ability to get work done even under stressful conditions.

Tolerance for uncertainty: The ability to get work done even under ambiguous and uncertain conditions.

Social objectivity: The ability to act free of racial, ethnic, gender, and other prejudices or biases.

Inner work standards: The ability to personally set and work to high-performance standards.

Stamina: The ability to sustain long work hours.

Adaptability: The ability to be �lexible and adapt to changes.

Self-con�idence: The ability to be consistently decisive and display one’s personal presence.

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Self-objectivity: The ability to evaluate personal strengths and weaknesses and to understand one’s motives and skills relative to a job.

Introspection: The ability to learn from experience, awareness, and self-study.

Entrepreneurism: The ability to address problems and take advantage of opportunities for constructive change.

Scoring Give yourself 1 point for each S, and ½ point for each G. Do not give yourself points for W and ? responses. Total your points and enter the result here [PMF = ____].

Interpretation This assessment offers a self-described pro�ile of your management foundations (PMF). Are you a perfect 10, or is your PMF score something less than that? There shouldn’t be too many 10s around. Ask someone who knows you to assess you on this instrument. You may be surprised at the differences between your PMF score as self-described and your PMF score as described by someone else. Most of us, realistically speaking, must work hard to grow and develop continually in these and related management foundations. This list is a good starting point as you consider where and how to further pursue the development of your managerial skills and competencies. The items on the list are recommended by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) as skills and personal characteristics that should be nurtured in college and university students of business administration. Their success—and yours—as twenty-�irst-century managers may well rest on (1) an initial awareness of the importance of these basic management foundations and (2) a willingness to strive continually to strengthen them throughout your work career.

__________________

Source: See Outcome Management Project, Phase I and Phase II Reports (St. Louis: American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, 1986 & 1987).

ASSESSMENT 3 Turbulence Tolerance Test

Instructions The following statements were made by a thirty-seven-year-old manager in a large, successful corporation. How would you like to have a job with these characteristics? Using the following scale, write your response to the left of each statement.

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____ 1. I regularly spend 30 to 40 percent of my time in meetings.

____ 2. Eighteen months ago my job did not exist, and I have been essentially inventing it as I go along.

____ 3. The responsibilities I either assume or am assigned consistently exceed the authority I have for discharging them.

____ 4. At any given moment in my job, I have on average about a dozen phone calls to be returned.

____ 5. There seems to be very little relation between the quality of my job performance and my actual pay and fringe bene�its.

____ 6. About two weeks a year of formal management training is needed in my job just to stay current.

____ 7. Because we have very effective equal employment opportunity (EEO) in my company and because it is thoroughly multinational, my job consistently brings me into close working contact at a professional level with people of many races, ethnic groups and nationalities, and of both sexes.

____ 8. There is no objective way to measure my effectiveness.

____ 9. I report to three different bosses for different aspects of my job, and each has an equal say in my performance appraisal.

____ 10. On average, about a third of my time is spent dealing with unexpected emergencies that force all scheduled work to be postponed.

____ 11. When I have to have a meeting of the people who report to me, it takes my secretary most of a day to �ind a time when we are all available; and even then I have yet to have a meeting where everyone is present for the entire meeting.

____ 12. The college degree I earned in preparation for this type of work is now obsolete, and I probably should go back for another degree.

____ 13. My job requires that I absorb 100 to 200 pages of technical materials per week.

____ 14. I am out of town overnight at least one night per week.

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____ 15. My department is so interdependent with several other departments in the company that all distinctions about which departments are responsible for which tasks are quite arbitrary.

____ 16. In about a year I will probably get a promotion to a job in another division that has most of these same characteristics.

____ 17. During the period of my employment here, either the entire company or the division I worked in has been reorganized every year or so.

____ 18. While there are several possible promotions I can see ahead of me, I have no real career path in an objective sense.

____ 19. While there are several possible promotions I can see ahead of me, I think I have no realistic chance of getting to the top levels of the company.

____ 20. While I have many ideas about how to make things work better, I have no direct in�luence on either the business policies or the personnel policies that govern my division.

____ 21. My company has recently put in an “assessment center” where I and all other managers will be required to go through an extensive battery of psychological tests to assess our potential.

____ 22. My company is a defendant in an antitrust suit, and if the case comes to trial, I will probably have to testify about some decisions that were made a few years ago.

____ 23. Advanced computer and other electronic of�ice technology is continually being introduced into my division, necessitating constant learning on my part.

____ 24. The computer terminal and screen I have in my of�ice can be monitored in my bosses’ of�ices without my knowledge.

Scoring Total your responses and divide the sum by 24; enter the score here [TTT = ____].

Interpretation This instrument gives an impression of your tolerance for managing in turbulent times—something likely to characterize the world of work well into the future. In general, the higher your TTT score, the more comfortable you seem to be with turbulence and change—a positive sign. For comparison purposes, the average scores for some 500 MBA students and young managers was 1.5–1.6. The test’s author suggests the TTT scores may be interpreted much like a grade point average in which 4.0 is a perfect A. On this basis, a 1.5 is below a C! How did you do?

__________________

Source: Peter B. Vail, Managing as a Performance Art: New Ideas for a World of Chaotic Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989), pp. 8–9. Used by permission.

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ASSESSMENT 4 Global Readiness Index

Instructions Use the scale to rate yourself on each of the following items to establish a baseline measurement of your readiness to participate in the global work environment.

Rating Scale

____ 1. I understand my own culture in terms of its expectations, values, and in�luence on communication and relationships.

____ 2. When someone presents me with a different point of view, I try to understand it rather than attack it.

____ 3. I am comfortable dealing with situations where the available information is incomplete and the outcomes unpredictable.

____ 4. I am open to new situations and am always looking for new information and learning opportunities.

____ 5. I have a good understanding of the attitudes and perceptions toward my culture as they are held by people from other cultures.

____ 6. I am always gathering information about other countries and cultures and trying to learn from them.

____ 7. I am well informed regarding the major differences in government, political systems, and economic policies around the world.

____ 8. I work hard to increase my understanding of people from other cultures.

____ 9. I am able to adjust my communication style to work effectively with people from different cultures.

____ 10. I can recognize when cultural differences are in�luencing working relationships and adjust my attitudes and behavior accordingly.

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Interpretation To be successful in the twenty-�irst-century work environment, you must be comfortable with the global economy and the cultural diversity that it holds. This requires a global mind-set that is receptive to and respectful of cultural differences, global knowledge that includes the continuing quest to know and learn more about other nations and cultures, and global work skills that allow you to work effectively across cultures.

Scoring The goal is to score as close to a perfect 5 as possible on each of the three dimensions of global readiness. Develop your scores as follows.

Items(1 + 2 + 3 + 4)/4 = ____ Global Mind-Set Score

Items (5 + 6 + 7)/3 = ____ Global Knowledge Score

Items (8 + 9 + 10)/3= ____ Global Work Skills Score

__________________

Source: Developed from “Is Your Company Really Global,” Business Week (December 1, 1997).

ASSESSMENT 5 Personal Values

Instructions For the following 16 items, rate how important each one is to you on a scale of 0 (not important) to 100 (very important). Write the numbers 0 to 100 on the line to the left of each item.

____ 1. An enjoyable, satisfying job

____ 2. A high-paying job

____ 3. A good marriage

____ 4. Meeting new people; social events

____ 5. Involvement in community activities

____ 6. My religion

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____ 7. Exercising, playing sports

____ 8. Intellectual development

____ 9. A career with challenging opportunities

____ 10. Nice cars, clothes, home, etc.

____ 11. Spending time with family

____ 12. Having several close friends

____ 13. Volunteer work for not-for-pro�it organizations, such as a cancer society

____ 14. Meditation, quiet time to think, pray, etc.

____ 15. A healthy, balanced diet

____ 16. Educational reading, TV, self-improvement programs, etc.

Scoring Transfer the numbers for each of the 16 items to the appropriate column below, then add the two numbers in each column.

Interpretation The higher the total in any area, the higher the value you place on that particular area. The closer the numbers are in all eight areas, the more well-rounded you are. Think about the time and effort you put forth in your top three values. Is it suf�icient to allow you to achieve the level of success you want in each area? If not, what can you do to change? Is there any area in which you feel you should have a higher value total? If yes, which, and what can you do to change?

__________________

Source: Robert N. Lussier, Human Relations in Organizations, 2nd ed. (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1993). By permission.

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ASSESSMENT 6 Intolerance for Ambiguity

Instructions To determine your level of tolerance (intolerance) for ambiguity, respond to the following items. PLEASE RATE EVERY ITEM; DO NOT LEAVE ANY ITEM BLANK. Rate each item on the following seven-point scale:

Rating

____ 1. An expert who doesn’t come up with a de�inite answer probably doesn’t know too much.

____ 2. There is really no such thing as a problem that can’t be solved.

____ 3. I would like to live in a foreign country for a while.

____ 4. People who �it their lives to a schedule probably miss the joy of living.

____ 5. A good job is one where what is to be done and how it is to be done are always clear.

____ 6. In the long run it is possible to get more done by tackling small, simple problems rather than large, complicated ones.

____ 7. It is more fun to tackle a complicated problem than it is to solve a simple one.

____ 8. Often the most interesting and stimulating people are those who don’t mind being different and original.

____ 9. What we are used to is always preferable to what is unfamiliar.

____ 10. A person who leads an even, regular life in which few surprises or unexpected happenings arise really has a lot to be grateful for.

____ 11. People who insist upon a yes or no answer just don’t know how complicated things really are.

____ 12. Many of our most important decisions are based on insuf�icient information.

____ 13. I like parties where I know most of the people more than ones where most of the people are complete strangers.

____ 14. The sooner we all acquire ideals, the better.

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____ 15. Teachers or supervisors who hand out vague assignments give a chance for one to show initiative and originality.

____ 16. A good teacher is one who makes you wonder about your way of looking at things.

____ Total

Scoring The scale was developed by S. Budner. Budner reports test–retest correlations of .85 with a variety of samples (mostly students and health care workers). Data, however, are more than 30 years old, so mean shifts may have occurred. Maximum ranges are 16–112, and score ranges were from 25 to 79, with a grand mean of approximately 49.

The test was designed to measure several different components of possible reactions to perceived threat in situations which are new, complex, or insoluble. Half of the items have been reversed.

To obtain a score, �irst reverse the scale score for the eight “reverse” items, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, and 16 (i.e., a rating of 1 = 7, 2 = 6, 3 = 5, etc.), then add up the rating scores for all 16 items.

Interpretation Empirically, low tolerance for ambiguity (high intolerance) has been positively correlated with:

Conventionality of religious beliefs

High attendance at religious services

More intense religious beliefs

More positive views of censorship

Higher authoritarianism

Lower Machiavellianism

The application of this concept to management in the 1990s is clear and relatively self-evident. The world of work and many organizations are full of ambiguity and change. Individuals with a higher tolerance for ambiguity are far more likely to be able to function effectively in organizations and contexts in which there is a high turbulence, a high rate of change, and less certainty about expectations, performance standards, what needs to be done, and so on. In contrast, individuals with a lower tolerance for ambiguity are far more likely to be unable to adapt or adjust quickly in turbulence, uncertainty, and change. These individuals are likely to become rigid, angry, stressed, and frustrated when there is a high level of uncertainty and ambiguity in the environment. High levels of tolerance for ambiguity, therefore, are associated with an ability to “roll with the punches” as organizations, environmental conditions, and demands change rapidly.

__________________

Source: Based on S. Budner, “Intolerance of Ambiguity as a Personality Variable,” Journal of Personality, 30:1 (1962), pp. 29–50.

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ASSESSMENT 7 Two-Factor Pro�ile

Instructions On each of the following dimensions, distribute a total of 10 points between the two options. For example:

Summer weather ( 7 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

( 3 ) Winter weather

1. Very responsible job (____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) Job security

2. Recognition for work accomplishments

(____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) Good relations with co- workers

3. Advancement opportunities at work

(____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) A boss who knows his/her job well

4. Opportunities to grow and learn on the job

(____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) Good working conditions

5. A job that I can do well (____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) Supportive rules, policies of employer

6. A prestigious or high-status job

(____) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(____) A high base wage or salary

Scoring Summarize your total scores for all items in the left-hand column and write it here: MF = ____.

Summarize your total scores for all items in the right-hand column and write it here: HF = ____.

Interpretation The “MF” score indicates the relative importance that you place on motivating or satis�ier factors in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. This shows how important job content is to you. The “HF” score indicates the relative importance that you place on hygiene or dissatis�ier factors in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. This shows how important job context is to you.

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ASSESSMENT 8 Are You Cosmopolitan?

Instructions Answer the questions using a scale of 1 to 5: 1 representing “strongly disagree”; 2, “somewhat disagree”; 3, “neutral”; 4, “somewhat agree”; and 5, “strongly agree.”

____ 1. You believe it is the right of the professional to make his or her own decisions about what is to be done on the job.

____ 2. You believe a professional should stay in an individual staff role regardless of the income sacri�ice.

____ 3. You have no interest in moving up to a top administrative post.

____ 4. You believe that professionals are better evaluated by professional colleagues than by management.

____ 5. Your friends tend to be members of your profession.

____ 6. You would rather be known or get credit for your work outside rather than inside the company.

____ 7. You would feel better making a contribution to society than to your organization.

____ 8. Managers have no right to place time and cost schedules on professional contributors.

Scoring and Interpretation A “cosmopolitan” identi�ies with the career profession, and a “local” identi�ies with the employing organization. Total your scores. A score of 30–40 suggests a cosmopolitan work orientation, 10–20 a “local” orientation, and 20–30 a mixed orientation.

__________________

Source: Developed from Joseph A. Raelin, The Clash of Cultures, Managers and Professionals (Harvard Business School Press, 1986).

ASSESSMENT 9 Team Effectiveness

Instructions

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For this assessment, select a speci�ic group you work with or have worked with; it can be a college or work group. For each of the eight statements, select how often each statement describes the group’s behavior. Place the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 on the line next to each of the 8 numbers.

____ 1. The members are loyal to one another and to the group leader.

____ 2. The members and leader have a high degree of con�idence and trust in each other.

____ 3. Group values and goals express relevant values and needs of members.

____ 4. Activities of the group occur in a supportive atmosphere.

____ 5. The group is eager to help members develop to their full potential.

____ 6. The group knows the value of constructive conformity and knows when to use it and for what purpose.

____ 7. The members communicate all information relevant to the group’s activity fully and frankly.

____ 8. The members feel secure in making decisions that seem appropriate to them.

Scoring ____ Total. Add up the eight numbers and place an X on the continuum below that represents the score.

Effective group 8 . . . 16 . . . 24 . . . 32 Ineffective group

Interpretation The lower the score, the more effective the group. What can you do to help the group become more effective? What can the group do to become more effective?

ASSESSMENT 10 Least Preferred Co-worker Scale

Instructions Think of all the different people with whom you have ever worked—in jobs, in social clubs, in student projects, or whatever. Next, think of the one person with whom you could work least well—that is, the person with whom you had the most dif�iculty getting a job done. This is the one person—a peer, boss, or

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subordinate—with whom you would least want to work. Describe this person by circling numbers at the appropriate points on each of the following pairs of bipolar adjectives. Work rapidly. There are no right or wrong answers.

Scoring This is called the “least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale.” Compute your LPC score by totaling all the numbers you circled; enter that score here [LPC = ____].

Interpretation The LPC scale is used by Fred Fiedler to identify a person’s dominant leadership style. Fiedler believes that this style is a relatively �ixed part of one’s personality and is therefore dif�icult to change. This leads Fiedler to his contingency views, which suggest that the key to leadership success is �inding (or creating) good “matches” between style and situation. If your score is 73 or above, Fiedler considers you a “relationship-motivated” leader; if your score is 64 and below, he considers you a “task-motivated” leader. If your score is between 65 and 72, Fiedler leaves it up to you to determine which leadership style is most like yours.

__________________

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Source: Fred E. Fiedler and Martin M. Chemers, Improving Leadership Effectiveness: The Leader Match Concept, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1984). Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 11 Leadership Style

Instructions The following statements describe leadership acts. Indicate the way you would most likely act if you were leader of a workgroup, by circling whether you would most likely behave in this way:

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A F O S N 1. Act as group spokesperson.

A F O S N 2. Encourage overtime work.

A F O S N 3. Allow members complete freedom in their work.

A F O S N 4. Encourage the use of uniform procedures.

A F O S N 5. Permit members to solve their own problems.

A F O S N 6. Stress being ahead of competing groups.

A F O S N 7. Speak as a representative of the group.

A F O S N 8. Push members for greater effort.

A F O S N 9. Try out ideas in the group.

A F O S N 10. Let the members work the way they think best.

A F O S N 11. Work hard for a personal promotion.

A F O S N 12. Tolerate postponement and uncertainty.

A F O S N 13. Speak for the group when visitors are present.

A F O S N 14. Keep the work moving at a rapid pace.

A F O S N 15. Turn members loose on a job.

A F O S N 16. Settle con�licts in the group.

A F O S N 17. Focus on work details.

A F O S N 18. Represent the group at outside meetings.

A F O S N 19. Avoid giving the members too much freedom.

A F O S N 20. Decide what should be done and how it should be done.

A F O S N 21. Push for increased production.

A F O S N 22. Give some members authority to act.

A F O S N 23. Expect things to turn out as predicted.

A F O S N 24. Allow the group to take initiative.

A F O S N 25. Assign group members to particular tasks.

A F O S N 26. Be willing to make changes.

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A F O S N 27. Ask members to work harder.

A F O S N 28. Trust members to exercise good judgment.

A F O S N 29. Schedule the work to be done.

A F O S N 30. Refuse to explain my actions.

A F O S N 31. Persuade others that my ideas are best.

A F O S N 32. Permit the group to set its own pace.

A F O S N 33. Urge the group to beat its previous record.

A F O S N 34. Act without consulting the group.

A F O S N 35. Ask members to follow standard rules.

T ____ P ____

Scoring Circle items 8, 12, 17, 18, 19, 30, 34, and 35.

Write the number 1 in front of a circled item number if you responded S (seldom) or N (never) to that item.

Write a number 1 in front of item numbers not circled if you responded A (always) or F (frequently).

Circle the number 1’s which you have written in front of items 3, 5, 8, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35.

Count the circled number 1’s. This is your score for leadership concern for people. Record the score in the blank following the letter P at the end of the questionnaire.

Count the uncircled number 1’s. This is your score for leadership concern for task. Record this number in the blank following the letter T.

ASSESSMENT 12 “TT” Leadership Style

Instructions

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For each of the following 10 pairs of statements, divide 5 points between the two elements of each pair according to your beliefs, perceptions of yourself, or which of the two statements characterizes you better. The 5 points may be divided between the a and b statements in any one of the following ways: 5 for a, 0 for b; 4 for a, 1 for b; 3 for a, 2 for b; 1 for a, 4 for b; 0 for a, 5 for b, but not equally (2.5) between the two. Weigh your choices between the two according to the one that characterizes you or your beliefs better.

1. (a) As leader I have a primary mission of maintaining stability.

a. (b) As leader I have a primary mission of change.

2. (a) As leader I must cause events.

a. (b) As leader I must facilitate events.

3. (a) I am concerned that my followers are rewarded equitably for their work.

a. (b) I am concerned about what my followers want in life.

4. (a) My preference is to think long range: what might be.

a. (b) My preference is to think short range: what is realistic.

5. (a) As a leader I spend considerable energy in managing separate but related goals.

a. (b) As a leader I spend considerable energy in arousing hopes, expectations, and aspirations among my followers.

6. (a) Although not in a formal classroom sense, I believe that a signi�icant part of my leadership is that of teacher.

a. (b) I believe that a signi�icant part of my leadership is that of facilitator.

7. (a) As leader I must engage with followers at an equal level of morality.

a. (b) As leader I must represent a higher morality.

8. (a) I enjoy stimulating followers to want to do more.

a. (b) I enjoy rewarding followers for a job well done.

9. (a) Leadership should be practical.

a. (b) Leadership should be inspirational.

10. (a) What power I have to in�luence others comes primarily from my ability to get people to identify with me and my ideas.

a. (b) What power I have to in�luence others comes primarily from my status and position.

Scoring

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Circle your points for items 1b, 2a, 3b, 4a, 5b, 6a, 7b, 8a, 9b, 10a and add up the total points you allocated to these items; enter the score here [T = ____]. Next, add up the total points given to the uncircled items 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5a, 6b, 7a, 8b, 9a, 10b; enter the score here [T = ____].

Interpretation This instrument gives an impression of your tendencies toward “transformational” leadership (your T score) and “transactional” leadership (your T score). Today, a lot of attention is being given to the transformational aspects of leadership: those personal qualities that inspire a sense of vision and desire for extraordinary accomplishment in followers. The most successful leaders of the future will most likely be strong in both T’s.

__________________

Source: Questionnaire by W. Warner Burke, Ph.D. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 13 Empowering Others

Instructions Think of times when you have been in charge of a group—this could be a full-time or part-time work situation, a student workgroup, or whatever. Complete the following questionnaire by recording how you feel about each statement according to this scale.

When in charge of a group I �ind:

____ 1. Most of the time other people are too inexperienced to do things, so I prefer to do them myself.

____ 2. It often takes more time to explain things to others than just to do them myself.

____ 3. Mistakes made by others are costly, so I don’t assign much work to them.

____ 4. Some things simply should not be delegated to others.

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____ 5. I often get quicker action by doing a job myself.

____ 6. Many people are good only at very speci�ic tasks, and thus can’t be assigned additional responsibilities.

____ 7. Many people are too busy to take on additional work.

____ 8. Most people just aren’t ready to handle additional responsibilities.

____ 9. In my position, I should be entitled to make my own decisions.

Scoring Total your responses; enter the score here [____].

Interpretation This instrument gives an impression of your willingness to delegate. Possible scores range from 9 to 45. The lower your score, the more willing you appear to be to delegate to others. Willingness to delegate is an important managerial characteristic. It is essential if you—as a manager—are to “empower” others and give them opportunities to assume responsibility and exercise self-control in their work. With the growing importance of empowerment in the new workplace, your willingness to delegate is well worth thinking about seriously.

__________________

Source: Questionnaire adapted from L. Steinmetz and R. Todd, First Line Management, 4th ed. (Homewood, IL: BPI/Irwin, 1986), pp. 64–67. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 14 Machiavellianism

Instructions For each of the following statements, circle the number that most closely resembles your attitude.

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Scoring and Interpretation This assessment is designed to compute your Machiavellianism (Mach) score. Mach is a personality characteristic that taps people’s power orientation. The high-Mach personality is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance from others, and believes that ends can justify means. To obtain your Mach score, add up the numbers you checked for questions 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, and 10. For the other four questions, reverse the numbers you have checked, so that 5 becomes 1; 4 is 2; and 1 is 5. Then total both sets of numbers to �ind your score. A random sample of adults found the national average to be 25. Students in business and management typically score higher.

The results of research using the Mach test have found that (1) men are generally more Machiavellian than women; (2) older adults tend to have lower Mach scores than younger adults; (3) there is no signi�icant difference between high Machs and low Machs on measures of intelligence or ability; (4) Machiavellianism is not signi�icantly related to demographic characteristics such as educational level or marital status; and (5) high Machs tend to be in professions that emphasize the control and manipulation of people—for example, managers, lawyers, psychiatrists, and behavioral scientists.

__________________

Source: From R. Christie and F. L. Geis, Studies in Machiavellianism (New York: Academic Press, 1970). By permission.

ASSESSMENT 15 Personal Power Pro�ile Contributed by Marcus Maier, Chapman University

Instructions Following is a list of statements that may be used in describing behaviors that supervisors (leaders) in work organizations can direct toward their subordinates (followers). First, carefully read each descriptive

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statement, thinking in terms of how you prefer to in�luence others. Mark the number that most closely represents how you feel. Use the following numbers for your answers.

Scoring Using the following grid, insert your scores from the 20 questions and proceed as follows: Reward power —sum your response to items 1, 13, 16, and 17 and divide by 4. Coercive power—sum your response to items 3, 9, 11, and 12 and divide by 4. Legitimate power—sum your response to questions 5, 14, 18, and 20 and divide by 4. Referent power—sum your response to questions 2, 4, 6, and 7 and divide by 4. Expert power—sum your response to questions 8, 10, 15, and 19 and divide by 4.

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Interpretation A high score (4 and greater) on any of the �ive dimensions of power implies that you prefer to in�luence others by employing that particular form of power. A low score (2 or less) implies that you prefer not to employ this particular form of power to in�luence others. This represents your power pro�ile. Your overall power position is not re�lected by the simple sum of the power derived from each of the �ive sources. Instead, some combinations of power are synergistic in nature—they are greater than the simple sum of their parts. For example, referent power tends to magnify the impact of other power sources because these other in�luence attempts are coming from a “respected” person. Reward power often increases the impact of referent power, because people generally tend to like those who give them things that they desire. Some power combinations tend to produce the opposite of synergistic effects, such that the total is less than the sum of the parts. Power dilution frequently accompanies the use of (or threatened use of) coercive power.

__________________

Source: Modi�ied version of T. R. Hinken and C. A. Schriesheim, “Development and Application of New Scales to Measure the French and Raven (1959) Bases of Social Power,” Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 74 (1989), pp. 561–567.

ASSESSMENT 16 Intuitive Ability

Instructions Complete this survey as quickly as you can. Be honest with yourself. For each question, select the response that most appeals to you.

When working on a project, do you prefer to:

a. (a) Be told what the problem is but be left free to decide how to solve it?

b. (b) Get very clear instructions about how to go about solving the problem before you start?

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When working on a project, do you prefer to work with colleagues who are:

a. (a) Realistic?

b. (b) Imaginative?

Do you most admire people who are:

a. (a) Creative?

b. (b) Careful?

Do the friends you choose tend to be:

a. (a) Serious and hard working?

b. (b) Exciting and often emotional?

When you ask a colleague for advice on a problem you have, do you:

a. (a) Seldom or never get upset if he or she questions your basic assumptions?

b. (b) Often get upset if he or she questions your basic assumptions?

When you start your day, do you:

a. (a) Seldom make or follow a speci�ic plan?

b. (b) Usually �irst make a plan to follow?

When working with numbers do you �ind that you:

a. (a) Seldom or never make factual errors?

b. (b) Often make factual errors?

Do you �ind that you:

a. (a) Seldom daydream during the day and really don’t enjoy doing so when you do it?

b. (b) Frequently daydream during the day and enjoy doing so?

When working on a problem, do you:

a. (a) Prefer to follow the instructions or rules when they are given to you?

b. (b) Often enjoy circumventing the instructions or rules when they are given to you?

When you are trying to put something together, do you prefer to have:

a. (a) Step-by-step written instructions on how to assemble the item?

b. (b) A picture of how the item is supposed to look once assembled?

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Do you �ind that the person who irritates you the most is the one who appears to be:

a. (a) Disorganized?

b. (b) Organized?

When an expected crisis comes up that you have to deal with, do you:

a. (a) Feel anxious about the situation?

b. (b) Feel excited by the challenge of the situation?

Scoring Total the number of “a” responses circled for questions 1, 3, 5, 6, 11; enter the score here [A = ____]. Total the number of “b” responses for questions 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12; enter the score here [B = ____]. Add your “a” and “b” scores and enter the sum here [A + B = ____]. This is your intuitive score. The highest possible intuitive score is 12; the lowest is 0.

Interpretation In his book Intuition in Organizations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), pp. 10–11, Weston H. Agor states, “Traditional analytical techniques . . . are not as useful as they once were for guiding major decisions. . . . If you hope to be better prepared for tomorrow, then it only seems logical to pay some attention to the use and development of intuitive skills for decision making.” Agor developed the prior survey to help people assess their tendencies to use intuition in decision making. Your score offers a general impression of your strength in this area. It may also suggest a need to further develop your skill and comfort with more intuitive decision approaches.

__________________

Source: AIM Survey (El Paso, TX: ENFP Enterprises, 1989). Copyright © 1989 by Weston H. Agor. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 17 Decision-Making Biases

Instructions How good are you at avoiding potential decision-making biases? Test yourself by answering the following questions:

Which is riskier:

a. (a) driving a car on a 400-mile trip?

b. (b) �lying on a 400-mile commercial airline �light?

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Are there more words in the English language:

a. (a) that begin with “r”?

b. (b) that have “r” as the third letter?

Mark is �inishing his MBA at a prestigious university. He is very interested in the arts and at one time considered a career as a musician. Is Mark more likely to take a job:

a. (a) in the management of the arts?

b. (b) with a management consulting �irm?

You are about to hire a new central-region sales director for the �ifth time this year. You predict that the next director should work out reasonably well since the last four were “lemons” and the odds favor hiring at least one good sales director in �ive tries. Is this thinking

a. (a) correct?

b. (b) incorrect?

A newly hired engineer for a computer �irm in the Boston metropolitan area has four years’ experience and good all-around quali�ications. When asked to estimate the starting salary for this employee, a chemist with very little knowledge about the profession or industry guessed an annual salary of $35,000. What is your estimate?

$____ per year

Scoring Your instructor will provide answers and explanations for the assessment questions.

Interpretation Each of the preceding questions examines your tendency to use a different judgmental heuristic. In his book Judgment in Managerial Decision Making, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), pp. 6–7, Max Bazerman calls these heuristics “simplifying strategies, or rules of thumb” used in making decisions. He states, “In general, heuristics are helpful, but their use can sometimes lead to severe errors. . . . If we can make managers aware of the potential adverse impacts of using heuristics, they can then decide when and where to use them.” This assessment offers an initial insight into your use of such heuristics. An informed decision maker understands the heuristics, is able to recognize when they appear, and eliminates any that may inappropriately bias decision making.

Test yourself further. Before hearing from your instructor, go back and write next to each item the name of the judgmental heuristic that you think applies.

Then write down a situation that you have experienced and in which some decision-making bias may have occurred. Be prepared to share and discuss this incident with the class.

__________________

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Source: Incidents from Max H. Bazerman, Judgment in Managerial Decision Making, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994), pp. 13–14. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 18 Con�lict Management Strategies

Instructions Think of how you behave in con�lict situations in which your wishes differ from those of others. In the space to the left, rate each of the following statements on a scale of “1/not at all” to “5/very much.”

When I have a con�lict at work, school, or in my personal life, I do the following:

____ 1. I give in to the wishes of the other party.

____ 2. I try to realize a middle-of-the-road solution.

____ 3. I push my own point of view.

____ 4. I examine issues until I �ind a solution that really satis�ies me and the other party.

____ 5. I avoid a confrontation about our differences.

____ 6. I concur with the other party.

____ 7. I emphasize that we have to �ind a compromise solution.

____ 8. I search for gains.

____ 9. I stand for my own and the other’s goals.

____ 10. I avoid differences of opinion as much as possible.

____ 11. I try to accommodate the other party.

____ 12. I insist we both give in a little.

____ 13. I �ight for a good outcome for myself.

____ 14. I examine ideas from both sides to �ind a mutually optimal solution.

____ 15. I try to make differences seem less severe.

____ 16. I adapt to the other party’s goals and interests.

____ 17. I strive whenever possible towards a �ifty-�ifty compromise.

____ 18. I do everything to win.

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____ 19. I work out a solution that serves my own as well as others’ interests as much as possible.

____ 20. I try to avoid a confrontation with the other person.

Scoring Total your scores for items as follows.

Yielding tendency: 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 = ____.

Compromising tendency: 2 + 7 + 12 + 17 = ____.

Forcing tendency: 3 + 8 + 13 + 18 = ____.

Problem-solving tendency: 4 + 9 + 14 + 19 = ____.

Avoiding tendency: 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 = ____.

Interpretation Each of the scores approximates one of the con�lict management styles discussed in the chapter. Although each style is part of management, only collaboration or problem solving leads to true con�lict resolution. You should consider any patterns that may be evident in your scores and think about how to best handle the con�lict situations in which you become involved.

__________________

Source: This instrument is described in Carsten K. W. De Drew, Arne Evers, Bianca Beersma, Esther S. Kluwer, and Aukje Nauta, “A Theory-Based Measure of Con�lict Management Strategies in the Workplace,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 22 (2001), pp. 645–668. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 19 Your Personality Type

Instructions How true is each statement for you?

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Scoring Add all your scores to create a total score = ____.

Interpretation Type A personalities (hurried and competitive) tend to score 36 and above. Type B personalities (relaxed) tend to score 22 and below. Scores of 23–35 indicate a balance or mix of Type A and Type B.

__________________

Source: From Job Demands and Worker Health (HEW Publication No. [NIOSH] 75–160) (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1975), pp. 253–254.

ASSESSMENT 20 Time Management Pro�ile

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Instructions Complete the following questionnaire by indicating “Y” (yes) or “N” (no) for each item. Be frank and allow your responses to create an accurate picture of how you tend to respond to these kinds of situations.

____ 1. When confronted with several items of similar urgency and importance, I tend to do the easiest one �irst.

____ 2. I do the most important things during that part of the day when I know I perform best.

____ 3. Most of the time I don’t do things someone else can do; I delegate this type of work to others.

____ 4. Even though meetings without a clear and useful purpose upset me, I put up with them.

____ 5. I skim documents before reading them and don’t complete any that offer a low return on my time investment.

____ 6. I don’t worry much if I don’t accomplish at least one signi�icant task each day.

____ 7. I save the most trivial tasks for that time of day when my creative energy is lowest.

____ 8. My workspace is neat and organized.

____ 9. My of�ice door is always “open”; I never work in complete privacy.

____ 10. I schedule my time completely from start to �inish every workday.

____ 11. I don’t like “to do” lists, preferring to respond to daily events as they occur.

____ 12. I “block” a certain amount of time each day or week that is dedicated to high-priority activities.

Scoring Count the number of “Y” responses to items 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12. [Enter that score here ____.] Count the number of “N” responses to items 1, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11. [Enter that score here ____.] Add together the two scores.

Interpretation The higher the total score, the closer your behavior matches recommended time management guidelines. Reread those items where your response did not match the desired one. Why don’t they match? Do you have reasons why your behavior in this instance should be different from the recommended time management guideline? Think about what you can do (and how easily it can be done) to adjust your behavior to be more consistent with these guidelines.

For further reading, see Alan Lakein, How to Control Your Time and Your Life (New York: David McKay), and William Oncken, Managing Management Time (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984).

__________________

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Source: Suggested by a discussion in Robert E. Quinn, Sue R. Faerman, Michael P. Thompson, and Michael R. McGrath, Becoming a Master Manager: A Contemporary Framework (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990), pp. 75–76.

ASSESSMENT 21 Organizational Design Preference

Instructions To the left of each item, write the number from the following scale that shows the extent to which the statement accurately describes your views.

I prefer to work in an organization where:

Goals are de�ined by those in higher levels.

Work methods and procedures are speci�ied.

Top management makes important decisions.

My loyalty counts as much as my ability to do the job.

Clear lines of authority and responsibility are established.

Top management is decisive and �irm.

My career is pretty well planned out for me.

I can specialize.

My length of service is almost as important as my level of performance.

Management is able to provide the information I need to do my job well.

A chain of command is well established.

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Rules and procedures are adhered to equally by everyone.

People accept authority of a leader’s position.

People are loyal to their boss.

People do as they have been instructed.

People clear things with their boss before going over his or her head.

Scoring Total your scores for all questions. Enter the score here [____].

Interpretation This assessment measures your preference for working in an organization designed along “organic” or “mechanistic” lines. The higher your score (above 64), the more comfortable you are with a mechanistic design; the lower your score (below 48), the more comfortable you are with an organic design. Scores between 48 and 64 can go either way. This organizational design preference represents an important issue in the new workplace. Indications are that today’s organizations are taking on more and more organic characteristics. Presumably, those of us who work in them will need to be comfortable with such designs.

__________________

Source: John F. Veiga and John N. Yanouzas, The Dynamics of Organization Theory: Gaining a Macro Perspective (St. Paul, MN: West, 1979), pp. 158–160. Used by permission.

ASSESSMENT 22 Which Culture Fits You?

Instructions Check one of the following organization “cultures” in which you feel most comfortable working.

A culture that values talent, entrepreneurial activity, and performance over commitment; one that offers large �inancial rewards and individual recognition.

A culture that stresses loyalty, working for the good of the group, and getting to know the right people; one that believes in “generalists” and step-by-step career progress.

A culture that offers little job security; one that operates with a survival mentality, stresses that every individual can make a difference, and focuses attention on “turnaround” opportunities.

A culture that values long-term relationships; one that emphasizes systematic career development, regular training, and advancement based on gaining of functional expertise.

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Scoring These labels identify the four different cultures: 1 = “the baseball team,” 2 = “the club,” 3 = “the fortress,” and 4 = “the academy.”

Interpretation To some extent, your future career success may depend on working for an organization in which there is a good �it between you and the prevailing corporate culture. This assessment can help you learn how to recognize various cultures, evaluate how well they can serve your needs, and recognize how they may change with time. A risk taker, for example, may be out of place in a “club” but �it right in with a “baseball team.” Someone who wants to seek opportunities wherever they may occur may be out of place in an “academy” but �it right in with a “fortress.”

__________________

Source: Developed from Carol Hymowitz, “Which Corporate Culture Fits You?” Wall Street Journal (July 17, 1989), p. B1.

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Learning comes from experience. Interacting with others enriches our understanding.

© Figure8Photos/iStockphoto

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TEAM AND EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1 My Best Manager

Instructions Make a list of the attributes that describe the best manager you ever worked for. If you have trouble identifying an actual manager, make a list of attributes you would like the manager in your next job to have.

Form a group of four or �ive persons and share your lists.

Create one list that combines all the unique attributes of the “best” managers represented in your group. Make sure that you have all attributes listed, but list each only once. Place a check mark next to those that were reported by two or more members. Have one of your members prepared to present the list in general class discussion.

After all groups have �inished Step 3, spokespersons should report to the whole class. The instructor will make a running list of the “best” manager attributes as viewed by the class.

Feel free to ask questions and discuss the results.

EXERCISE 2 Graf�iti Needs Assessment: Involving Students in the First Class Session Contributed by Barbara K. Goza, Visiting Associate Professor, University of California at Santa Cruz, and Associate Professor, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.

From Journal of Management Education, 1993.

Instructions Complete the following sentences with as many endings as possible.

a. When I �irst came to this class, I thought . . .

b. My greatest concern this term is . . .

c. In 3 years I will be . . .

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d. The greatest challenge facing the world today is . . .

e. Organizational behavior specialists do . . .

f. Human resources are . . .

g. Organizational research is . . .

h. The most useful question I’ve been asked is . . .

i. The most important phenomenon in organizations is . . .

j. I learn the most when . . .

Your instructor will guide you in a class discussion about your responses. Pay careful attention to similarities and differences among various students’ answers.

EXERCISE 3 My Best Job

Procedure Make a list of the top �ive things you expect from your �irst (or next) full-time job.

Exchange lists with a nearby partner. Assign probabilities (or odds) to each goal on your partner’s list to indicate how likely you feel it is that the goal can be accomplished. (Note: Your instructor may ask that everyone use the same probabilities format.)

Discuss your evaluations with your partner. Try to delete super�icial goals or modify them to become more substantial. Try to restate any unrealistic goals to make them more realistic. Help your partner do the same.

Form a group of four to six persons. Within the group, have everyone share what they now consider to be the most “realistic” goals on their lists. Elect a spokesperson to share a sample of these items with the entire class.

Discuss what group members have individually learned from the exercise. Await further class discussion led by your instructor.

EXERCISE 4 What Do You Value in Work?

Instructions

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The following nine items are from a survey conducted by Nicholas J. Beutell and O. C. Brenner (“Sex Differences in Work Values,” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 28, pp. 29–41, 1986). Rank the nine items in terms of how important (9 = most important) they would be to you in a job.

How important is it to you to have a job that:

_____ Is respected by other people?

_____ Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills?

_____ Provides job security?

_____ Provides a feeling of accomplishment?

_____ Provides the opportunity to earn a high income?

_____ Is intellectually stimulating?

_____ Rewards good performance with recognition?

_____ Provides comfortable working conditions?

_____ Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility?

Form into groups as designated by your instructor. Within each group, the men in the group will meet to develop a consensus ranking of the items as they think the women in the Beutell and Brenner survey ranked them. The reasons for the rankings should be shared and discussed so they are clear to everyone. The women in the group should not participate in this ranking task. They should listen to the discussion and be prepared to comment later in class discussion. A spokesperson for the men in the group should share the group’s rankings with the class.

(Optional) Form into groups as designated by your instructor, but with each group consisting entirely of men or women. Each group should meet and decide which of the work values members of the opposite sex ranked �irst in the Beutell and Brenner survey. Do this again for the work value ranked last. The reasons should be discussed, along with reasons that each of the other values probably was not ranked �irst—or last. A spokesperson for each group should share group results with the rest of the class.

Source: Adapted from Roy J. Lewicki, Donald D. Bowen, Douglas T. Hall, and Francine S. Hall, Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988), pp. 23–26. Used by permission.

EXERCISE 5 My Asset Base A business has an asset base or set of resources that it uses to produce a good or service of value to others. For a business, these are the assets or resources it uses to achieve results, including capital, land, patented

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products or processes, buildings and equipment, raw materials, and the human resources or employees, among others.

Each of us has an asset base that supports our ability to accomplish the things we set out to do. We refer to our personal assets as talents, strengths, or abilities. We probably inherit our talents from our parents, but we acquire many of our abilities and strengths through learning. One thing is certain: We feel very proud of the talents and abilities we have.

Instructions Printed here is a T chart that you are to �ill out. On the right-hand side of the T, list four or �ive of your accomplishments—things you have done of which you are most proud. Your accomplishments should only include those things for which you can take credit, those things for which you are primarily responsible. If you are proud of the sorority to which you belong, you may be justi�iably proud, but don’t list it unless you can argue that the sorority’s excellence is due primarily to your efforts. However, if you feel that having been invited to join the sorority is a major accomplishment for you, then you may include it.

When you have completed the right-hand side of the chart, �ill in the left-hand side by listing talents, strengths, and abilities that you have that have enabled you to accomplish the outcomes listed on the right-hand side.

Share your lists with other team members. As each member shares his or her list, pay close attention to your own perceptions and feelings. Notice the effect this has on your attitudes toward the other team members.

Discuss these questions in your group:

a. How did your attitudes and feelings toward other members of the team change as you pursued the activity? What does this tell you about the process whereby we come to get to know and care about people?

b. How did you feel about the instructions the instructor provided? What did you expect to happen? Were your expectations accurate?

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Source: Adapted from Donald D. Bowen et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997).

EXERCISE 6 Expatriate Assignments Contributed by Robert E. Ledman, Morehouse College

This exercise focuses on issues related to workers facing international assignments. It illustrates that those workers face a multitude of issues. It further demonstrates that managers who want employees to realize the maximum bene�its of international assignments should be aware of, and prepared to deal with, those issues. Some of the topics that are easily addressed with this exercise include the need for culture and language training for the employees and their families and the impact that international assignments may have on an employee’s family and how that may affect an employee’s willingness to seek such assignments.

Instructions Form into “families” of four or �ive. Since many students today have only one parent at home, it is helpful if some groups do not have students to �ill both parental roles in the exercise. Each student is assigned to play a family member and given a description of that person.

Enter into a 20-minute discussion to explore how a proposed overseas assignment will affect the family members. Your goal is to try to reach a decision about whether the assignment should be taken. You must also decide whether the entire family or only the family member being offered the assignment will relocate. The assignment is for a minimum of two years, with possible annual extensions resulting in a total of four years, and your family, or the member offered the assignment, will be provided, at company expense, one trip back to the states each year for a maximum period of �ifteen days. The member offered the assignment will not receive any additional housing or cost-of-living supplements described in the role assignment if he or she chooses to go overseas alone and can expect his or her living expenses to exceed substantially the living allowance being provided by the company. In your discussion, address the following questions:

a. What are the most important concerns your family has about relocating to a foreign country?

b. What information should you seek about the proposed host country to be able to make a more informed decision?

c. What can the member offered the assignment do to make the transition easier if he or she goes overseas alone? If the whole family relocates?

d. What should the member offered the assignment do to ensure that this proposed assignment will not create unnecessary stress for him or her and the rest of the family?

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e. What lessons for managers of expatriate assignees are presented by the situation in this exercise?

Try to reach some “family” consensus. If a consensus is not possible, however, resolve any differences in the manner you think the family in the role descriptions would ultimately resolve any differences.

Share your answers with the rest of the class. Explain the rationale for your answers and answer questions from the remainder of the class.

(Optional) After each group has reported on a given question, the instructor may query the class about how their answers are consistent, or inconsistent, with common practices of managers as described in the available literature.

Descriptions of Family Members Person Being Offered Overseas Assignment

This person is a middle- to upper-level executive who is on a fast track to senior management. He or she has been offered the opportunity to manage an overseas operation, with the assurance of a promotion to a vice presidency upon return to the states. The company will pay all relocation expenses, including selling costs for the family home and the costs associated with �inding a new home upon return. The employer will also provide language training for the employee and cultural awareness training for the entire family. The employee will receive a living allowance equal to 20 percent of his or her salary. This should be adequate to provide the family a comparable standard of living to that which is possible on the employee’s current salary.

Spouse of the Person Offered an Overseas Assignment (Optional)

This person is also a professional with highly transferable skills and experience for the domestic market. It is unknown how easily he or she may be able to �ind employment in the foreign country. This person’s income, though less than his or her spouse’s, is necessary if the couple is to continue paying for their child’s college tuition and to prepare for the next child to enter college in two years. This person has spent �ifteen years developing a career, including completing a degree at night.

Oldest Child

This child is a second-semester junior in college and is on track to graduate in 16 months. Transferring at this time would probably mean adding at least one semester to complete the degree. He or she has been dating the same person for over a year; they have talked about getting married immediately after graduation, although they are not yet formally engaged.

Middle Child

This child is a junior in high school. He or she has already begun visiting college campuses in preparation for applying in the fall. This child is involved in a number of school activities; he or she is a photographer for the yearbook and plays a varsity sport. This child has a learning disability for which services are being provided by the school system.

Youngest Child

This child is a middle school student, age 13. He or she is actively involved in Scouting and takes piano lessons. This child has a history of medical conditions that have required regular visits to the family

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physician and specialists. This child has several very close friends who have attended the same school for several years.

Source: Robert E. Ledman, Gannon University. Presented in the Experiential Exercise Track of the 1996 ABSEL Conference and published in the Proceedings of that conference.

EXERCISE 7 Cultural Cues Contributed by Susan Rawson Zacur and W. Alan Randolph, University of Baltimore

Introduction In the business context, culture involves shared beliefs and expectations that govern the behavior of people. In this exercise, foreign culture refers to a set of beliefs and expectations different from those of the participant’s home culture (which has been invented by the participants).

Instructions (10–15 minutes) Divide into two groups, each with color-coded badges. For example, the blue group could receive blue Sticky notes and the yellow group could receive yellow Sticky notes. Print your �irst name in bold letters on the badge and wear it throughout the exercise.

Work with your group members to invent your own cultural cues. Think about the kinds of behaviors and words that will signify to all members that they belong together in one culture. For each of the following categories, identify and record at least one important attribute for your culture.

Once you have identi�ied desirable cultural aspects for your group, practice them. It is best to stand with your group and to engage one another in conversations involving two or three people at a time. Your aim in talking with one another is to learn as much as possible about each

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other—hobbies, interests, where you live, what your family is like, what courses you are taking, and so on, all the while practicing the behaviors and words on the previous page. It is not necessary for participants to answer questions of a personal nature truthfully. Invention is permissible because the conversation is only a means to the end of cultural observation. Your aim at this point is to become comfortable with the indicators of your particular culture. Practice until the indicators are second nature to you.

Now assume that you work for a business that has decided to explore the potential for doing business with companies in a different culture. You are to learn as much as possible about another culture. To do so, you will send from one to three representatives from your group on a “business trip” to the other culture. These representatives must, insofar as possible, behave in a manner that is consistent with your culture. At the same time, each representative must endeavor to learn as much as possible about the people in the other culture, while keeping eyes and ears open to cultural attributes that will be useful in future negotiations with foreign businesses. (Note: At no time will it be considered ethical behavior for the representative to ask direct questions about the foreign culture’s attributes. These must be gleaned from �irsthand experience.)

While your representatives are away, you will receive one or more exchange visitors from the other culture, who will engage in conversation as they attempt to learn more about your organizational culture. You must strictly adhere to the cultural aspects of your own culture while you converse with the visitors.

(5–10 minutes) All travelers return to your home cultures. As a group, discuss and record what you have learned about the foreign culture based on the exchange of visitors. This information will serve as the basis for orienting the next representatives who will make a business trip.

(5–10 minutes) Select one to three different group members to make another trip to the other culture to check out the assumptions your group has made about the other culture. This “checking out” process will consist of actually practicing the other culture’s cues to see whether they work.

(5–10 minutes) Once the traveler(s) have returned and reported on �indings, as a group prepare to report to the class what you have learned about the other culture.

Source: Adapted by Susan Rawson Zacur and W. Alan Randolph from Journal of Management Education, 17:4 (November 1993), pp. 510–516.

EXERCISE 8 Prejudice in Our Lives Contributed by Susan Schor of Pace University and Annie McKee of The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, with the assistance of Ariel Fishman of The Wharton School

Instructions

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As a large class group, generate a list of groups that tend to be targets of prejudice and stereotypes in our culture—such groups can be based on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, region, religion, and so on. After generating a list, either as a class or in small groups, identify a few common positive and negative stereotypes associated with each group. Also consider relationships or patterns that exist among some of the lists. Discuss the implications for groups that have stereotypes that are valued in organizations versus groups whose stereotypes are viewed negatively in organizations.

As an individual, think about the lists you have now generated, and list those groups with which you identify. Write about an experience in which you were stereotyped as a member of a group. Ask yourself the following questions and write down your thoughts:

a. What group do I identify with?

b. What was the stereotype?

c. What happened? When and where did the incident occur? Who said what to whom?

d. What were my reactions? How did I feel? What did I think? What did I do?

e. What were the consequences? How did the incident affect myself and others?

Now, in small groups, discuss your experiences. Brie�ly describe the incident and focus on how the incident made you feel. Select one incident from the ones shared in your group to role-play for the class. Then, as a class, discuss your reactions to each role-play. Identify the prejudice or stereotype portrayed, the feelings the situation evoked, and the consequences that might result from such a situation.

Think about the prejudices and stereotypes you hold about other people. Ask yourself, “What groups do I feel prejudice toward? What stereotypes do I hold about members of each of these groups?” How may such a prejudice have developed—did a family member or close friend or television in�luence you to stereotype a particular group in a certain way?

Now try to identify implications of prejudice in the workplace. How do prejudice and stereotypes affect workers, managers, relationships between people, and the organization as a whole? Consider how you might want to change erroneous beliefs as well as how you would encourage other people to change their own erroneous beliefs.

EXERCISE 9 How We View Differences Contributed by Barbara Walker

Introduction Clearly, the workplace of the future will be much more diverse than it is today: more women, more people of color, more international representation, more diverse lifestyles and ability pro�iles, and the like.

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Managing a diverse workforce and working across a range of differences is quickly becoming a “core competency” for effective managers.

Furthermore, it is also becoming clear that diversity in a work team can signi�icantly enhance the creativity and quality of the team’s output. In today’s turbulent business environment, utilizing employee diversity will give the manager and the organization a competitive edge in tapping all of the available human resources more effectively. This exercise is an initial step in the examination of how we work with people whom we perceive as different from us. It is fairly simple, straightforward, and safe, but its implications are profound.

Instructions Read the following:

Imagine that you are traveling in a rental car in a city you have never visited before. You have a one-hour drive on an uncrowded highway before you reach your destination. You decide that you would like to spend the time listening to some of your favorite kind of music on the car radio.

The rental car has four selection buttons available, each with a preset station that plays a different type of music. One plays country music, one plays rock, one plays classical, and one plays jazz. Which type of music would you choose to listen to for the next hour as you drive along? (Assume you want to relax and just stick with one station; you don’t want to bother switching around between stations.)

Form into groups based on the type of music that you have chosen. All who have chosen country will meet in an area designated by the instructor. Those who chose rock will meet in another area, and so on. In your groups, answer the following question. Appoint one member to be the spokesperson to report your answers back to the total group.

Question For each of the other groups, what words would you use to describe people who like to listen to that type of music?

Have each spokesperson report the responses of her or his group to the question in step 2. Follow with class discussion of these additional questions:

a. What do you think is the purpose or value of this exercise?

b. What did you notice about the words used to describe the other groups? Were there any surprises in this exercise for you?

c. Upon what sorts of data do you think these images were based?

d. What term do we normally use to describe these generalized perceptions of another group?

e. What could some of the consequences be?

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f. How do the perceptual processes here relate to other kinds of intergroup differences, such as race, gender, culture, ability, ethnicity, health, age, nationality, and so on?

g. What does this exercise suggest about the ease with which intergroup stereotypes form?

h. What might be ways an organization might facilitate the valuing and utilizing of differences between people?

Source: Exercise developed by Barbara Walker, a pioneer on work on valuing differences. Adapted for this volume by Douglas T. Hall. Used by permission of Barbara Walker.

EXERCISE 10 Alligator River Story

The Alligator River Story There lived a woman named Abigail who was in love with a man named Gregory. Gregory lived on the shore of a river. Abigail lived on the opposite shore of the same river. The river that separated the two lovers was teeming with dangerous alligators. Abigail wanted to cross the river to be with Gregory. Unfortunately, the bridge had been washed out by a heavy �lood the previous week. So she went to ask Sinbad, a riverboat captain, to take her across. He said he would be glad to if she would consent to go to bed with him prior to the voyage. She promptly refused and went to a friend named Ivan to explain her plight. Ivan did not want to get involved at all in the situation. Abigail felt her only alternative was to accept Sinbad’s terms. Sinbad ful�illed his promise to Abigail and delivered her into the arms of Gregory. When Abigail told Gregory about her amorous escapade in order to cross the river, Gregory cast her aside with disdain. Heartsick and rejected, Abigail turned to Slug with her tail of woe. Slug, feeling compassion for Abigail, sought out Gregory and beat him brutally. Abigail was overjoyed at the sight of Gregory getting his due. As the sun set on the horizon, people heard Abigail laughing at Gregory.

Instructions Read “The Alligator River Story.”

After reading the story, rank the �ive characters in the story beginning with the one whom you consider the most offensive and end with the one whom you consider the least objectionable. That is, the character who seems to be the most reprehensible to you should be entered �irst in the list following the story, then the second most reprehensible, and so on, with the least reprehensible or objectionable being entered �ifth. Of course, you will have your own reasons as to why you rank them in the order that you do. Very brie�ly note these too.

Form groups as assigned by your instructor (at least four persons per group with gender mixed).

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Each group should:

a. Elect a spokesperson for the group

b. Compare how the group members have ranked the characters

c. Examine the reasons used by each of the members for their rankings

d. Seek consensus on a �inal group ranking

Following your group discussions, you will be asked to share your outcomes and reasons for agreement or nonagreement. A general class discussion will then be held.

Source: From Sidney B. Simon, Howard Kirschenbaum, and Leland Howe, Values Clari�ication, The Handbook, rev. ed. (Sutherland, MA: Values Press, 1991).

EXERCISE 11 Teamwork and Motivation Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Instructions Read the following situation:

You are the owner of a small manufacturing corporation. Your company manufactures widgets—a commodity. Your widget is a clone of nationally known widgets. Your widget, WooWoo, is less expensive and more readily available than the nationally known brand. Presently, the sales are high. However, there are many rejects, which increases your cost and delays the delivery. You have 50 employees in the following departments: sales, assembly, technology, and administration.

In groups, discuss methods to motivate all of the employees in the organization—rank them in terms of preference.

Design an organization motivation plan that encourages high job satisfaction, low turnover, high productivity, and high-quality work.

Is there anything special you can do about the minimum-wage service worker? How do you motivate this individual? On what motivation theory do you base your decision?

Report to the class your motivation plan. Record your ideas on the board and allow all groups to build on the �irst plan. Discuss additions and corrections as the discussion proceeds.

Worksheet

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Directions: Fill in the right-hand column with descriptive terms. These terms should suggest a change in behavior from individual work to teamwork.

EXERCISE 12 The Downside of Punishment Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Instructions There are numerous problems associated with using punishment or discipline to change behavior. Punishment creates negative effects in the workplace. To better understand this, work in your group to give an example of each of the following situations:

Punishment may not be applied to the person whose behavior you want to change.

Punishment applied over time may suppress the occurrence of socially desirable behaviors.

Punishment creates a dislike of the person who is implementing the punishment.

Punishment results in undesirable emotions such as anxiety and aggressiveness.

Punishment increases the desire to avoid punishment.

Punishing one behavior does not guarantee that the desired behavior will occur.

Punishment follow-up requires allocation of additional resources.

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Punishment may create a communication barrier and inhibit the �low of information.

Source: Adapted from class notes: Dr. Larry Michaelson, Oklahoma University.

EXERCISE 13 Tinkertoys Contributed by Bonnie McNeely, Murray State University

Materials Needed Tinkertoy sets.

Instructions Form groups as assigned by the instructor. The mission of each group or temporary organization is to build the tallest possible Tinkertoy tower. Each group should determine worker roles: at least four students will be builders, some will be consultants who offer suggestions, and the remaining students will be observers who remain silent and complete the observation sheet provided below.

Rules for the exercise:

a. 15 minutes allowed to plan the tower, but only 60 seconds to build.

b. No more than two Tinkertoy pieces can be put together during the planning.

c. All pieces must be put back in the box before the competition begins.

d. Completed tower must stand alone.

Observation Sheet What planning activities were observed?

Did the group members adhere to the rules?

What organizing activities were observed?

Was the task divided into subtasks? Division of labor?

Was the group motivated to succeed? Why or why not?

Were any control techniques observed?

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Was a timekeeper assigned?

Were backup plans discussed?

Did a clear leader emerge from the group?

What behaviors indicated that this person was the leader?

How did the leader establish credibility with the group?

Did any con�licts within the group appear?

Was there a power struggle for the leadership position?

Source: Adapted from Bonnie McNeely, “Using the Tinkertoy Exercise to Teach the Four Functions of Management,” Journal of Management Education, 18: 4 (November 1994), pp. 468–472.

EXERCISE 14 Job Design Preferences

Instructions Use the left column to rank the following job characteristics in the order most important to you (1—highest to 10—lowest). Then use the right column to rank them in the order you think they are most important to others.

____ Variety of tasks ____

____ Performance feedback ____

____ Autonomy/freedom in work ____

____ Working on a team ____

____ Having responsibility ____

____ Making friends on the job ____

____ Doing all of a job, not part ____

____ Importance of job to others ____

____ Having resources to do well ____

____ Flexible work schedule ____

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Form workgroups as assigned by your instructor. Share your rankings with other group members. Discuss where you have different individual preferences and where your impressions differ from the preferences of others. Are there any major patterns in your group—for either the “personal” or the “other” rankings? Develop group consensus rankings for each column. Designate a spokesperson to share the group rankings and results of any discussion with the rest of the class.

EXERCISE 15 My Fantasy Job Contributed by Lady Hanson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Instructions Think about a possible job that represents what you consider to be your ideal or “fantasy” job. For discussion purposes, try to envision it as a job you would hold within a year of �inishing your current studies. Write down a brief description of that job in the following space below. Start the description with the following words: My fantasy job would be . . .

Review the description of the Hackman/Oldham model of Job Characteristics Theory offered in the textbook. Note in particular the descriptions of the core characteristics. Consider how each of them could be maximized in your fantasy job. Indicate in the spaces that follow how speci�ic parts of your fantasy job will �it into or relate to each of the core characteristics.

a. Skill variety: ____________________________________

b. Task identity: ___________________________________

c. Task signi�icance: ________________________________

d. Autonomy: _____________________________________

e. Job feedback: ___________________________________

Form into groups as assigned by your instructor. In the group have each person share his or her fantasy job and the descriptions of its core characteristics. Select one person from your group to tell the class as a whole about her or his fantasy job. Be prepared to participate in a general discussion regarding the core characteristics and how they may or may not relate to job performance and job satisfaction. Consider also the likelihood that the fantasy jobs of class members are really attainable—in other words, Can “fantasy” become fact?

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EXERCISE 16 Motivation by Job Enrichment Contributed by Diana Page, University of West Florida

Instructions Form groups of �ive to seven members. Each group is assigned one of the following categories:

a. Bank teller

b. Retail sales clerk

c. Manager, fast-food service (e.g., McDonald’s)

d. Wait person

e. Receptionist

f. Restaurant manager

g. Clerical worker (or bookkeeper)

h. Janitor

As a group, develop a short description of job duties for the job your group has been assigned. The list should contain approximately four to six items.

Next, using job characteristics theory, enrich the job using the speci�ic elements described in the theory. Develop a new list of job duties that incorporate any or all of the core job characteristics suggested by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, such as skill variety, task identity, and so on. Indicate for each of the new job duties which job characteristic(s) was/were used.

One member of each group should act as the spokesperson and will present the group’s ideas to the class. Speci�ically describe one or two of the old job tasks. Describe the modi�ied job tasks. Finally, relate the new job tasks the group has developed to speci�ic job core characteristics such as skill variety, skill identity, and so on.

The group should also be prepared to discuss these and other follow-up questions:

a. How would a manager go about enlarging but not enriching this job?

b. Why was this job easy or hard?

c. What are the possible constraints on actually accomplishing this enrichment in the workplace?

d. What possible reasons are there that a worker would not like to have this newly enriched job?

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EXERCISE 17 Annual Pay Raises

Instructions Read the following job descriptions and decide on a percentage pay increase for each of the eight employees.

Make salary increase recommendations for each of the eight managers that you supervise. There are no formal company restrictions on the size of raises you give, but the total for everyone should not exceed the $10,900 (a 4 percent increase in the salary pool) that has been budgeted for this purpose. You have a variety of information on which to base the decisions, including a “productivity index” (PI), which Industrial Engineering computes as a quantitative measure of operating ef�iciency for each manager’s work unit. This index ranges from a high of 10 to a low of 1. Indicate the percentage increase you would give each manager in the blank space next to each manager’s name. Be prepared to explain why.

a. _____ A. Alvarez Alvarez is new this year and has a tough workgroup whose task is dirty and dif�icult. This is a hard position to �ill, but you don’t feel Alvarez is particularly good. The word around is that the other managers agree with you. PI = 3. Salary = $33,000.

b. _____ B. J. Cook Cook is single and a “swinger” who enjoys leisure time. Everyone laughs at the problems Cook has getting the work out, and you feel it certainly is lacking. Cook has been in the job two years. PI = 3. Salary = $34,500.

c. _____ Z. Davis In the position three years, Davis is one of your best people, even though some of the other managers don’t agree. With a spouse who is independently wealthy, Davis doesn’t need money but likes to work. PI = 7. Salary = $36,600.

d. _____ M. Frame Frame has personal problems and is hurting �inancially. Others gossip about Frame’s performance, but you are quite satis�ied with this second-year employee. PI = 7. Salary = $34,700.

e. _____ C. M. Liu Liu is just �inishing a �ine �irst year in a tough job. Highly respected by the others, Liu has a job offer in another company at a 15 percent increase in salary. You are impressed, and the word is that the money is important. PI = 9. Salary = $34,000.

f. _____ B. Ratin Ratin is a �irst-year manager whom you and the others think is doing a good job. This is a bit surprising since Ratin turned out to be a “free spirit” who doesn’t seem to care much about money or status. PI = 9. Salary = $33,800.

g. _____ H. Smith Smith is a �irst-year manager recently divorced and with two children to support as a single parent. The others like Smith a lot, but your evaluation is not very high. Smith could certainly use extra money. PI = 5. Salary = $33,000.

h. _____ G. White White is a big spender who always has the latest clothes and a new car. In the �irst year on what you would call an easy job, White doesn’t seem to be doing

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very well. For some reason, though, the others talk about White as the “cream of the new crop.” PI = 5. Salary =$33,000.

Convene in a group of four to seven persons and share your raise decisions.

As a group, decide on a new set of raises and be prepared to report them to the rest of the class. Make sure that the group spokesperson can provide the rationale for each person’s raise.

The instructor will call on each group to report its raise decisions. After discussion, an “expert’s” decision will be given.

EXERCISE 18 Serving on the Boundary Contributed by Joseph A. Raelin, Boston College

Instructions The objective of this exercise is to experience what it is like being on the boundary of your team or organization and to experience the boundary person’s divided loyalties.

As a full class, decide on a stake you are willing to wager on this exercise. Perhaps it will be 5 cents or 10 cents per person, or even more.

Form into teams. Select or elect one member from your team to be an expert. The expert will be the person most competent in the �ield of international geography.

The experts will then form into a team of their own.

The teams, including the expert team, are going to be given a straightforward question to work on. Whichever team comes closest to deriving the correct answer will win the pool from the stakes already collected. The question is any one of the following as assigned by the instructor: (a) What is the airline distance between Beijing and Moscow (in miles)? (b) What is the highest point in Texas (in feet)? (c) What was the number of American battle deaths in the Revolutionary War?

Each team should now work on the question, including the expert team. However, after all the teams come up with a verdict, the experts will be allowed to return to their “home” team to inform the team of the expert team’s deliberations.

The expert team members are now asked to reconvene as an expert team. They should determine their �inal answer to the question. Then they are to face a decision. The instructor will announce that for a period of up to two minutes, any expert may either return to their home team (to sink or swim with the answer of the home team) or remain with the expert team. As long as two members remain in the expert team, it will be considered a group and may vie for the pool. Home teams, during the two-minute decision period, can do whatever they

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would like to do—within bounds of normal decorum—to try to persuade their expert member to return.

After the two minutes are up, teams will hand in their responses to the question, and the team with the closest answer (up or down) will be awarded the pool.

Class members should be prepared to discuss the following questions:

a. What did it feel like to be a boundary person (the expert)?

b. What could the teams have done to corral any of the boundary persons who chose not to return home?

EXERCISE 19 Eggsperiential Exercise Contributed by Dr. Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

Materials Needed Chairs

1 raw egg per group

6 plastic straws per group

1 yard of plastic tape

1 large plastic jar

Instructions Form into equal groups of �ive to seven people.

The task is to drop an egg from the chair onto the plastic without breaking the egg. Groups can evaluate the materials and plan their task for 10 minutes. During this period the materials may not be handled.

Groups have 10 minutes for construction.

One group member will drop the egg while standing on top of a chair in front of the class. One by one, a representative from each group will drop his or her group’s eggs.

Optional: Each group will name their egg.

Each group discusses their individual/group behaviors during this activity.

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Optional: This analysis may be summarized in written form. The following questions may be utilized in the analysis:

a. What kind of group is it? Explain.

b. Was the group cohesive? Explain.

c. How did the cohesiveness relate to performance? Explain.

d. Was there evidence of groupthink? Explain.

e. Were group norms established? Explain.

f. Was there evidence of con�lict? Explain.

g. Was there any evidence of social loa�ing? Explain.

EXERCISE 20 Scavenger Hunt—Team Building Contributed by Michael R. Manning and Paula J. Schmidt, New Mexico State University

Introduction Think about what it means to be part of a team—a successful team. What makes one team more successful than another? What does each team member need to do in order for their team to be successful? What are the characteristics of an effective team?

Instructions Form teams as assigned by your instructor. Locate the listed items while following these important rules:

a. Your team must stay together at all times—that is, you cannot go in separate directions.

b. Your team must return to the classroom within the time allotted by the instructor.

The team with the most items on the list will be declared the most successful team.

Next, re�lect on your team’s experience. What did each team member do? What was your team’s strategy? What made your team effective? Make a list of the most important things your team did to be successful. Nominate a spokesperson to summarize your team’s discussion for the class. What items were similar between teams? That is, what helped each team to be effective?

Items for Scavenger Hunt

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Each item is to be identi�ied and brought back to the classroom.

A book with the word Team in the title.

A joke about teams that you share with the class.

A blade of grass from the university football �ield.

A souvenir from the state.

A picture of a team or group.

A newspaper article about a team.

A team song to be composed and performed for the class.

A leaf from an oak tree.

Stationery from the dean’s of�ice.

A cup of sand.

A pine cone.

A live reptile. (Note: Sometimes a team member has one for a pet or the students are ingenious enough to visit a local pet store.)

A de�inition of group “cohesion” that you share with the class.

A set of chopsticks.

Three cans of vegetables.

A branch of an elm tree.

Three unusual items.

A ball of cotton.

The ear from a prickly pear cactus.

A group name.

(Note: Items may be substituted as appropriate for your locale.)

Source: Adapted from Michael R. Manning and Paula J. Schmidt, Journal of Management Education, “Building Effective Work Teams: A Quick Exercise Based on a Scavenger Hunt” (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), pp. 392–398. Used by permission. Reference for list of items for scavenger hunt from C. E. Larson and F. M. Lafas, Team Work: What Must Go Right/What Can Go Wrong (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1989).

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EXERCISE 21 Work Team Dynamics

Introduction Think about your course work team, a work team you are involved in for another course, or any other team suggested by the instructor. Indicate how often each of the following statements accurately re�lects your experience in the team. Use this scale:

1=Always2=Frequently3=Sometimes4=Never

_____ 1. My ideas get a fair hearing.

_____ 2. I am encouraged for innovative ideas and risk taking.

_____ 3. Diverse opinions within the team are encouraged.

_____ 4. I have all the responsibility I want.

_____ 5. There is a lot of favoritism shown in the team.

_____ 6. Members trust one another to do their assigned work.

_____ 7. The team sets high standards of performance excellence.

_____ 8. People share and change jobs a lot in the team.

_____ 9. You can make mistakes and learn from them on this team.

_____ 10. This team has good operating rules.

Instructions Form groups as assigned by your instructor. Ideally, this will be the team you have just rated. Have all team members share their ratings, and make one master rating for the team as a whole. Circle the items on which there are the biggest differences of opinion. Discuss those items and try to �ind out why they exist. In general, the better a team scores on this instrument, the higher its creative potential. If everyone has rated the same team, make a list of the �ive most important things members can do to improve its operations in the future. Nominate a spokesperson to summarize the team discussion for the class as a whole.

Source: Adapted from William Dyer, Team Building, 2nd ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987), pp. 123– 125.

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EXERCISE 22 Identifying Team Norms

Instructions Choose an organization you know quite a bit about.

Complete the following questionnaire, indicating your responses using one of the following:

If an employee in this organization were to ________, most other employees would:

1. show genuine concern for the problems that face the organization and make suggestions about solving them

____

2. set very high personal standards of performance ____

3. try to make the workgroup operate more like a team when dealing with issues or problems

____

4. think of going to a supervisor with a problem ____

5. evaluate expenditures in terms of the bene�its they will provide for the organization

____

6. express concern for the well-being of other members of the organization ____

7. keep a customer or client waiting while looking after matters of personal convenience

____

8. criticize a fellow employee who is trying to improve things in the work situation ____

9. actively look for ways to expand his or her knowledge to be able to do a better job

____

10. be perfectly honest in answering this questionnaire ____

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Scoring A=+2,B=+1,C=0,D=−1,E=−2

Organizational/Personal Pride Score ____

Performance/Excellence Score ____

Teamwork/Communication Score ____

Leadership/Supervision Score ____

Pro�itability/Cost-Effectiveness Score ____

Colleague/Associate Relations Score ____

Customer/Client Relations Score ____

Innovativeness/Creativity Score ____

Training/Development Score ____

Candor/Openness Score ____

EXERCISE 23 Work Team Culture Contributed by Conrad N. Jackson, MPC Inc.

Instructions The bipolar scales on this instrument can be used to evaluate a group’s process in a number of useful ways. Use it to measure where you see the group to be at present. To do this, circle the number that best represents how you see the culture of the group. You can also indicate how you think the group should function by using a different symbol, such as an asterisk (**), to indicate how you saw the group at some time in the past.

If you are assessing your own group, have everyone �ill in the instrument, summarize the scores, then discuss their bases (what members say and do that has led to these interpretations) and implications. This is often an extremely productive intervention to improve group or team functioning.

If you are assessing another group, use the scores as the basis for your feedback. Be sure to provide speci�ic feedback on behavior you have observed in addition to the subjective interpretations of your ratings on the scales in this instrument.

The instrument can also be used to compare a group’s self-assessment with the assessment provided by another group.

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Source: Adapted from Donald D. Bowen et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.)

EXERCISE 24 The Hot Seat Contributed by Barry R. Armandi, SUNY–Old Westbury

Instructions Form into groups as assigned by your instructor.

Read the following situation.

A number of years ago, Professor Stevens was asked to attend a departmental meeting at a university. He had been on leave from the department, but a junior faculty member discreetly requested that he attend to protect the rights of the junior faculty. The Chair, or head of the department, was a typical Machiavellian, whose only concerns were self-serving. Professor Stevens had had a number of previous disagreements with the Chair. The heart of the disagreements centered around the Chair’s abrupt and domineering style and his poor relations with the junior faculty, many of whom felt mistreated and scared.

The department was a conglomeration of different professorial types. Included in the mix were behavioralists, generalists, computer scientists, and quantitative analysts. The department was embedded in the school of business, which included three other departments. There was much confusion and concern among the faculty, since this was a new organizational design. Many of the faculty were at odds with each other over the direction the school was now taking.

At the meeting, a number of proposals were to be presented that would seriously affect the performance and future of certain junior faculty, particularly those who were behavioral scientists. The Chair, a computer scientist, disliked the behaviorists, who he felt were “always analyzing the motives of people.” Professor Stevens, who was a tenured full professor and a behaviorist, had an objective to protect the interests of the junior faculty and to counter the efforts of the Chair.

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Including Professor Stevens, there were nine faculty present. The following diagram shows the seating arrangement and the layout of the room. The ×s signify those faculty who were allies of the Chair. The +s are those opposed to the Chair and supportive of Professor Stevens, and the ?s were undecided and could be swayed either way. The circled numbers represent empty seats. Both ?s were behavioralists, and the + next to them was a quantitative analyst. Near the door, the �irst × was a generalist, the two +s were behavioralists, and the second × was a quantitative analyst. The diagram shows the seating of everyone but Professor Stevens, who was the last one to enter the room. Standing at the door, Professor Stevens surveyed the room and within 10 seconds knew which seat was the most effective to achieve his objective.

Answer the following questions in your group:

a. Which seat did Professor Stevens select and why?

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b. What is the likely pattern of communication and interaction in this group?

c. What can be done to get this group to work harmoniously?

EXERCISE 25 Interview a Leader Contributed by Bonnie McNeely, Murray State University

Instructions Make an appointment to interview a leader. It can be a leader working in a business or nonpro�it organization, such as a government agency, school, and so on. Base the interview on the form provided here, but feel free to add your own questions.

Bring the results of your interview to class. Form into groups as assigned by your instructor. Share the responses from your interview with your group and compare answers. What issues were similar? Different? Were the stress levels of leaders working in nonpro�it organizations as high as those working in for-pro�it �irms? Were you surprised at the number of hours per week worked by leaders?

Be prepared to summarize the interviews done by your group as a formal written report if asked to do so by the instructor.

Interview Questionnaire

Student’s Name ____ Date ____

Position in the organization (title):

Number of years in current position:

Number of years of managerial experience:

Number of people directly supervised:

Average number of hours worked a week:

How did you get into leadership?

What is the most rewarding part of being a leader?

What is the most dif�icult part of your job?

What would you say are the keys to success for leaders?

What advice do you have for an aspiring leader?

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What type of ethical issues have you faced as a leader?

If you were to enroll in a leadership seminar, what topics or issues would you want to learn more about?

(Student question)

Gender: M ____ F ____ Years of formal education _____

Level of job stress: Very high ____ High ____ Average ____ Low _____

Pro�it organization ____ Nonpro�it organization _____

Additional information/Comments:

Source: Adapted from Bonnie McNeely, “Make Your Principles of Management Class Come Alive,” Journal of Management Education, 18:2 (May 1994), pp. 246–249.

EXERCISE 26 Leadership Skills Inventories

Instructions Look over the following skills and ask your instructor to clarify those you do not understand.

Complete each category by checking either the “Strong” or “Needs Development” category in relation to your own level with each skill.

After completing each category, brie�ly describe a situation in which each of the listed skills has been utilized.

Meet in your groups to share and discuss inventories. Prepare a report summarizing major development needs in your group.

Instrument

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EXERCISE 27 Leadership and Participation in Decision Making

Instructions For the ten situations described here, decide which of the three styles you would use for that unique situation. Place the letter A, P, or L on the line before each situation’s number.

a. A—authority; make the decision alone without additional inputs.

b. P—consultative; make the decision based on group inputs.

c. L—group; allow the group to which you belong to make the decision.

Decision Situations

_____ i. You have developed a new work procedure that will increase productivity. Your boss likes the idea and wants you to try it within a few weeks. You view your employees as fairly capable and believe that they will be receptive to the change.

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_____ ii. The industry of your product has new competition. Your organization’s revenues have been dropping. You have been told to lay off three of your ten employees in two weeks. You have been the supervisor for over one year. Normally, your employees are very capable.

_____ iii. Your department has been facing a problem for several months. Many solutions have been tried and have failed. You �inally thought of a solution, but you are not sure of the possible consequences of the change required or its acceptance by the highly capable employees.

_____ iv. Flextime has become popular in your organization. Some departments let each employee start and end work whenever they choose. However, because of the cooperative effort of your employees, they must all work the same eight hours. You are not sure of the level of interest in changing the hours. Your employees are a very capable group and like to make decisions.

_____ v. The technology in your industry is changing faster than the members of your organization can keep up. Top management hired a consultant who has given the recommended decision. You have two weeks to make your decision. Your employees are capable, and they enjoy participating in the decision-making process.

_____ vi. Your boss called you on the telephone to tell you that someone has requested an order for your department’s product with a very short delivery date. She asked that you call her back in 15 minutes with the decision about taking the order. Looking over the work schedule, you realize that it will be very dif�icult to deliver the order on time. Your employees will have to push hard to make it. They are cooperative, capable, and enjoy being involved in decision making.

_____ vii. A change has been handed down from top management. How you implement it is your decision. The change takes effect in one month. It will personally affect everyone in your department. The acceptance of the department members is critical to the success of the change. Your employees are usually not too interested in being involved in making decisions.

_____ viii. You believe that productivity in your department could be increased. You have thought of some ways that may work, but you’re not sure of them. Your employees are very experienced; almost all of them have been in the department longer than you have.

_____ ix. Top management has decided to make a change that will affect all of your employees. You know that they will be upset because it will cause them hardship. One or two may even quit. The change goes into effect in thirty days. Your employees are very capable.

_____ x. A customer has offered you a contract for your product with a quick delivery date. The offer is open for two days. Meeting the contract deadline would require employees to work nights and weekends for six weeks. You cannot require them to work overtime. Filling this pro�itable contract could help get you the raise you want and feel you deserve. However, if you take the contract and don’t deliver on time, it will hurt your chances of getting a big raise. Your employees are very capable.

Form groups as assigned by your instructor. Share and compare your choices for each decision situation. Reconcile any differences and be prepared to defend your decision preferences in general class discussion.

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EXERCISE 28 My Best Manager: Revisited Contributed by J. Marcus Maier, Chapman University

Instructions Refer to the list of qualities—or pro�iles—the class generated earlier in the course for the “Best Manager.”

Looking �irst at your Typical Managers pro�ile, suppose you took this list to 100 average people on the street (or at the local mall) and asked them whether ____ (Trait X, Quality Y) was “more typical of men or of women in our culture.” What do you think most of them would say? That ____ (X, Y etc.) is more typical of women? or of men? or of neither/both?1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b05#b5fnr1) Do this for every trait on your list(s). (5 min.)

Now do the same for the qualities we generated in our Best Manager pro�ile. (5 min.)

A straw vote is taken, one quality at a time, to determine the class’s overall gender identi�ication of each trait, focusing on the Typical Managers pro�ile (10–15 min.). Then this is repeated for the Best Manager pro�ile (10–15 min.).2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b05#b5fnr2)

Discussion. What do you see in the data this group has generated? How might you interpret these results? (15–20 min.)

Source: Based on J. Marcus Maier, “The Gender Prism,” Journal of Management Education 17(3), pp. 285–314. 1994 Fritz Roethlisberger Award Recipient for Best Paper (Updated, 1996).

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b05#b5fn1) This gets the participants to move outside of their own conceptions to their awareness of societal de�initions of masculinity and femininity. 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/b05#b5fn2) This is done by a rapid show of hands, looking for a clear majority vote. An “f” (for “feminine”) is placed next to those qualities that a clear majority indicate are more typical of women, and an “m” (for “masculine”) is placed next to those qualities a clear majority indicate would be more typical of men. (This procedure parallels the median-split method used in determining Bem Sex Role Inventory classi�ications.) If no clear majority emerges (i.e., if the vote is close), the trait or quality is classi�ied as “both” (f/m). The designations “masculine” or “feminine” are used (rather than “men” or “women”) to underscore the socially constructed nature of each dimension.

EXERCISE 29 Active Listening

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Contributed by Robert Ledman, Morehouse College

Instructions Review active listening skills and behaviors as described in the textbook and in class.

Form into groups of three. Each group will have a listener, a talker, and an observer (if the number of students is not evenly divisible by three, two observers are used for one or two groups).

The “talkers” should talk about any subject they wish, but only if they are being actively listened to. Talkers should stop speaking as soon as they sense active listening has stopped.

The “listeners” should use a list of active listening skills and behaviors as their guide, and practice as many of them as possible to be sure the talker is kept talking. Listeners should contribute nothing more than “active listening” to the communication.

The “observer” should note the behaviors and skills used by the listener and the effects they seemed to have on the communication process.

These roles are rotated until each student has played every role.

The instructor will lead a discussion of what the observers saw and what happened with the talkers and listeners. The discussion focuses on what behaviors from the posted list have been present, which have been absent, and how the communication has been affected by the listener’s actions.

Source: Adapted from the presentation entitled “An Experiential Exercise to Teach Active Listening,” presented at the Organizational Behavior Teaching Conference, Macomb, IL, 1995.

EXERCISE 30 Upward Appraisal

Instructions Form workgroups as assigned by your instructor.

The instructor will leave the room.

Convene in your assigned workgroups for a period of 10 minutes. Create a list of comments, problems, issues, and concerns you would like to have communicated to the instructor in regard to the course experience to date. Remember, your interest in the exercise is twofold: (a) to communicate your feelings to the instructor and (b) to learn more about the process of giving and receiving feedback.

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Select one person from the group to act as spokesperson in communicating the group’s feelings to the instructor.

The spokespersons should brie�ly convene to decide on what physical arrangement of chairs, tables, and so forth is most appropriate to conduct the feedback session. The classroom should then be rearranged to �it the desired speci�ications.

While the spokespersons convene, persons in the remaining groups should discuss how they expect the forthcoming communications event to develop. Will it be a good experience for all parties concerned? Be prepared to critically observe the actual communication process.

The instructor should be invited to return, and the feedback session will begin. Observers should make notes so that they may make constructive comments at the conclusion of the exercise.

Once the feedback session is complete, the instructor will call on the observers for comments, ask the spokespersons for reactions, and open the session to discussion.

EXERCISE 31 360° Feedback Contributed by Timothy J. Serey, Northern Kentucky University

Introduction The time of performance reviews is often a time of genuine anxiety for many organizational members. On the one hand, it is an important organizational ritual and a key part of the human resources function. Organizations usually codify the process and provide a mechanism to appraise performance. On the other hand, it is rare for managers to feel comfortable with this process. Often, they feel discomfort over “playing God.” One possible reason for this is that managers rarely receive formal training about how to provide feedback. From the manager’s point of view, if done properly, giving feedback is at the very heart of his or her job as “coach” and “teacher.” It is an investment in the professional development of another person, rather than the punitive element we so often associate with hearing from “the boss.” From the subordinate’s perspective, most people want to know where they stand, but this is usually tempered by a fear of “getting it in the neck.” In many organizations, it is rare to receive straight, non-sugar-coated feedback about where you stand.

Instructions Review the section of the book dealing with feedback before you come to class. It is also helpful if individuals make notes about their perceptions and feelings about the course before they come to class.

Groups of students should discuss their experiences, both positive and negative, in this class. Each group should determine the dimensions of evaluating the class itself and the instructor. For example, students might select criteria that include the practicality of the course, the way

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the material is structured and presented (e.g., lecture or exercises), and the instructor’s style (e.g., enthusiasm, fairness).

Groups select a member to represent them in a subgroup that next provides feedback to the instructor before the entire class.

The student audience then provides the subgroup with feedback about their effectiveness in this exercise. That is, the larger class provides feedback to the subgroup about the extent to which students actually put the principles of effective feedback into practice (e.g., descriptive, not evaluative; speci�ic, not general).

Source: Adapted from Timothy J. Serey, Journal of Management Education 17:2 (May 1993). © 1993 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications.

EXERCISE 32 Role Analysis Negotiation Contributed by Paul Lyons, Frostburg State University

Introduction A role is the set of various behaviors people expect from a person (or group) in a particular position. These role expectations occur in all types of organizations, such as one’s place of work, school, family, clubs, and the like. Role ambiguity takes place when a person is confused about the expectations of the role. And sometimes, a role will have expectations that are contradictory—for example, being loyal to the company when the company is breaking the law.

The Role Analysis Technique, or RAT, is a method for improving the effectiveness of a team or group. RAT helps to clarify role expectations, and all organization members have responsibilities that translate to expectations. Determination of role requirements, by consensus—involving all concerned—will ultimately result in more effective and mutually satisfactory behavior. Participation and collaboration in the de�inition and analysis of roles by group members should result in clari�ication regarding who is to do what as well as increase the level of commitment to the decisions made.

Instructions Working alone, carefully read the course syllabus that your instructor has given you. Make a note of any questions you have about anything for which you need clari�ication or understanding. Pay particular attention to the performance requirements of the course. Make a list of any questions you have regarding what, speci�ically, is expected of you in order for you to be successful in the course. You will be sharing this information with others in small groups.

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Source: Adapted from Paul Lyons, “Developing Expectations with the Role Analysis Technique,” Journal of Management Education 17:3 (August 1993), pp. 386–389. © Sage Publications.

EXERCISE 33 Lost at Sea

Introduction Consider this situation. You are adrift on a private yacht in the South Paci�ic when a �ire of unknown origin destroys the yacht and most of its contents. You and a small group of survivors are now in a large raft with oars. Your location is unclear, but you estimate being about 1,000 miles south–southwest of the nearest land. One person has just found in her pockets �ive $1 bills and a packet of matches. Everyone else’s pockets are empty. The following items are available to you on the raft.

A B C

Sextant ____ ____

Shaving mirror ____ ____

5 gallons of water ____ ____

Mosquito netting ____ ____

1 survival meal ____ ____

Maps of Paci�ic Ocean ____ ____

Floatable seat cushion ____ ____

2 gallons oil–gas mix ____ ____

Small transistor radio ____ ____

Shark repellent ____ ____

20 square feet black plastic ____ ____

1 quart of 20-proof rum ____ ____

15 feet of nylon rope ____ ____

24 chocolate bars ____ ____

Fishing kit ____ ____

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Instructions Working alone, rank in Column A the 15 items in order of their importance to your survival (“1” is most important, and “15” is least important).

Working in an assigned group, arrive at a “team” ranking of the 15 items and record this ranking in Column B. Appoint one person as group spokesperson to report your group rankings to the class.

Do not write in Column C until further instructions are provided by your instructor.

Source: Adapted from “Lost at Sea: A Consensus-Seeking Task,” in J. William Pfeiffer and John E. Jones (eds.), The 1975 Handbook for Group Facilitators. Used with permission of University Associates, Inc., La Jolla, CA.

EXERCISE 34 Entering the Unknown Contributed by Michael R. Manning, New Mexico State University; Conrad N. Jackson, MPC Inc., Huntsville, Alabama; and Paula S. Weber, New Mexico Highlands University

Instructions Form into groups of four or �ive members. In each group spend a few minutes re�lecting on members’ typical entry behaviors in new situations and their behaviors when they are in comfortable settings.

According to the instructor’s directions, students count off to form new groups of four or �ive members each.

The new groups spend the next 15 to 20 minutes getting to know each other. There is no right or wrong way to proceed, but all members should become more aware of their entry behaviors. They should act in ways that can help them realize a goal of achieving comfortable behaviors with their group.

Students review what has occurred in the new groups, giving speci�ic attention to the following questions:

a. What topics did your group discuss (content)? Did these topics involve the “here and now” or were they focused on “there and then”?

b. What approach did you and your group members take to the task (process)? Did you try to initiate or follow? How? Did you ask questions? Listen? Respond to others? Did you bring up topics?

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c. Were you more concerned with how you came across or with how others came across to you? Did you play it safe? Were you open? Did you share things even though it seemed uncomfortable or risky? How was humor used in your group? Did it add or detract?

d. How do you feel about the approach you took or the behaviors you exhibited? Was this hard or easy? Did others respond the way you had anticipated? Is there some behavior you would like to do more of, do better, or do less of?

e. Were your behaviors the ones you had intended (goals)?

Responses to these questions are next discussed by the class as a whole. (Note: Responses will tend to be mixed within a group, but between groups there should be more similarity.) This discussion helps individuals become aware of and understand their entry behaviors.

Optional individuals have identi�ied their entry behaviors; each group can then spend 5 to 10 minutes discussing members’ perceptions of each other:

a. What behaviors did they like or �ind particularly useful? What did they dislike?

b. What were your reactions to others? What ways did they intend to come across? Did you see others in the way they had intended to come across?

(Alternatively, if there is concern about the personal nature of this discussion, ask the groups to discuss what they liked/didn’t like without referring to speci�ic individuals.)

EXERCISE 35 Vacation Puzzle Contributed by Barbara G. McCain and Mary Khalili, Oklahoma City University

Instructions Can you solve this puzzle? Give it a try and then compare your answers with those of classmates. Remember your communicative skills!

Puzzle

Khalili, McCain, Middleton, Porter, and Quintaro teach at Oklahoma City University. Each gets two weeks of vacation a year. Last year, each took his or her �irst week in the �irst �ive months of the year and his or her second week in the last �ive months. If each professor took each of his or her weeks in a different month from the other professors, in which months did each professor take his or her �irst and second week?

Here are the facts:

McCain took her �irst week before Khalili, who took hers before Porter; for their second week, the order was reversed.

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The professor who vacationed in March also vacationed in September.

Quintaro did not take her �irst week in March or April.

Neither Quintaro nor the professor who took his or her �irst week in January took his or her second week in August or December.

Middleton took her second week before McCain but after Quintaro.

Source: Adapted to classroom activity by Dr. Mary Khalili.

EXERCISE 36 The Ugli Orange

Introduction In most work settings, people need other people to do their job, bene�it the organization, and forward their career. Getting things done in organizations requires us to work together in cooperation, even though the ultimate objectives of those other people may be different from our own. Your task in the present exercise is learning how to achieve this cooperation more effectively.

Instructions

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The class will be divided into pairs. One student in each pair will read and prepare the role of Dr. Roland, and one will play the role of Dr. Jones (role descriptions to be distributed by instructor).

Students should read their respective role descriptions and prepare to meet with their counterpart (see steps 2 and 3).

At this point the group leader will read a statement. The instructor will indicate that he or she is playing the role of Mr. Cardoza, who owns the commodity in question. The instructor will tell you:

a. How long you have to meet with the other

b. What information the instructor will require at the end of your meeting

After the instructor has given you this information, you may meet with the other �irm’s representative and determine whether you have issues you can agree to.

Following the meetings (negotiations), the spokesperson for each pair will report any agreements reached to the entire class. The observer for any pair will report on negotiation dynamics and the process by which agreement was reached.

Questions to consider:

a. Did you reach a solution? If so, what was critical to reaching that agreement?

b. Did you and the other negotiator trust one another? Why or why not?

c. Was there full disclosure by both sides in each group? How much information was shared?

d. How creative and/or complex were the solutions? If solutions were very complex, why do you think this occurred?

e. What was the impact of having an “audience” on your behavior? Did it make the problem harder or easier to solve?

Source: Adapted from Douglas T. Hall et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1988). Originally developed by Robert J. House. Adapted by D. T. Hall and R. J. Lewicki, with suggested modi�ications by H. Kolodny and T. Ruble.

EXERCISE 37 Con�lict Dialogues Contributed by Edward G. Wertheim, Northeastern University

Instructions

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Think of a con�lict situation at work or at school and try to re-create a segment of the dialogue that gets to the heart of the con�lict.

Write notes on the con�lict dialogue using the following format.

Introduction Background

My goals and objectives

My strategy

Assumptions I am making

Dialogue (re-create part of the following dialogue and try to put what you were really thinking in parentheses).

Me:

Other:

Me:

Other,

etc.

Share your situation with members of your group. Read the dialogue to them, perhaps asking someone to play the role of “other.”

Discuss with the group:

a. The style of con�lict resolution you used (confrontation, collaboration, avoidance, etc.)

b. The triggers to the con�lict, that is, what really set you off and why

c. Whether or not you were effective

d. Possible ways of handling this differently

Choose one dialogue from within the group to share with the class. Be prepared to discuss your analysis and also possible alternative approaches and resolutions for the situation described.

EXERCISE 38 Force-Field Analysis

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Instructions Choose a situation in which you have high personal stakes (for example, how to get a better grade in course X; how to get a promotion; how to obtain a position).

Using a version of the Sample Force-Field Analysis Form provided, apply the technique to your situation.

a. Describe the situation as it now exists.

b. Describe the situation as you would like it to be.

c. Identify those “driving forces”—the factors that are presently helping to move things in the desired direction.

d. Identify those “restraining forces”—the factors that are presently holding things back from moving in the desired direction.

Try to be as speci�ic as possible in yours answers in relation to your situation. You should attempt to be exhaustive in your listing of these forces. List them all!

Now go back and classify the strength of each force as weak, medium, or strong. Do this for both the driving and the restraining forces.

At this point you should rank the forces regarding their ability to in�luence or control the situation.

In small groups, share your analyses. Discuss the usefulness and drawbacks to using this method for personal situations and its application to organizations.

Be prepared to share the results of your group’s discussion with the rest of the class.

Sample Force-Field Analysis Form

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EXERCISE 39 Organizations Alive! Contributed by Bonnie L. McNeely, Murray State University

Instructions Find a copy of the following items from actual organizations. These items can be obtained from the company where you now work, a parent’s workplace, or the university. Universities have mission statements, codes of conduct for students and faculty, organizational charts, job descriptions, performance appraisal forms, and control devices. Some student organizations also have these documents. All the items do not have to come from the same organization. Bring these items to class.

a. Mission statement

b. Code of ethics

c. Organizational chart

d. Job description

e. Performance appraisal form

f. Control device

Form groups in class as assigned by your instructor. Share your items with the group, as well as what you learned while collecting these items. For example, did you �ind that some �irms have a mission, but it is not written down? Did you �ind that job descriptions existed, but they were not really used or had not been updated in years?

Source: Adapted from Bonnie L. McNeely, “Make Your Principles of Management Class Come Alive,” Journal of Management Education, 18:2 (May 1994), pp. 246–249.

EXERCISE 40 Fast-Food Technology Contributed by D. T. Hall, Boston University, and F. S. Hall, University of New Hampshire

Introduction A critical �irst step in improving or changing any organization is diagnosing or analyzing its present functioning. Many change and organization development efforts fall short of their objectives because this important step was not taken or was conducted super�icially. To illustrate this, imagine how you would

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feel if you went to your doctor complaining of stomach pains and he recommended surgery without conducting any tests, without obtaining any further information, and without a careful physical examination. You would probably switch doctors! Yet managers often attempt major changes with correspondingly little diagnostic work in advance. (It could be said that they undertake vast projects with half-vast ideas.)

In this exercise, you will be asked to conduct a group diagnosis of two different organizations in the fast- food business. The exercise will provide an opportunity to integrate much of the knowledge you have gained in other exercises and in studying other topics. Your task will be to describe the organizations as carefully as you can in terms of several key organizational concepts. Although the organizations are probably very familiar to you, try to step back and look at them as though you were seeing them for the �irst time.

Instructions In groups of four or six people, your assignment is described here.

One experience most people in this country have shared is that of dining in the hamburger establishment known as McDonald’s. In fact, someone has claimed that twenty-�ifth-century archeologists may dig into the ruins of our present civilization and conclude that twentieth-century religion was devoted to the worship of golden arches.

Your group, Fastalk Consultants, is known as the shrewdest, most insightful, and most overpaid management consulting �irm in the country. You have been hired by the president of McDonald’s to make recommendations for improving the motivation and performance of personnel in its franchise operations. Let us assume that the key job activities in franchise operations are food preparation, order taking and dealing with customers, and routine cleanup operations.

Recently the president of McDonald’s has come to suspect that his company’s competitors—such as Burger King, Wendy’s, Jack-in-the-Box, Dunkin’ Donuts, various pizza establishments, and others—are making heavy inroads into McDonald’s market share. He has also hired a market research �irm to investigate and compare the relative merits of the sandwiches, french fries, and drinks served in McDonald’s and the competitors, and has asked the market research �irm to assess the advertising campaigns of the two organizations. Hence, you will not need to be concerned with marketing issues, except as they may have an impact on employee behavior. The president wants you to look into the organization of the franchises to determine the strengths and weaknesses of each. Select a competitor that gives McDonald’s a good “run for its money” in your area.

The president has established an unusual contract with you. He wants you to make your recommendations based upon your observations as a customer. He does not want you to do a complete diagnosis with interviews, surveys, or behind-the-scenes observations. He wants your report in two parts. Remember, the president wants concrete, speci�ic, and practical recommendations. Avoid vague generalizations such as “improve communications” or “increase trust.” Say very clearly how management can improve organizational performance. Substantiate your recommendations by reference to one or more theories of motivation, leadership, small groups, or job design.

Part I

Given his organization’s goals of pro�itability, sales volume, fast and courteous service, and cleanliness, the president of McDonald’s wants an analysis that will compare and contrast McDonald’s and the competitor in terms of the following concepts:

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Organizational goals

Organizational structure

Technology

Environment

Employee motivation

Communication

Leadership style

Policies/procedures/rules/standards

Job design

Organizational climate

Part II

Given the corporate goals listed under Part I, what speci�ic actions might McDonald’s management and franchise owners take in the following areas to achieve these goals (pro�itability, sales volume, fast and courteous service, and cleanliness)?

Job design and work�low

Organizational structure (at the individual restaurant level)

Employee incentives

Leadership

Employee selection

How do McDonald’s and the competition differ in these aspects? Which company has the best approach?

Complete the assignment by going as a group to one McDonald’s and one competitor’s restaurant. If possible, have a meal in each place. To get a more valid comparison, visit a McDonald’s and a competitor located in the same area. After observing each restaurant, meet with your group and prepare your 10-minute report to the executive committee.

In class, each group will present its report to the rest of the class, who will act as the executive committee. The group leader will appoint a timekeeper to be sure that each group sticks to its 10-minute time limit. Possible discussion questions include:

a. What similarities are there between the two organizations?

b. What differences are there between the organizations?

c. Do you have any “hunches” about the reasons for the particular organizational characteristics you found? For example, can you try to explain why one organization might have a particular type of structure? Incentive system? Climate?

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d. Can you try to explain one set of characteristics in terms of some other characteristics you found? For example, do the goals account for structure? Does the environment explain the structure?

EXERCISE 41 Alien Invasion

Instructions This is an exercise in organizational culture. You will be assigned to a team (if you are not already in one) and instructed to visit an organization by your instructor.

Visit the assigned site as a team working under conditions set forth in the “situation” below.

Take detailed notes on the cultural forms that you observe.

Prepare a presentation for the class that describes these forms and draw any inferences you can about the nature of the culture of the organization—its ideologies, values, and norms of behavior.

Be sure to explain the basis of your inferences in terms of the cultural forms observed.

You will have 20 minutes to report your �indings, so plan your presentation carefully. Use visual aids to help your audience understand what you have found.

Situation

You are Martians who have just arrived on Earth in the �irst spaceship from your planet. Your superiors have ordered you to learn as much about Earthlings and the way they behave as you can without doing anything to make them aware that you are Martians. It is vital for the future plans of your superiors that you do nothing to disturb the Earthlings. Unfortunately, Martians communicate by emitting electromagnetic waves and are incapable of speech, so you cannot talk to the natives. Even if you did, it is reported by the usually reliable Bureau of Interplanetary Intelligence that Earthlings may become cannibalistic if annoyed. However, the crash course in Earth languages taught by the bureau has enabled you to read the language.

Remember, these instructions limit your data collection to observation and request that you not talk to the “natives.” There are two reasons for this instruction. First, your objective is to learn what the organization does when it is simply going about its normal business and not responding to a group of students asking questions. Second, you are likely to be surprised at how much you can learn by simply observing if you put your mind to it. Many skilled managers employ this ability in sensing what is going on as they walk through their plant or of�ice area.

Since you cannot talk to people, some of the cultural forms (legends, sagas, etc.) will be dif�icult to spot unless you are able to pick up copies of the organization’s promotional literature (brochures, company reports, advertisements) during your visit. Do not be discouraged, because the visible forms such as artifacts, setting, symbols, and (sometimes) rituals can convey a great deal about the culture. Just keep your eyes, ears, and antennae open!

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Source: Adapted from Donald D. Bowen et al., Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997).

EXERCISE 42 Power Circles Contributed by Marian C. Schultz, University of West Florida

Introduction This exercise is designed to examine power and in�luence in the classroom setting. Speci�ically, it allows you to identify the combination of power bases used by your instructor in accomplishing his or her objectives for the course.

Instructions Recall that the instructor’s power includes the following major bases: (a) the authority that comes from the instructor’s position (position power), (b) the knowledge, skill, and expertise of the instructor in the subject area (expert power), and (c) the regard in which you personally hold the instructor (referent power).

Indicate the con�iguration of power that is most evident in the way the instructor behaves in the course overall and according to the following “power circle.” This circle can be �illed in to represent the relative emphasis on the three power bases (e.g., 60 percent position, 30 percent expert, and 10 percent referent). Use the key to the right of the circle as a guide and draw/�ill in the circle to show the pro�ile of instructor’s power. The instructor will also complete a self- perceived power circle pro�ile.

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Consider also some possible special situations in which the instructor would have to use his or her power in the classroom context. Draw one power circle for each of the following situations, showing for each the power pro�ile most likely to be used by the instructor to accomplish his or her goal. (The instructor will also complete a self-perceived power circle pro�ile for each situation.)

a. Instructor wants to change the format of the �inal examination.

b. Instructor wants to add an additional group assignment to course requirements.

c. Instructor wants to have students attend a special two-hour guest lecture on a Saturday morning.

d. Instructor wants students to come to class better prepared for discussions of assigned material.

Share your power circles with members of your assigned group who will also share theirs. As a group, discuss the pro�iles and the reasons behind them. Appoint one group member as spokesperson to share results in general class discussion. Discuss with the group the best way to communicate this feedback effectively to the instructor in the presence of all class members, and help prepare the spokesperson for the feedback session.

Have the instructor share his or her power pro�iles with the class. Ask the instructor to comment on any differences between the self-perceptions and the views of the class. Comment as a class on the potential signi�icance to leaders and managers of differences in the way they perceive themselves and the ways they are perceived by others.

Discuss with the instructor and class how people may tend to favor one or more of the power bases (i.e., to develop a somewhat predictable power circle pro�ile). Discuss as well how effective leaders and managers need to use power contingently, and modify their use of different power bases and power circle pro�iles to best �it the needs of speci�ic in�luence situations.

Class Activity Selections from The Pfeiffer Training Annuals

A. SWEET TOOTH: BONDING STRANGERS INTO A TEAMs Procedure:

The general idea is just to relax, have fun, and get to know one another while completing a task. Form groups of �ive. All groups in the room will be competing to see which one can �irst complete the following items with the name of a candy bar or sweet treat. The team that completes the most items correctly �irst will win a prize.

Pee Wee . . . baseball player

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Dried up cows

Kids’ game minus toes

Not bad and more than some

Explosion in the sky

Polka . . .

Rhymes with Bert’s, dirts, hurts

Happy place to drink

Drowning prevention device

Belongs to a mechanic from Mayberry’s cousin

They’re not “lesses”; they’re . . .

Two names for a purring pet

Takes 114 licks to get to the center of these

Sounds like asteroids

A military weapon

A young �lavoring

Top of mountains in winter

To catch �ish you need to . . .

Sounds like riddles and �iddles

Questions for discussion:

What lessons about effective teamwork can be learned from this activity?

What caused each subgroup to be successful?

What might be learned about effective teamwork from what happened during this activity?

What might be done next time to increase the chances of success?

Variation

Have the individual subgroups create their own lists of clues for the names of candies/candy bars/sweets. Collect the lists and make a grand list using one or two from each group’s contribution. Then hold a competition among the total group.

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Source: Robert Allan Black, The 2002 Annual Volume 1, Training/© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

B. INTERROGATORIES: IDENTIFYING ISSUES AND NEEDS Procedure:

This activity is an opportunity to discover what issues and questions people have brought to the class. The instructor will select from the topic list below. Once a topic is raised, participants should ask any questions they have related to that topic. No one is to answer a question at this time. The goal is to come up with as many questions as possible in the time allowed. Feel free to build on a question already asked, or to share a completely different question.

Interrogatories Starter Topic List

Class requirements

Social activities

Performance appraisal

Mission

Coaching

Success

Communication

Task uncertainty

Priorities

Instant messaging

Time

Quality

Leadership

Values

Service

Meetings

Personality

Customers

Teamwork

Project priorities

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Job demands

Training

Rules

Management

Work styles

Questions for discussion:

How did you feel about this process?

What common themes did you hear?

What questions would you most like to have answered?

Source: Cher Holton, The 2002 Annual: Volume 1, Training/© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

C. DECODE: WORKING WITH DIFFERENT INSTRUCTIONS Procedure:

You are probably familiar with codes and cryptograms from your childhood days. In a cryptogram, each letter in the message is replaced by another letter of the alphabet. For example, LET THE GAMES BEGIN! may become this cryptogram:

YZF FOZ JUKZH CZJVQ!

In the cryptogram Y replaces L, Z replaces E, F replaces T, and so on. Notice that the same letter substitutions are used throughout this cryptogram: Every E in the sentence is replaced by a Z, and every T is replaced by an F.

Here’s some information to help you solve cryptograms:

Letter Frequency

The most commonly used letters of the English language are e, t, a, i, o, n, s, h, and r.

The letters that are most commonly found at the beginning of words are t, a, o, d, and w.

The letters that are most commonly found at the end of words are e, s, d, and t.

Word Frequency

One-letter words are either a or I.

The most common two-letter words are to, of, in, it, is, as, at, be, we, he, so, on, an, or, do, if, up, by, and my.

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The most common three-letter words are the, and, are, for, not, but, had, has, was, all, any, one, man, out, you, his, her, and can.

The most common four-letter words are that, with, have, this, will, your, from, they, want, been, good, much, some, and very.

The goal of the activity is to learn to work together more effectively in teams. Form into groups of four to seven members each. Have members brie�ly share their knowledge of solving cryptogram puzzles.

In this exercise all groups will be asked to solve the same cryptogram. If a team correctly and completely solves the cryptogram within two minutes, it will earn two hundred points. If it takes more than two minutes but fewer than three minutes, the team will earn �ifty points.

Before working on the cryptogram, each participant will receive an Instruction Sheet with on how to solve cryptograms. Participants can study this sheet for two minutes only. They may not mark up the Instruction Sheet but they may take notes on an index card or a blank piece of paper. The Instruction Sheets will be taken back after two minutes.

At any time a group can send one of its members to ask for help from the instructor. The instruc-tor will decode any one of the words in the cryptogram selected by the group member.

After the points are tallied, the instructor will lead class discussion.

DECODE CRYPTOGRAM

ISV’B JZZXYH BPJB BPH SVQE

________________________

UJE BS UCV CZ BS FSYTHBH

________________________

ZSYHBCYHZ BPH AHZB UJE BS

________________________

UCV CZ BS FSSTHWJBH UCBP

________________________

SBPHWZ—Z. BPCJMJWJOJV

________________________

Source: Sivasailam “Thiagi” Thiagarajan, The 2003 Annual: Volume 1, Training/© 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

D. CHOICES: LEARNING EFFECTIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

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Procedure: Form teams of three.

Assume you are a group of top managers who are responsible for an organization of seven departments. Working as a team, choose an appropriate strategy to intervene in the situations below when the con�lict must be managed in some way. Your choices are withdrawal, suppression, integration, compromise, and authority. Refer to the list below for some characteristics of each strategy. Write your team’s choice following each situation number. Engage in discussion led by the instructor.

CHOICES: STRATEGIES AND CONTINGENCIES

Withdrawal Strategy

Use When (Advantages)

Be Aware (Disadvantages)

Choosing sides is to be avoided

Legitimate action ceases

Critical information is missing

Direct information stops

The issue is outside the group

Failure can be perceived

Others are competent and delegation is appropriate

Cannot be used in a crisis

You are powerless

Suppression (and Diffusion) Strategy

Use When (Advantages)

Be Aware (Disadvantages)

A cooling down period is needed

The issue may intensify

The issue is unimportant

You may appear weak and ineffective

A relationship is important

Integration Strategy

Use When (Advantages)

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Be Aware (Disadvantages)

Group problem solving is needed

Group goals must be put �irst

New alternatives are helpful

More time is required for dialogue

Group commitment is required

It doesn’t work with rigid, dull people

Promoting openness and trust

Compromise Strategy

Use When (Advantages)

Be Aware (Disadvantages)

Power is equal

Action (a third choice) can be weakened

Resources are limited

In�lation is encouraged

A win-win settlement is desired

A third party may be needed for negotiation

Authority Strategy

Use When (Advantages)

Be Aware (Disadvantages)

A deadlock persists

Emotions intensify quickly

Others are incompetent

Dependency is promoted

Time is limited (crisis)

Winners and losers are created

An unpopular decision must be made

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Survival of the organization is critical

Situation #1

Two employees of the support staff have requested the same two-week vacation period. They are the only two trained to carry out an essential task using a complex computer software program that cannot be mastered quickly. You have encouraged others to learn this process so there is more backup for the position, but heavy workloads have prevented this from occurring.

Situation #2

A sales manager has requested a raise because there are now two salespeople on commission earning higher salaries. The work perfor-mance of this individual currently does not merit a raise of the amount requested, mostly due to the person turning in critical reports late and missing a number of days of work. The person’s sales group is one of the highest rated in the organization, but this may be the result of having superior individuals assigned to the team, rather than to the effectiveness of the manager.

Situation #3

It has become obvious that the copy machine located in a customer service area is being used for a variety of personal purposes, including reproducing obscene jokes. A few copies have sometimes been found lying on or near the machine at the close of the business day. You have mentioned the matter brie�ly in the organization’s employee newsletter, but recently you have noticed an increase in the activity. Most of the of�ice staff seems to be involved.

Situation #4

Three complaints have �iltered upward to you from long-term employees concerning a newly hired individual. This person has a pierced nose and a visible tattoo. The work performance of the individual is ade-quate and the person does not have to see customers; however, the employees who have complained allege that the professional appearance of the of�ice area has been compromised.

Situation #5

The organization has a �lex-time schedule format that requires all employees to work the core hours of 10 A.M. to 3 P.M., Monday through Friday. Two department managers have complained that another department does not always maintain that policy. The manager of the department in question has responded by citing recent layoffs and additional work responsibilities as reasons for making exceptions to policy.

Situation #6

As a result of a recent downsizing, an of�ice in a coveted location is now available. Three individuals have made a request to the department manager for the of�ice. The manager has recommended that the of�ice be given to one of the three. This individual has the highest performance rating, but was aided in obtaining employment with the company by the department manager, who is a good friend of the person’s family. Colleagues prefer not to work with this individual, as there is seldom any evidence of teamwork.

Situation #7

Two department managers have requested a budget increase in the areas of travel and computer equipment. Each asks that your group support this request. The CEO, not your group, will make the �inal

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decision. You are aware that increasing funds for one department will result in a decrease for others, as the total budget �igures for all of these categories are set.

Situation #8

Few of the management staff attended the Fourth of July picnic held at a department manager’s country home last year. This particular man-ager, who has been a loyal team player for the past twenty-one years, has indicated that he/she plans to host the event again this year. Many of you have personally found the event to be boring, with little to do but talk and eat. Already a few of the other managers have suggested that the event be held at a different location with a new format or else be cancelled.

Situation #9

It has come to your attention that a manager and a subordinate in the same department are having a romantic affair openly in the building. Both are married to other people. They have been taking extended lunch periods, yet both remain beyond quitting time to complete their work. Colleagues have begun to complain that neither is readily available mid-day and that they do not return messages in a timely manner.

Situation #10

Two loyal department managers are concerned that a newly hired manager who is wheelchair-bound has been given too much in the way of accommodations beyond what is required by the Americans with Disabilities Act. They have requested similar changes to make their own work lives easier. Speci�ically, they cite of�ice size and location on the building’s main �loor as points of contention.

Source: Chuck Kormanski, Sr., and Chuck Kormanski, Jr., The 2003 Annual: Volume 1, Training/© 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

E. INTERNAL/EXTERNAL MOTIVATORS: ENCOURAGING CREATIVITY Procedure:

This interactive, experience-based activity is designed to increase participants’ awareness of creativity and creative processes. Begin by thinking of a job that you now hold or have held. Then complete Questions 1 and 2 from the Internal/External Motivators Questionnaire (see below).

Form into groups. Share your questionnaire results and make a list of responses to Question 1.

Discuss and compare rankings of major work activities listed for Question 2. Make a list with at least two responses from each participant.

Individually record your answers to Questions 3 and 4 below. Then share your answers and again list member responses within your group.

Individually, compare your responses to Questions 1 and 2 with your responses to Questions 3 and 4. Then answer Question 5. Again, share with the group and make a group list of answers to

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Question 5 for the recorder, who is to record these answers on the �lip chart. (10 minutes.)

Questions for discussion:

What was the most important part of this activity for you?

What have you learned about motivation?

What impact will having done this activity have for you back in the workplace?

How will what you have learned change your leadership style or future participation in a group?

What will you do differently based on what you have learned?

INTRINSIC/EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS QUESTIONNAIRE

How could you do your job in a more creative manner? List some ways in the space below:

List four or �ive major work activities or jobs you perform on a regular basis in the left-hand boxes on the following chart. Use a seven-point scale that ranges from 1 (low) to 7 (high) to rate each work activity on three separate dimensions: (a) level of dif�iculty, (b) potential to motivate you, and (c) opportunity to add value to the organization.

Major Work Activity

Level of Dif�iculty

Potential to Motivate

Opportunity to Add Value

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

List �ive motivators or types of rewards that would encourage you to do your job in a more creative manner.

List three motivators or types of rewards from Question 3 above that you believe would de�initely increase your creativity. Indicate whether these motivators are realistic or unrealistic in terms of your job or work setting. Indicate whether each is intrinsic or extrinsic.

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Motivators Realistic/Unrealistic Intrinsic Extrinsic

1.

2.

3.

List three types of work activities you like to perform and the motivators or rewards that would stimulate and reinforce your creativity.

Work Activity Rewards That Reinforce Creativity

1.

2.

3.

Source: Elizabeth A. Smith, The 2003 Annual: Volume 1, Training/© 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

F. QUICK HITTER: FOSTERING THE CREATIVE SPIRIT Part A Procedure:

Write the Roman numeral nine (IX) on a sheet of paper.

Add one line to make six. After you have one response, try for others.

Questions for discussion:

What does solving this puzzle show us about seeing things differently?

Why don’t some people consider alternatives easily?

What skills or behaviors would be useful for us to develop our ability to see different points of view?

Part B Procedure:

Rent the video or DVD of “Patch Adams.” In this video Patch (Robin Williams) is studying to become a doctor, but he does not look, act, or think like a traditional doctor. For Patch, humor is the best medicine. He is always willing to do unusual things to make his patients laugh. Scenes from this video can be revealing to an OB class.

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Show the �irst Patch Adams scene (�ive minutes)—this is in the psychiatric hospital where Patch has admitted himself after a failed suicide attempt. He meets Arthur in the hospital. Arthur is obsessed with showing people four �ingers of his hand and asking them: “How many �ingers can you see?” Everybody says four. The scene shows Patch visiting Arthur to �ind out the solution. Arthur’s answer is: “If you only focus on the problem, you will never see the solution. Look further. You have to see what other people do not see.”

Engage the class in discussion of these questions and more:

How does this �ilm clip relate to Part A of this exercise?

What restricts our abilities to look beyond what we see?

How can we achieve the goal of seeing what others do not see?

Show the second Patch Adams scene (�ive minutes)—this is when Patch has left the hospital and is studying medicine. Patch and his new friend Truman are having breakfast. Truman is re�lecting on the human mind and on the changing of behavioral patterns (the adoption of programmed answers) as a person grows older. Patch proposes to carry out the Hello Experiment. The objective of the experiment is “to change the programmed answer by changing the usual parameters.”

Engage the class in discussion of these questions and more:

What is a programmed answer?

What is the link between our programmed answers and our abilities to exhibit creativity?

How can we “deprogram” ourselves?

Summarize the session with a wrap-up discussion of creativity, including barriers and ways to encourage it.

Source: Mila Gascó Hernández and Teresa Torres Coronas, The 2003 Annual: Volume 1, Training/© 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Today’s problems and opportunities—career and personal—are often complex and unstructured. It takes lots of wisdom and good analytic skills to master them. How about it: Are you developing the critical thinking skills needed for future success?

© RichVintage/iStockphoto

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CASES FOR CRITICAL THINKING

CASE 1A Trader Joe’s Keeps Things Fresh The average Trader Joe’s stocks only a small percentage of the products of local supermarkets in a space little larger than a corner store. How did this neighborhood market grow to earnings of $9 billion, garner superior ratings, and become a model of management? Take a walk down the aisles of Trader Joe’s and learn how sharp attention to the fundamentals of retail management made this chain more than the average Joe.

From Corner Store to Foodie Mecca In more than 365 stores across the United States, hundreds of thousands of customers are treasure hunting.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr1) Driven by gourmet tastes but hungering for deals, they are led by cheerful guides in Hawaiian shirts who point them to culinary discoveries such as ahi jerky, ginger granola, and baked jalapeño cheese crunchies.

It’s just an average day at Trader Joe’s, the gourmet, specialty, and natural-foods store that offers staples such as milk and eggs along with curious, one-of-a-kind foods at below average prices in thirty-odd states.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr2) With their plethora of kosher, vegan, and gluten-free fare, Trader Joe’s has products to suit every dietary need.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr3) Foodies, hipsters, and recessionistas alike are attracted to the chain’s charming blend of low prices, tasty treats, and laid-back but enthusiastic customer service. Shopping at Trader Joe’s is less a chore than it is immersion into another culture. In keeping with its whimsical faux-nautical theme, crew members and managers wear loud tropical-print shirts. Chalkboards around every corner unabashedly announce slogans, such as “You don’t have to join a club, carry a card, or clip coupons to get a good deal.”

“When you look at food retailers,” says Richard George, professor of food marketing at St. Joseph’s University, “there is the low end, the big middle, and then there is the cool edge—that’s Trader Joe’s.”4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr4) But how does Trader Joe’s compare with other stores with an edge, such as Whole Foods? Both obtain products locally and from all over the world. Each values employees and strives to offer the highest quality. However, there’s no mistaking that Trader Joe’s is cozy and intimate, whereas the spacious stores of Whole Foods offer an abundance of choices. By limiting its stock and selling quality products at low prices, Trader Joe’s sells twice as much per square foot as other supermarkets.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr5) Most retail megamarkets, such as Whole Foods, carry between 25,000 and 45,000 products; Trader Joe’s stores carry only 4,000.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr6) But this scarcity bene�its both Trader Joe’s and its customers. According to Swarthmore professor Barry Schwartz, author of The Paradox of Choice: Why Less Is More, “Giving people too much choice can result in paralysis. . . . [R]esearch shows that the more options you offer, the less likely people are to choose any.”7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr7)

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David Rogers of DSR Marketing Systems expects other supermarkets to follow the Trader Joe’s model toward a smaller store size. He cites several reasons, including excessive competitive �loor space, development costs, and the aging population.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr8)

Named by Fast Company as one of this year’s 50 Most In�luential Companies, Trader Joe’s didn’t always stand for brie and baguettes at peanut butter and jelly prices.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr9) In 1958, the company began life in Los Angeles as a chain of 7-Eleven–style corner stores called Pronto Markets. Striving to differentiate his stores from those of his competitors in order to survive in a crowded marketplace, founder “Trader” Joe Coulombe, vacationing in the Caribbean, reasoned that consumers are more likely to try new things while on vacation. In 1967 the �irst Trader Joe’s store opened in Pasadena, California. Mr. Coulombe had transformed his stores into oases of value by replacing humdrum sundries with exotic, one-of-a-kind foods priced persuasively below those of any reasonable competitor.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr10) In 1979, he sold his chain to the Albrecht family, German billionaires and owners of an estimated 8,700 Aldi markets in the United States, Europe, and Australia.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr11)

The Albrechts shared Coulombe’s relentless pursuit of value—a trait inseparable from Trader Joe’s success. Recent annual sales are estimated at $9 billion, landing Trader Joe’s in the top third of Supermarket News’s Top 75 Retailers.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr12) Because it’s not easy competing with such giants as Whole Foods and Dean & DeLuca, the company applies its pursuit of value to every facet of management. By keeping stores comparatively small—they average about 10,000 to 15,000 square feet—and shying away from prime locations, Trader Joe’s keeps real estate costs down.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr13) The chain prides itself on its thriftiness and cost-saving measures, proclaiming “Every penny we save is a penny you save” and “Our CEO doesn’t even have a secretary.”14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr14)

Trader Giotto, Trader José, Trader Ming, and Trader Darwin Trader Joe’s strongest weapon in the �ight to keep costs low may also be its greatest appeal to customers: its stock. The company follows a deliciously simple approach to stocking stores: (1) search out tasty, unusual foods from all around the world; (2) contract directly with manufacturers; (3) label each product under one of several catchy house brands; and (4) maintain a small stock, making each product �ight for its place on the shelf. This common-sense, low-overhead approach to retail serves Trader Joe’s well, embodying its commitment to aggressive cost cutting.

Most Trader Joe’s products are sold under a variant of its house brand—dried pasta under the “Trader Giotto’s” moniker, frozen enchiladas under the “Trader Jose’s” label, vitamins under “Trader Darwin’s,” and so on. But these store brands don’t sacri�ice quality—readers of Consumer Reports awarded Trader Joe’s house brands top marks.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr15) The house brand success is no accident. According to Trader Joe’s President Doug Rauch, “the company pursued the strategy to put our destiny in our own hands.”16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr16)

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But playing a role in this destiny is no easy feat. Ten to �ifteen new products debut each week at Trader Joe’s—and the company maintains a strict “one in, one out” policy. Items that sell poorly or whose costs rise get the heave-ho in favor of new blood, something the company calls the “gangway factor.”17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr17) If the company hears that customers don’t like something about a product, out it goes. In just such a move, Trader Joe’s phased out single- ingredient products (such as spinach and garlic) from China. “Our customers have voiced their concerns about products from this region and we have listened,” the company said in a statement, noting that items would be replaced with “products from other regions until our customers feel as con�ident as we do about the quality and safety of Chinese products.”18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr18)

Conversely, discontinued items may be brought back if customers are vocal enough, making Trader Joe’s the model of an open system. “We feel really close to our customers,” says Audrey O’Connell, vice president of marketing for Trader Joe’s East. “When we want to know what’s on their minds, we don’t need to put them in a sterile room with a swinging bulb. We like to think of Trader Joe’s as an economic food democracy.”19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr19) In return, customers keep talking, and they recruit new converts. Word-of-mouth advertising has lowered the corporation’s advertising budget to approximately 0.2 percent of sales, a fraction of the 4 percent spent by supermarkets.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr20)

Customer Connection Trader Joe’s connects with its customers because of the culture of product knowledge and customer involvement that its management cultivates among store employees. Each employee is encouraged to taste and learn about the products and to engage customers to share what they’ve experienced. Most shoppers recall instances when helpful crew members took the time to locate or recommend particular items. Despite the lighthearted tone suggested by marketing materials and in-store ads, Trader Joe’s aggressively courts friendly, customer-oriented employees by writing job descriptions highlighting desired soft skills (“ambitious and adventurous, enjoy smiling and have a strong sense of values”) as much as actual retail experience.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr21)

A responsible, knowledgeable, and friendly “crew” is critical to Trader Joe’s success. Therefore, it nurtures its employees with a promote-from-within philosophy, and its employees earn more than their counterparts at other chain grocers. In California, Trader Joe’s employees can earn almost 20 percent more than counterparts at supermarket giants Albertsons or Safeway.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr22) Starting bene�its include medical, dental, and vision insurance; company-paid retirement; paid vacation; and a 10 percent employee discount.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr23) Assistant store managers earn a compensation package averaging $94,000 a year, and store managers’ packages average $132,000. One analyst estimates that a Walmart store manager earning that much would need to run an outlet grossing six or seven times that of an average Trader Joe’s.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr24)

Outlet managers are highly compensated, partly because they know the Trader Joe’s system inside and out (managers are hired only from within the company). Future leaders enroll in training programs such as Trader Joe’s University that foster in them the loyalty necessary to run stores according to both company and customer expectations, teaching managers to imbue their parttimers with the customer-focused

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attitude shoppers have come to expect.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr25)

For all of its positive buzz, Trader Joe’s narrowly avoided a boycott recently when it became embroiled in a controversy over its opposition to the Campaign for Fair Food, an initiative organized by the Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW) to push for better wages and working conditions in Florida’s produce �ields.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr26) Trader Joe’s insisted that it already followed the guidelines stipulated by the Fair Food campaign, but the CIW demanded increased transparency. Trader Joe’s �inally signed an agreement with the CIW in February 2012, mere days before the nationally organized boycott of its stores was scheduled to begin.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr27)

If Trader Joe’s has any puzzling trait, it’s that the company is more than a bit media shy. Executives have granted no interviews since the Aldi group took over. Company statements and spokespersons have been known to be terse—the company’s leases even stipulate that no store opening may be formally announced until a month before the outlet opens!28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr1ntr28)

The future looks bright for Trader Joe’s. In 2012, between twenty-�ive and thirty locations are slated to open, and the company continues to break into markets hungry for reasonably priced gourmet goodies. But will Trader Joe’s struggle to sustain its international �lavor in the face of rising fuel costs and shrinking discretionary income, or will the allure of cosmopolitan food at provincial prices continue to tempt consumers?

Review Questions Does Trader Joe’s seem to be basing its management practices on a solid understanding of human behavior in organizations? Is the company on track for valuing employees in a way that is good for them and for organizational performance over the long term? What weaknesses can you spot in the current approach that might cause problems in the future?

In what ways does this description of Trader Joe’s show attention to each responsibility in the management process: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling?

New employee situation. At the age of twenty-two and newly graduated from college, Hazel has just accepted a job with Trader Joe’s as a shift leader. She’ll be supervising four team members who �ill part-time jobs in the produce section. Given Trader Joe’s casual and nontraditional work environment, what should she do and avoid doing in the �irst few days of work to establish herself as a skillful manager of this team?

Global Economy Situation. Trader Joe’s is owned by a German company operating in America. What are the biggest risks that international ownership poses for the people who make a career commitment to Trader Joe’s as their employer?

Discussion Questions How does Trader Joe’s design jobs for increased job satisfaction and higher performance?

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In what ways does Trader Joe’s demonstrate the importance of each responsibility in the management process: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling?

Describe the methods that show Trader Joe’s knows the importance of human capital.

Does Trader Joe’s utilize contingency thinking? Why or why not?

Research Question. What do the blogs and current news reports say? Is Trader Joe’s a management benchmark for others to follow? In what areas relevant to Organizational Behavior does the �irm have an edge on the competition?

CASE 1B Getting the Evidence: Leadership Training Dilemma Developed by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

Shane Alexander is the human resource director of the Central State Medical Center. One of her responsibilities is to oversee the hospital’s leadership training programs. Recently Shane attended a professional conference during which a special “packaged” training program was advertised for sale. The package includes a set of videotaped lectures by a distinguished management consultant plus a workbook containing readings, exercises, cases, tests, and other instructional aids. The subjects covered in the program include motivation, group dynamics, communication skills, leadership styles, performance appraisal, and the dynamics of planned change.

In the past Shane felt that the hospital had not lived up to its training goals. One of the reasons for this was the high cost of hiring external consultants to do the actual instruction. This packaged program was designed, presumably, so that persons from within the hospital could act as session coordinators. The structure of the program provided through the videotapes and workbook agenda was supposed to substitute for a consultant’s expertise. Because of this, Shane felt that use of the packaged program could substantially improve supervisory training in the hospital.

The cost of the program was $3,500 for an initial purchase of the videotapes plus �ifty workbooks. Additional workbooks were then available at $8 per copy. Before purchasing the program, Shane needed the approval of the senior administrative staff.

At the next staff meeting, Shane proposed purchasing the training program. She was surprised at the response. The hospital president was noncommittal; the vice president for operations was openly hostile; and the three associate vice presidents were varied in their enthusiasm. It was the vice president’s opinion that dominated the discussion. He argued that to invest in such a program on the assumption that it would lead to improved leadership practices was unwise. “This is especially true in respect to the proposed program,” he said. “How could such a package possibly substitute for the training skills of an expert consultant?”

Shane argued her case and was left with the following challenge. The executives would allow $1,000 to be spent to rent the program with thirty workbooks. It would be up to Shane to demonstrate through a trial program, or pilot test, that an eventual purchase of the full program would be worthwhile.

There are 160 supervisors, team leaders, department and division heads, and executives in the hospital. The program was designed to be delivered in eight 2.5-hour sessions. It was preferred to schedule one

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session per week, with no more than �ifteen participants per session. Shane knew that she would have to present very strong evidence to gain needed support for the continued use of the program. Given the opportunity, she wondered just how she could get evidence that would be conclusive one way or the other.

Review Questions If you were Shane, what type of research design would you use to test this program? Why?

How would the design actually be implemented in this hospital setting?

What would be your research hypothesis? What variables would you need to measure to provide data that could test this hypothesis? How would you gather these data?

Do you think the administrator’s request for “proof before purchase” was reasonable? Why or why not?

CASE 2 Diversity Leads the Way At Xerox, Diversity equals Success. The equation certainly has worked for the company! According to Fortune magazine’s annual reputation survey, Xerox is the world’s most admired company in the computer industry. According to Anne Mulcahy, Xerox former Chairman and CEO, the �irm’s focus on diversity is based on an environment of inclusion within which each person can achieve to their highest potential. Xerox knows that employees with different ways of thinking, and different ways of perceiving the world, are employees who create innovative solutions. In a business like Xerox, whose lifeblood is fresh ideas, this variety of perspectives is a priceless resource—and a key to achieving critical business results.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr1)

With recent annual revenue of $23+ billion, Xerox is the world’s largest technology-and-services company specializing in document management.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr2) Xerox provides the document industry’s broadest portfolio of offerings. Digital systems include color and black-and-white printing and publishing systems, digital presses and “book factories,” advanced and basic multifunction systems, laser and solid ink network printers, copiers, and fax machines. No competitor can match Xerox’s services expertise, which includes helping businesses develop online document archives, analyzing how employees can most ef�iciently share documents and knowledge in the of�ice, operating in- house print shops or mailrooms, and building Web-based processes for personalizing direct mail, invoices, brochures, and more. Xerox also offers associated software, support, and even supplies such as toner, paper, and ink.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr3)

By recognizing and respecting diversity and empowering individuality, Xerox creates productive people and an innovative company. This corporate culture of inclusion with its commitment to diversity can be traced back to its very �irst chairman, Joseph C. Wilson. Chairman Wilson took proactive steps to create a more diverse workforce in response to race riots in the 1960s. With then Xerox President C. Peter McCullough, Wilson called for increased hiring of African Americans in an effort to achieve equality among its workforce. Starting in the 1970s, Xerox established an internal af�irmative action of�ice and began to

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hire a signi�icant number of minority employees.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr4)

Xerox placed emphasis on the advancement of minorities and females in the 1980s. It was during this time that Barry Rand, an African American, was named the �irst minority president of a division. Xerox’s Balanced Workforce Strategy (BWF) aimed to achieve unbiased representation for women and minorities throughout the organization at all times, including throughout times of restructuring. During the in�lux of women into its workforce Xerox recognized women’s struggle to balance work and family commitments. In response, Xerox Human Resources (HR) initiated “�lex time” and other HR policies to maintain a high level of productivity and satisfaction among its workforce.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr5)

In the 1990s sexual orientation was included in the company’s Equal Opportunity/Af�irmative Action and Non-discrimination policy; GALAXe Pride at Work (a caucus group for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees) was established; and Xerox began to provide domestic partner bene�its for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. Annual diversity employee roundtables with senior managers were initiated, providing employees the opportunity to engage in un�iltered communication with management about the best practices, strengths, and weaknesses of Xerox’s diversity initiatives.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr6)

Xerox’s view on a diverse workforce is most eloquently expressed by former Chairman Anne M. Mulcahy:

I’m convinced diversity is a key to success. Experience tells us that the most diverse companies—companies ruled by a hierarchy of imagination and �illed with people of all ages, races, and backgrounds—are the most successful over time. Somehow, diversity breeds creativity. Maybe it’s because people with different backgrounds challenge each other’s underlying assumptions, freeing everybody from convention and orthodoxy. We provide a shining proof point that diversity in all its wonderful manifestations is good for business . . . good for our country . . . and good for people.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr7)

Xerox is proud to say that women and minorities make up more than 50 percent of its workforce. About 48.2 percent of Xerox senior executives are women, people of color, or both. The employee roster is made up of roughly 30 percent African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans. In fact, Xerox has been rated by Fortune, Forbes, Working Mother, Latino Style, and Enable magazines as one of the top ten companies in hiring minorities, women, disabled, and gay and lesbian employees. It is among Working Mother’s top 100 family-friendly companies for women—and has been for the past �ifteen years.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr8)

In 2007 Ursula Burns was named the �irst African-American female president of Xerox Corporation. In July 2009 she succeeded Anne M. Mulcahy as CEO, the �irst female-to-female hand-off in Fortune 500 history. In May 2010 Burns was also named chairman, heading a company of over 140,000 employees. Her philosophy is consistent with the company culture and history. She says:

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The power of our people development model is that it recognizes the value of diversity from entry-level positions to the top seats. When you’ve been at it as long as we have, the bench gets pretty strong of next generation leaders who represent the real world: black, white, male, female, Hispanic, Asian from different religions and with different beliefs. What they all have in common is strong skills, a solid work ethic, commitment and a will to win.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr9)

With Ursula Burns at the helm, and a 100 percent rating on the Human Rights Campaign Foundation’s Corporate Equality Index and its Best Places to Work survey, there’s no doubt about it: Xerox’s commitment to diversity is still going strong.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr2ntr10) In a dif�icult global environment and highly competitive industry, Burns’s leadership will surely be tested to the fullest in the days ahead.

Review Questions How would Xerox de�ine diversity? How has its de�inition changed over the years?

What are the seven reasons why Xerox should be motivated to diversify its workforce? Illustrate how Xerox shows it values workplace diversity.

Does Xerox embody or defy the “leaking pipeline” phenomenon? Why?

Research Question. Compare Xerox to other Fortune 500 companies. How are women and minorities represented at the highest levels of each organization? How can these statistics be improved upon?

CASE 3 OB Classic: The Jim Donovan Case This classic case is by Allan R. Cohen and Michael Merenda, University of New Hampshire1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr3ntr1)

Jim Donovan, age thirty-seven, the new president and chief executive of�icer of Famous Products, was suddenly in the toughest spot in his life. He had just been selected by Omega Corporation, a huge conglomerate, to take over as president of its latest acquisition! And Jim had been feeling very good about himself.

Having grown up on “the wrong side of the tracks,” worked his way through engineering college, earned an MBA from Harvard Business School, worked for ten years as a management consultant and two years as a successful president of a small company, Jim felt that he had arrived. The company he was going to manage was known throughout the world, had a good reputation, and would provide a good opportunity for visibility in the parent company.

The pay would be the highest he had ever earned, and while the money itself was not that important (though he’d be able to ensure �inancial security for his wife and four children), he enjoyed the indicator of

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success that a high salary provided. Jim also was eager to manage a company with over a thousand employees; the power to get things done on such a large scale was very attractive to him.

When Omega selected him, Jim had been told that Don Bird, the current president of Famous Products, was close to retirement and would be moved upstairs to chairman of the board. Bird had been president of Famous for twenty-two years and had done reasonably well, building sales steadily and guarding quality.

The top management group was highly experienced, closely knit, very loyal to the company, and its members had been in their jobs for a long time. As long-term employees, they all were reported to be good friends of Don Bird. They were almost all in their early sixties and quite proud of the record of their moderate-size but successful company.

Famous had not, however, grown in pro�its as rapidly as Omega expected of its operating companies, and Omega’s president had told Jim that we wanted Jim to “grab a hold of Famous and make it take off.”

With this challenge ringing in his ears, Jim �lew out to Milwaukee for his �irst visit to Famous Products. He had talked brie�ly with Don Bird to say that he’d be arriving Thursday for half a day, then would be back for good after ten days in New York at Omega. Bird had been cordial but rather distant on the phone, and Jim wondered how Bird was taking Jim’s appointment. “I’ve only got a few hours here,” thought Jim. “I wonder how I should play it.”

When Jim pulled up to Famous Products headquarters in his rented car, he noticed the neat grounds and immaculate landscaping. To his surprise, Don Bird met him at the door.

Bird had on a very conservative blue business suit, black tie, black shoes, and white shirt. He peered out at Jim through old-fashioned steel-rimmed glasses and said, “Welcome to our plant. You’re just in time for our usual Thursday morning executive meeting. Would you like to sit in on that and meet our people?” Jim thought that the meeting would give him a chance to observe the management group in action, and he readily agreed, planning to sit back and watch for as long as he could.

Jim was ushered into the most formal meeting room he could remember ever having seen. The dark- paneled room was dominated by a long, heavy table, with twelve high-backed chairs around it. Seven of the chairs were �illed with unsmiling executives in dark suits.

Bird led Jim to the front of the room, indicated an empty chair to the left of the seat at the head of the table, then sat down in the place that was obviously his. Turning to the group, he said:

Gentlemen, I want you to meet Mr. Donovan, but before I turn the meeting over to him, I want you to know that I do not believe he should be here; I do not believe he’s quali�ied, and I will give him no support. Mr. Donovan. . . .

Review Questions How well did Jim Donovan “play” things in terms of his new appointment? What mistakes did he make, and why did he make them?

Now that Jim Donovan is in the meeting and on the spot, what should he do (a) immediately, (b) right after the meeting ends, and (c) within the �irst few days of taking over?

How have perceptions in�luenced behavior in this situation? How could those perceptions have been better managed?

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CASE 4 Tough Situation at MacRec, Inc. Developed by Mary McGarry, Empire State College, and Barry R. Armandi, SUNY-Old Westbury

Background MagRec, Incorporated was started by Mr. Leed, a brilliant engineer (he has several engineering patents) who was a group manager at Fairchild Republic. The company’s product was magnetic recording heads, a crucial device used for reading, writing, and erasing data on tapes and disks.

Like any other start-up, MagRec had a humble beginning. It struggled during the early years, facing cash- �low and technical problems. After a slow start, it grew rapidly and gained 35 percent of the tape head market, making it the second-largest supplier in North America. Financially, the company suffered heavily because of price erosions caused by Far East competition. Unlike all its competitors, the company resisted moving its manufacturing operations offshore. But the company accumulated losses to a point of bankruptcy. Finally MagRec entered a major international joint venture and received many new sales orders. Things looked good again. But. . . .

Pat’s Dilemma When Fred Marsh promoted me to sales manager, I was in seventh heaven. Now, six months later, I feel I am in hell. This is the �irst time in my life that I am really on my own. I have been working with other people all my life. I tried my best and what I could not solve, I took upstairs. Now it’s different because I am the boss (or am I?). Fred has taught me a lot. He was my mentor and gave me this job when he became vice president. I have always respected him and listened to his judgment. Now, thinking back, I wonder whether I should have listened to him at all on this problem.

It started late one Friday evening. I had planned to call my West Coast customer, Partco, to discuss certain contract clauses. I wanted to nail this one fast (Partco had just been acquired by Volks, Inc.). Partco was an old customer. In fact, through good and bad, it had always stayed with us. It was also a major customer. I was about to call Partco when Dinah Coates walked in, clutching a �ile. I had worked with Dinah for three years. She was good. I knew that my call to Partco would have to wait. Dinah had been cleaning out old �iles and came across a report about design and manufacturing defects in Partco heads. The report had been written nine years ago. The cover memo read as follows:

To: Ken Smith, Director of Marketing

From: Rich Grillo, V.P. Operations

Sub: Partco Head Schedule

This is to inform you that due to pole-depth problems in design, the Partco heads (all 514 in test) have failed. They can’t reliably meet the reading requirements. The problem is basically a design error in calculations. It can be corrected. However, the �ix will take at least six months. Meanwhile, Ron Scott in production informs me that the entire 5,000 heads (the year’s production) have already been pole-slotted, thus they face the same problem.

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Ken, I don’t have to tell you how serious this is, but how can we OK and ship them to Partco knowing that they’ll cause read error problems in the �ield? My engineering and manufacturing people realize this is the number-one priority. By pushing the Systems Tech job back we will be back on track in less than six months. In the interim I can modify Global Widgets heads. This will enable us to at least continue shipping some product to Partco. As a possible alternate I would like to get six Partco drives. Michaels and his team feel that with quick and easy changes in the drives tape path, they can get the head to work. If this is true we should be back on track within six to eight weeks.

A separate section of the report reads as follows:

Con�idential

(Notes from meeting with Don Updyke and Rich Grillo)

Solution to Partco heads problem

All Partco heads can be reworked (.8 hrs. ea.—cost insigni�icant) to solve Partco’s read problems by grinding an extra three-thousandths of an inch off the top of the head. This will reduce the overall pole depth to a point where no read errors occur. The heads will fully meet speci�ications in all respects except one, namely life. Don estimates that due to the reduced chrome layer (used for wear) the heads’ useful life will be 2500 hours instead of 6000 hours of actual usage.

Our experience is that no customer keeps accurate records to tell actual usage and life. Moreover, the cost is removed since Partco sells drives to MegaComputer, who sells systems to end-users. The user at the site hardly knows or rarely complains about extra costs such as the replacement of a head 12 to 18 months down the line instead of the normal 2 years. Besides, the service technicians always innovatively believe in and offer plausible explanations—such as the temperature must be higher than average—or they really must be using the computer a lot.

I have directed that the heads be reworked and shipped to Partco. I also instructed John to tell Partco that due to inclement weather this week’s shipment will be combined with next week’s shipment.

Dinah was �labbergasted. The company planned to sell products deliberately that it knew would not meet life requirements—“risking our reputation as a quality supplier,” she said. “Partco and others buy our heads thinking they are the best. Didn’t we commit fraud through outright misrepresentation?”

Dinah insisted I had to do something. I told her I would look into the matter and get back to her by the end of next week.

Over the weekend I kept thinking about the Partco issue. We had no customer complaints. Partco had always been extremely pleased with our products and technical support. In fact, we were its sole suppliers. MegaComputer had us placed on the preferred, approved ship to stock, vendors list. It was a fact that other vendors were judged against our standards. MegaComputer’s Quality Control never saw our product or checked it.

Monday morning I showed the report to Fred. He immediately recollected it and began to explain the situation to me.

MagRec had been under tremendous pressure and was growing rapidly at the time. “That year we had moved into a new 50,000-square-foot building and went from 50 or 60 employees to over 300. Our sales were increasing dramatically.” Fred was head of purchasing at the time, and every week the requirements for raw materials would change. “We’d started using B.O.A.s (Broad Order Agreements, used as annual purchasing contracts) guaranteeing us the right to increase our numbers by 100 percent each quarter. The

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goal was to maintain the numbers. If we had lost Partco then, it could have had a domino effect and we could have ended up having no customers left to worry about.”

Fred went on to explain that it had only been a short-term problem that was corrected within the year and no one ever knew it existed. He told me to forget it and to move the �ile into the back storage room. I conceded. I thought of all the possible hassles. The thing was ancient history anyway. Why should I be concerned about it? I wasn’t even here when it happened.

The next Friday Dinah asked me what I had found out. I told her Fred’s feelings on the matter and that I felt he had some pretty good arguments regarding the matter. Dinah became angry. She said I had changed since my promotion and that I was just as guilty as the crooks who had cheated the customers by selling low-life heads as long-life heads. I told her to calm down. The decision was made years ago. No one got hurt, and the heads weren’t defective. They weren’t causing any errors.

I felt bad but �igured there wasn’t much to do. The matter was closed as far as I was concerned, so I returned to my afternoon chores. Little was I to know the matter was not really closed.

That night Fred called me at 10:00. He wanted me to come over to the of�ice right away. I quickly changed, wondering what the emergency was. I walked into Fred’s of�ice. The coffee was going. Charlie (Personnel Manager) was there. Rich Grillo (V. P. Operations) was sitting on the far side of Fred’s conference table. I instinctively headed there for that was the designated smoking corner.

Ken (Director of Marketing) arrived �ifteen minutes later. We settled in. Fred began the meeting by thanking everyone for coming. He then told them about the discovery of the Partco �ile and �illed them in on the background. The problem now was that Dinah had called Partco and gotten through to their new vice president, Tim Rand. Rand had called Fred at 8:00 p.m. at home and said he was personally taking a red-eye �light to �ind out what this was all about. He would be here in the morning. We spent a grueling night followed by an extremely tense few weeks. Partco had a team of people going through our tests, quality control, and manufacturing records. Our production slipped, and overall morale was affected.

Mr. Leed personally spent a week in California assuring Partco that this would never happen again. Though we weathered the storm, we had certain losses. We were never to be Partco’s sole source again. We still retained 60 percent of its business but had to agree to lower prices. The price reduction had a severe impact. Although Partco never disclosed to anyone what the issues were (since both companies had blanket nondisclosure agreements), word got around that Partco was paying a lower price. We were unable to explain to our other customers why Partco was paying this amount. Actually I felt the price word got out through Joe Byrne (an engineer who came to Partco from Systems Tech and told his colleagues back at Systems Tech that Partco really knew how to negotiate prices down). He was unaware, however, of the real issues. Faced with customers who perceived they were being treated inequitably, we experienced problems. Lowering prices meant incurring losses; not lowering them meant losing customers. The next two �inancial quarters saw sales revenue decline by 40 percent. As the sales manager, I felt pretty rotten presenting my �igures to Fred.

With regard to Dinah, I now faced a monumental problem. The internal feeling was that she should be avoided at all costs. Because of price erosions, we faced cutbacks. Employees blamed her for production layoffs. The internal friction kept mounting. Dinah’s ability to interface effectively with her colleagues and other departments plummeted to a point where normal functioning was impossible.

Fred called me into his of�ice two months after the Partco episode and suggested that I �ire Dinah. He told me that he was worried about results. Although he had nothing personally against her, he felt that she must go because she was seriously affecting my department’s overall performance. I defended Dinah by stating that the Partco matter would blow over and given time I could smooth things out. I pointed out

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Dinah’s accomplishments and stated I really wanted her to stay. Fred dropped the issue, but my problem persisted.

Things went from bad to worse. Finally, I decided to try to solve the problem myself. I had known Dinah well for many years and had a good relationship with her before the incident. I took her to lunch to address the issue. Over lunch, I acknowledged the stress the Partco situation had put on her and suggested that she move away for a while to the West Coast, where she could handle that area independently.

Dinah was hurt and asked why I didn’t just �ire her already. I responded by accusing her of causing the problem in the �irst place by going to Partco.

Dinah came back at me, calling me a lackey for having taken her story to Fred and having brought his management message back. She said I hadn’t even attempted a solution and that I didn’t have the guts to stand up for what was right. I was only interested in protecting my backside and keeping Fred happy. As her manager, I should have protected her and taken some of the heat off her back. Dinah refused to transfer or to quit. She told me to go ahead and �ire her, and she walked out.

I sat in a daze as I watched Dinah leave the restaurant. What the heck went wrong? Had Dinah done the morally right thing? Was I right in defending MagRec’s position? Should I have taken a stand with Fred? Should I have gone over Fred’s head to Mr. Leed? Am I doing the right thing? Should I listen to Fred and �ire Dinah? If not, how do I get my department back on track? What am I saying? If Dinah is right, shouldn’t I be defending her rather than MagRec?

Review Questions Place yourself in the role of the manager. What should you do now? After considering what happened, would you change any of your behaviors?

Do you think Dinah was right? Why or why not? If you were she and had it to do all over again, would you do anything differently? If so, what and why?

Using cognitive dissonance theory, explain the actions of Pat, Dinah, and Fred.

CASE 5 “It Isn’t Fair . . .” Developed by Barry R. Armandi, SUNY–Old Westbury

Mary Jones was in her senior year at Central University and interviewing for jobs. Mary was in the top 1 percent of her class, active in numerous extracurricular activities, and highly respected by her professors. After the interviews, Mary was offered positions with every company with which she interviewed. After much thought, she decided to take the offer from Universal Products, a multinational company. She felt that the salary was superb ($40,000), the bene�its were excellent, and potential for promotion was good.

Mary started work a few weeks after graduation and learned her job assignments and responsibilities thoroughly and quickly. Mary was asked on many occasions to work late because report deadlines were often moved forward. Without hesitation she said, “Of course!” even though as an exempt employee she would receive no overtime.

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Frequently she would take work home with her and use her personal computer to do further analyses. At other times she would come into the of�ice on weekends to monitor the progress of her projects or just to catch up on the ever-growing mountain of correspondence.

On one occasion, her manager asked her to take on a dif�icult assignment. It seemed that the company’s manufacturing facility in Costa Rica was having production problems. The quality of one of the products was highly questionable, and the reports on the matter were confusing. Mary was asked to be part of a team to investigate the quality and reporting problems. The team stayed in poor accommodations for the entire three weeks they were there. This was because of the plant’s location near its resources, which happened to be in the heart of the jungle. Within the three-week period, the team had located the source of the quality problem, corrected it, and altered the reporting documents and processes. The head of the team, a quality engineer, wrote a note to Mary’s manager stating the following: “Just wanted to inform you of the superb job Mary Jones did down in Costa Rica. Her suggestions and insights into the reporting system were invaluable. Without her help we would have been down there for another three weeks, and I was getting tired of the mosquitoes. Thanks for sending her.”

Universal Products, like most companies, has a yearly performance review system. Since Mary had been with the company for a little over one year, it was time for her review. Mary entered her manager’s of�ice nervous, since this was her �irst review ever and she didn’t know what to expect. After closing the door and exchanging the usual pleasantries, her manager, Tom, got right to the point.

Tom: Well, Mary, as I told you last week this meeting would be for your annual review. As you are aware, your performance and compensation are tied together. Since the philosophy of the company is to reward those who perform, we take these reviews very seriously. I have spent a great deal of time thinking about your performance over the past year, but before I begin I would like to know your impressions of the company, your assignments, and me as a manager.

Mary: Honestly, Tom, I have no complaints. The company and my job are everything I was led to believe. I enjoy working here. The staff are all very helpful. I like the team atmosphere, and my job is very challenging. I really feel appreciated and that I’m making a contribution. You have been very helpful and patient with me. You got me involved right from the start and listened to my opinions. You taught me a lot, and I’m very grateful. All in all I’m happy being here.

Tom: Great, Mary. I was hoping that’s the way you felt because from my vantage point, most of the people you worked with feel the same. But before I give you the qualitative side of the review, allow me to go through the quantitative appraisal �irst. As you know, the rankings go from one (lowest) to �ive (highest). Let’s go down each category, and I’ll explain my reasoning for each.

Tom starts with category one (Quantity of Work) and ends with category ten (Teamwork). In each of the categories, Tom has either given Mary a 5 or a 4. Indeed, only two categories have a 4, and Tom explains these are normal areas for improvement for most employees.

Tom: As you can see, Mary, I was very happy with your performance. You have received the highest rating I have ever given any of my subordinates. Your attitude, desire, and help are truly appreciated. The other people on the Costa Rica team gave you glowing reports, and speaking with the plant manager, she felt that you helped her understand the reporting system better than anyone else. Since your performance has been stellar, I’m delighted to give you a 10 percent increase effective immediately!

Mary: (mouth agape, and eyes wide) Tom, frankly I’m �labbergasted! I don’t know what to say, but thank you very much. I hope I can continue to do as �ine a job as I have this last year. Thanks once again.

After exchanging some parting remarks and some more thank-yous, Mary left Tom’s of�ice with a smile from ear to ear. She was �loating on air! Not only did she feel the performance review process was

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uplifting, but her review was outstanding and so was her raise. She knew from other employees that the company was only giving out a 5 percent average increase. She �igured that if she got that, or perhaps 6 or 7 percent, she would be happy. But to get 10 percent. Wow!! Imagine. . . .

Sue: Hi, Mary! Lost in thought? My, you look great. Looks like you got some great news. What’s up?

Susan Stevens was a recent hire, working for Tom. She had graduated from Central University also, but a year after Mary. Sue had excelled while at Central, graduating in the top 1 percent of her class. She had laudatory letters of recommendation from her professors and was into many after-school clubs and activities.

Mary: Oh, hi, Sue! Sorry, but I was just thinking about Universal and the opportunities here.

Sue: Yes, it truly is. . . .

Mary: Sue, I just came from my performance review, and let me tell you, the process isn’t that bad. As a matter of fact I found it quite rewarding, if you get my drift. I got a wonderful review, and can’t wait till next year’s. What a great company!

Sue: You can say that again! I couldn’t believe them hiring me right out of college at such a good salary. Between you and me, Mary, they started me at $45,000. Imagine that? Wow, was I impressed. I just couldn’t believe that they would. . . . Where are you going, Mary? Mary?

What’s that you say? “It isn’t fair?” What do you mean? Mary? Mary. . . .

Review Questions Indicate Mary’s attitudes before and after meeting Sue. If there was a change, why?

What do you think Mary will do now? Later?

What motivation theory applies best to this scenario? Explain.

CASE 6A Perfect Pizzeria, or Not? Perfect Pizzeria in Southville, in deep southern Illinois, is the second-largest franchise of the chain in the United States. The headquarters is located in Phoenix, Arizona. Although the business is prospering, employee and managerial problems exist.

Each operation has one manager, an assistant manager, and from two to �ive night managers. The managers of each pizzeria work under an area supervisor. There are no systematic criteria for being a manager or becoming a manager trainee. The franchise has no formalized training period for the manager. No college education is required. The managers for whom the case observer worked during a four-year period were relatively young (ages twenty-four to twenty-seven), and only one had completed college. They came from the ranks of night managers or assistant managers, or both. The night managers were chosen for their ability to perform the duties of the regular employees. The assistant managers worked a two-hour shift during the luncheon period �ive days a week to gain knowledge about bookkeeping and

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management. Those becoming managers remained at that level unless they expressed interest in investing in the business.

The employees were mostly college students, with a few high school students performing the less- challenging jobs. Since Perfect Pizzeria was located in an area with few job opportunities, it had a relatively easy task of �illing its employee quotas. All the employees, with the exception of the manager, were employed part time and were paid the minimum wage.

The Perfect Pizzeria system is devised so that food and beverage costs and pro�its are computed according to a percentage. If the percentage of food unsold or damaged in any way is very low, the manager gets a bonus. If the percentage is high, the manager does not receive a bonus; rather, he or she receives only his or her normal salary.

There are many ways in which the percentage can �luctuate. Since the manager cannot be in the store twenty-four hours a day, some employees make up for their smaller paychecks by helping themselves to the food. When a friend comes in to order a pizza, extra ingredients are put on the friend’s pizza. Occasional nibbles by eighteen to twenty employees throughout the day at the meal table also raise the percentage �igure. An occasional bucket of sauce may be spilled or a pizza accidentally burned.

In the event of an employee mistake, the expense is supposed to come from the individual. Because of peer pressure, the night manager seldom writes up a bill for the erring employee. Instead, the establishment takes the loss and the error goes unnoticed until the end of the month when the inventory is taken. That’s when the manager �inds out that the percentage is high and that there will be no bonus.

In the present instance, the manager took retaliatory measures. Previously, each employee was entitled to a free pizza, salad, and all the soft drinks he or she could drink for every six hours of work. The manager raised this �igure from six to twelve hours of work. However, the employees had received these six-hour bene�its for a long time. Therefore, they simply took advantage of the situation whenever the manager or the assistant was not in the building. Although the night manager theoretically had complete control of the operation in the evenings, he did not command the respect that the manager or assistant manager did. This was because he received the same pay as the regular employees, he could not reprimand other employees, and he was basically the same age or sometimes even younger than the other employees.

Thus, apathy grew within the pizzeria. There seemed to be a further separation between the manager and his workers, who started out as a closely knit group. The manager made no attempt to alleviate the problem because he felt it would iron itself out. Either the employees that were dissatis�ied would quit or they would be content to put up with the new regulations. As it turned out, a rash of employee dismissals occurred. The manager had no problem �illing the vacancies with new workers, but the loss of key personnel was costly to the business.

With the large turnover, the manager found that he had to spend more time in the building, supervising and sometimes taking the place of inexperienced workers. This was in direct violation of the franchise regulation, which stated that a manager would act as a supervisor and at no time take part in the actual food preparation. Employees were not placed under strict supervision with the manager working alongside them. The operation no longer worked smoothly because of differences between the remaining experienced workers and the manager concerning the way in which a particular function should be performed.

After a two-month period, the manager was again free to go back to his of�ice and leave his subordinates in charge of the entire operation. During this two-month period, the percentage had returned to the previous low level, and the manager received a bonus each month. The manager felt that his problems had

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been resolved and that conditions would remain the same, since the new personnel had been properly trained.

It didn’t take long for the new employees to become in�luenced by the other employees. Immediately after the manager returned to his supervisory role, the percentage began to rise. This time the manager took a bolder step. He cut out any bene�its that the employees had—no free pizzas, salads, or drinks. With the job market at an even lower ebb than usual, most employees were forced to stay. The appointment of a new area supervisor made it impossible for the manager to “work behind the counter,” since the supervisor was centrally located in Southville.

The manager tried still another approach to alleviate the rising percentage problem and maintain his bonus. He placed a notice on the bulletin board stating that if the percentage remained at a high level, a lie detector test would be given to all employees. All those found guilty of taking or purposefully wasting food or drinks would be immediately terminated. This did not have the desired effect on the employees because they knew if they were all subjected to the test, all would be found guilty and the manager would have to dismiss all of them. This would leave him in a worse situation than ever.

Even before the following month’s percentage was calculated, the manager knew it would be high. He had evidently received information from one of the night managers about the employees’ feelings about the notice. What he did not expect was that the percentage would reach an all-time high. That is the state of affairs at the present time.

Review Questions Consider the situation where the manager changed the time period required to receive free food and drink from six to twelve hours of work. Try to apply each of the motivational approaches to explain what happened. Which of the approaches offers the most appropriate explanation? Why?

Repeat question 1 for the situation in which the manager worked beside the employees for a time and then later returned to his of�ice.

Repeat question 1 for the situation as it exists at the end of the case.

Establish and justify a motivational program based on one or a combination of motivation theories to deal with the situation as it exists at the end of the case.

CASE 6B OB Classic: Hovey and Beard Company Written by James G. (Jerry) Hunt, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale

The Hovey and Beard Company manufactures a variety of wooden toys, including animals, pull toys, and the like.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr6bntr1) The toys were manufactured by a transformation process that began in the wood room. There, toys were cut, sanded, and partially assembled. Then the toys were dipped into shellac and sent to the painting room.

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In years past, the painting had been done by hand, with each employee working with a given toy until its painting was completed. The toys were predominantly painted with two colors, although a few required more colors. Now, in response to increased demand for the toys, the painting operation was changed so that the painters sat in a line by an endless chain of hooks. These hooks moved continuously in front of the painters and passed into a long horizontal oven. Each painter sat in a booth designed to carry away fumes and to backstop excess paint. The painters would take a toy from a nearby tray, position it in a jig inside the painting cubicle, spray on the color according to a pattern, and then hang the toy on a passing hook. The rate at which the hooks moved was calculated by the engineers so that each painter, when fully trained, could hang a painted toy on each hook before it passed beyond reach.

The painters were paid on a group bonus plan. Since the operation was new to them, they received a learning bonus that decreased by regular amounts each month. The learning bonus was scheduled to vanish in six months, by which time it was expected that they would be on their own—that is, able to meet the production standard and earn a group bonus when they exceeded it.

By the second month of the training period, trouble developed. The painters learned more slowly than had been anticipated, and it began to look as though their production would stabilize far below what was planned. Many of the hooks were going by empty. The painters complained that the hooks moved too fast and that the engineer had set the rates wrong. A few painters quit and had to be replaced with new ones. This further aggravated the learning problem. The team spirit that the management had expected to develop through the group bonus was not in evidence except as an expression of what the engineers called “resistance.” One painter, whom the group regarded as its leader (and the management regarded as the ringleader), was outspoken in taking the complaints of the group to the supervisor. These complaints were that the job was messy, the hooks moved too fast, the incentive pay was not correctly calculated, and it was too hot working so close to the drying oven.

A consultant was hired to work with the supervisor. She recommended that the painters be brought together for a general discussion of the working conditions. Although hesitant, the supervisor agreed to this plan.

The �irst meeting was held immediately after the shift was over at 4:00 p.m. It was attended by all eight painters. They voiced the same complaints again: The hooks went by too fast, the job was too dirty, and the room was hot and poorly ventilated. For some reason, it was this last item that seemed to bother them most. The supervisor promised to discuss the problems of ventilation and temperature with the engineers, and a second meeting was scheduled. Over the next few days, the supervisor had several talks with the engineers. They, along with the plant superintendent, felt that this was really a trumped-up complaint and that the expense of corrective measures would be prohibitively high.

The supervisor came to the second meeting with some apprehension. The painters, however, did not seem to be much put out. Rather, they had a proposal of their own to make. They felt that if several large fans were set up to circulate the air around their feet, they would be much more comfortable. After some discussion, the supervisor agreed to pursue the idea. The supervisor and the consultant discussed the idea of fans with the superintendent. Three large propeller-type fans were purchased and installed.

The painters were jubilant. For several days the fans were moved about in various positions until they were placed to the satisfaction of the group. The painters seemed completely satis�ied with the results, and the relations between them and the supervisor improved visibly.

The supervisor, after this encouraging episode, decided that further meetings might also prove pro�itable. The painters were asked if they would like to meet and discuss other aspects of the work situation. They were eager to do this. Another meeting was held, and the discussion quickly centered on the speed of the

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hooks. The painters maintained that the engineer had set them at an unreasonably fast speed and that they would never be able to �ill enough of them to make a bonus.

The discussion reached a turning point when the group’s leader explained that it wasn’t that the painters couldn’t work fast enough to keep up with the hooks but that they couldn’t work at that pace all day long. The supervisor explored the point. The painters were unanimous in their opinion that they could keep up with the belt for short periods if they wanted. But they didn’t want to because, if they showed they could do this for short periods, then they would be expected to do it all day long. The meeting ended with an unprecedented request by the painters: “Let us adjust the speed of the belt faster or slower depending on how we feel.” The supervisor agreed to discuss this with the superintendent and the engineers.

The engineers reacted negatively to the suggestion. However, after several meetings it was granted that there was some latitude within which variations in the speed of the hooks would not affect the �inished product. After considerable argument with the engineers, it was agreed to try out the painters’ idea.

With misgivings, the supervisor had a control with a dial marked “Low, Medium, Fast” installed at the booth of the group leader. The speed of the belt could now be adjusted anywhere between the lower and upper limits that the engineers had set.

The painters were delighted and spent many lunch hours deciding how the speed of the belt should be varied from hour to hour throughout the day. Within a week the pattern had settled down to one in which the �irst half hour of the shift was run on a medium speed (a dial setting slightly above the point marked “Medium”). The next two and a half hours were run at high speed, and the half hour before lunch and the half hour after lunch were run at low speed. The rest of the afternoon was run at high speed with the exception of the last forty-�ive minutes of the shift, which was run at medium.

The constant speed at which the engineers had originally set the belt was actually slightly below the “Medium” mark on the control dial; the average speed at which the painters were running the belt was on the high side of the dial. Few, if any, empty hooks entered the oven, and inspection showed no increase of rejects from the paint room.

Production increased, and within three weeks (some two months before the scheduled ending of the learning bonus) the painters were operating at 30 to 50 percent above the level that had been expected under the original arrangement. Naturally, their earnings were correspondingly higher than anticipated. They were collecting their base pay, earning a considerable piece-rate bonus, and still bene�iting from the learning bonus. They were earning more now than many skilled workers in other parts of the plant.

Management was besieged by demands that the inequity between the earnings of the painters and those of other workers in the plant be recti�ied. With growing irritation between the superintendent and the supervisor, the engineers and supervisor, and the superintendent and engineers, the situation came to a head when the superintendent revoked the learning bonus and returned the painting operation to its original status: The hooks moved again at their constant, time-studied, designated speed. Production dropped again, and within a month all but two of the eight painters had quit. The supervisor stayed on for several months, but, feeling aggrieved, left for another job.

Review Questions How does the painters’ job score on the core job characteristics before and after the changes were made? How can the positive impact of the job redesign be explained?

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Was the learning bonus handled properly in this case? How can its motivational impact be explained? What alternative approaches could have been taken with similar motivational results?

How do you explain the situation described in the last paragraph of the case? How could this outcome have been avoided by appropriate managerial actions?

CASE 7 The Forgotten Team Member Developed by Franklin Ramsoomair, Wilfred Laurier University

The OB course for the semester appeared to promise the opportunity to learn, enjoy, and practice some of the theories and principles in the textbook and class discussions. Christine Spencer was a devoted, hard- working student who had been maintaining an A–average to date. Although the skills and knowledge she had acquired through her courses were important, she was also very concerned about her grades. She felt that grades were paramount in giving her a competitive edge when looking for a job and, as a third-year student, she realized that she’d soon be doing just that.

Sunday afternoon. Two o’clock. Christine was working on an accounting assignment but didn’t seem to be able to concentrate. Her courses were working out very well this semester, all but the OB. Much of the mark in that course was to be based on the quality of groupwork, and so she felt somewhat out of control. She recollected the events of the past �ive weeks. Professor Sandra Thiel had divided the class into groups of �ive people and had given them a major group assignment worth 30 percent of the �inal grade. The task was to analyze a seven-page case and to come up with a written analysis. In addition, Sandra had asked the groups to present the case in class, with the idea that the rest of the class members would be “members of the board of directors of the company” who would be listening to how the manager and her team dealt with the problem at hand.

Christine was elected team coordinator at the �irst group meeting. The other members of the group were Diane, Janet, Steve, and Mike. Diane was quiet and never volunteered suggestions, but when directly asked she would come up with high-quality ideas. Mike was the clown. Christine remembered that she had suggested that the group should get together before every class to discuss the day’s case. Mike had balked, saying “No way!! This is an eight-thirty class, and I barely make it on time anyway! Besides, I’ll miss my Happy Harry show on television!” The group couldn’t help but laugh at his indignation. Steve was the businesslike individual, always wanting to ensure that group meetings were guided by an agenda and noting the tangible results achieved or not achieved at the end of every meeting. Janet was the reliable one who would always have more for the group than was expected of her. Christine saw herself as meticulous and organized and as a person who tried to give her best in whatever she did.

It was now week �ive into the semester, and Christine was deep in thought about the OB assignment. She had called everyone to arrange a meeting for a time that would suit them all, but she seemed to be running into a roadblock. Mike couldn’t make it, saying that he was working that night as a member of the campus security force. In fact, he seemed to miss most meetings and would send in brief notes to Christine, which she was supposed to discuss for him at the group meetings. She wondered how to deal with this. She also remembered the incident last week. Just before class started, Diane, Janet, Steve, and she were joking with one another before class. They were laughing and enjoying themselves before Sandra came in. No one noticed that Mike had slipped in very quietly and taken his seat unobtrusively.

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She recalled the cafeteria incident. Two weeks ago, she had gone to the cafeteria to grab something to eat. She had rushed to her accounting class and had skipped breakfast. When she got her club sandwich and headed to the tables, she saw her OB group and joined them. The discussion was light and enjoyable as it always was when they met informally. Mike had come in. He’d approached their table. “You guys didn’t say you were having a group meeting,” he blurted. Christine was taken aback.

We just happened to run into each other. Why not join us?”

Mike looked at them noncommittal. “Yeah . . . right,” he muttered, and walked away.

Sandra Thiel had frequently told them that if there were problems in the group, the members should make an effort to deal with them �irst. If the problems could not be resolved, she had said that they should come to her. Mike seemed so distant, despite the apparent camaraderie of the �irst meeting.

An hour had passed, bringing the time to 3:00 p.m., and Christine found herself biting the tip of her pencil. The written case analysis was due next week. All the others had done their designated sections, but Mike had just handed in some rough handwritten notes. He had called Christine the week before, telling her that in addition to his course and his job, he was having problems with his girlfriend. Christine empathized with him. Yet, this was a group project! Besides, the �inal mark would be peer evaluated. This meant that whatever mark Sandra gave them could be lowered or raised, depending on the group’s opinion about the value of the contribution of each member. She was de�initely worried. She knew that Mike had creative ideas that could help to raise the overall mark. She was also concerned for him. As she listened to the music in the background, she wondered what she should do.

Review Questions How could an understanding of the stages of group development assist Christine in leadership situations such as this one?

What should Christine understand about individual membership in groups in order to build group processes that are supportive of her work group’s performance?

Is Christine an effective group leader in this case? Why or why not?

CASE 8 Teams Drive the Fast Cars When you think of auto racing, do you think of teamwork? Watch any televised race, and the better majority of the camera time is dedicated to the drivers and their cars. But in each of the three major forms of auto racing, the driver is simply one member of a larger team that works together to achieve maximum performance. And when the driver wins, the team wins as well.

In the world of competitive auto racing, the drivers are the sport’s rock stars. They’re courted by sponsors, adored by fans, and portrayed as the subject of interview upon interview by the racing press. It goes without saying that drivers are absolutely essential to earning a trophy, but racing enthusiasts, teammates, and especially drivers will tell you that they can’t win the race by themselves—it takes a successful team to win a race.

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Furthermore, while the driver is the most visible member of the team and certainly the one responsible for guiding the car, he’s not always calling the shots. The most successful teams rely on multiple sets of eyes to assess track conditions and identify opportunities to advance that drivers themselves can’t see from the cockpit.

Ray Evernham, crew chief and team manager for Hendrick Motorsports’s DuPont car, describes teamwork this way: “We’re all spark plugs. If one doesn’t �ire just right, we can’t win the race. So no matter whether you are the guy that’s doing the fabricating or changing tires on Sundays and that’s the only job responsibility you have, if you don’t do your job then we’re not going to win. And no one is more or less important than you.”1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr1) Although three of the major forms of professional auto racing—NASCAR, Formula One, and rally car racing—each utilizes different vehicles, rules, and team structures, teamwork is the common denominator among them.

What are the qualities of successful racing teams? Let’s take a look.

Nascar NASCAR is the most widely known and watched racing sport in the United States, and the popularity and success of Jeff Gordon has more than a little to do with that. Gordon has the most wins in NASCAR’s modern era, has the third-most all-time wins, and has become a spokesperson for the importance of teamwork in NASCAR racing.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr2) NASCAR has come a long way since its origins in the late 1940s in racing stock cars purchased directly from auto dealerships. Today’s NASCAR vehicles are custom fabricated from the ground up, although their thin metal bodies are molded in the shape of popular American sedans to re�lect the sport’s heritage. While most fans would be quick to point out the driver, manager, and pit crew as racing team members, shop mechanics, parts fabricators, and even aerodynamics experts are just as essential to a team’s performance.

It’s impossible for a car to complete a NASCAR race without multiple visits to the pit, and these pit stops are often the best example of teamwork in the sport. Pit crew members practice routine maintenance tasks like tire changes and refueling until they can execute them with lightning speed and the utmost precision. Aside from the skill and muscle memory of the pit crew members, other teammates contribute by modifying parts and equipment so they can be changed out in less time. Pit stops that would take mechanics twenty minutes or more to complete happen in less than twenty seconds.

Two-time Sprint Cup winner Jimmie Johnson cites the importance of cohesive teamwork even before a car is assembled and tested on the track. “If you really get inside each other’s heads, as the car is developed, you’re looking to split hairs,” Johnson said. “If you really know each other, then you know what each other is looking for, you’ve built that foundation and belief on the teammates [and] the engineers, you can split those hairs and get it right.”3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr3)

Formula One Formula One drivers, team members, and fans have one quality that sets them apart from other racing participants: the need for speed. Formula One vehicles are the fastest circuit racing cars in the world, screaming down the track at top speeds as high as 225 miles per hour.

But there’s another buzzword that equally de�ines Formula One racing: performance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo314) . Because of the high speeds racers achieve and the intense G-forces drivers and cars are subjected to, ensuring that Formula One cars perform ef�iciently and successfully throughout a race is literally a life-and-death matter.

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The term formula refers to a strict set of regulations teams must abide by when building their cars in order to keep the races competitive. Unlike in other racing sports, Formula One teams have been required to build their own chassis since 1981, so although teams procure specialized engines from speci�ic manufacturers, they are primarily responsible for building their cars from the ground up.

Each formula has its own set of rules that eligible cars must meet (Formula One being the highest and fastest of these designations), the idea being that these limitations will produce cars that are roughly equivalent in performance. Of course, that won’t always be the case, as teams work furiously to seek out every last bit of ef�iciency and performance while adhering to sport guidelines.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr4) Team members often lean heavily on aerodynamics, racing suspensions, and tires to achieve maximum performance.

The McLaren team is one of the most successful Formula One teams, and engineering director Paddy Lowe understands the behind-the-scenes dynamics that help great racing teams succeed. Speaking on the challenge of incorporating a new component into an existing car, he noted, “There weren’t actually that many issues, but we kept experiencing a variety of failures with our new exhaust system. We’d come into the circuit each morning thinking we’d �ixed the problems of the previous day, only to be met with a fresh series of trials the next day. Those days were very dif�icult for the team.

“You have to factor in the skill of the team to work together in a very short period of time to push in a completely different direction; to understand all the different issues. The reliability, the performance, the skills of the team, all the tools they’ve created over the years—they all came through to our pro�it. In those instances, there’s not a big discussion about who’s going to do what; there are very few instructions. Everybody moves seamlessly. They know what they’ve got to do.”5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr5)

BMW Motorsport Director Mario Theissen put it simply: “Teamwork is the key to success,” he said. “Of course the basis is formed by a competitive technical package, but without a well-integrated, highly motivated team, even the best car will not achieve prolonged success.”6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr6)

Rally Car Racing Whereas NASCAR and Formula One racers speed around a paved track, rally car racing frequently heads off the circuit and into territory that would make Dale Earnhardt step on the brakes: Finnish rallies feature long, treacherous stretches of ice and snow. The famed French Méditerranée-le Cap ran 10,000 miles from the Mediterranean to South Africa. The reputed Baja 1000 Rally ran the length of the Baja California peninsula, largely over deserts without a road in sight.

In rally car racing, drivers race against the clock instead of each other. Races generally consist of several stages that the driver must compete as quickly as possible, and the winning driver completes all stages in the least amount of time.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr7)

You could argue that of all racing sports, rally drivers are the most reliant on teamwork to win. Unlike other forms of circuit racing, not only is the driver not racing on a �ixed track, but he does not get to see the course before the race begins. Instead, he is wholly reliant on a teammate, the navigator, for information on upcoming terrain. Part coach and part co-pilot, the navigator relies on page notes (detailed information on the sharpness of turns and the steepness of gradients) to keep the driver on course from his place in the car’s passenger seat.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr8)

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Turkish driver Burcu Çetinkaya had already made a name for herself as a successful snowboarder before she decided to take up rally car racing at the age of twenty-four. “I grew up with cars,” she said. “After visiting my �irst rally when I was twelve, I made up my mind to be a rally driver.”9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr9)

“The thing that hooked me about rally driving was working together with a team for a common goal with nature working against you,” she said. “I love cars, �irst of all—I grew up with them and I love every part of them. And I love competition. I have been competing all my life. In a rally, these things come together: nature, competition, teamwork and cars.”10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr10)

You Can’t Have One Without the Other Though they may receive the lion’s share of the notoriety and adulation, racing drivers are only one member of a larger team, wherein every team member’s performance contributes to the team’s success. The best drivers don’t let the fame go to their heads. As Jeff Gordon—who knows a thing or two about success—put it, “The only way I can do my job correctly is to be totally clear in my mind and have 100 percent con�idence in every person’s job that went into this team so that they can have 100 percent con�idence in what I’m doing as a driver.”11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr8ntr11)

Review Questions What types of formal and informal groups would you expect to �ind in a racing team? What roles could each play in helping the team toward a winning season?

Racing teams and their leaders have to make lots of decisions—from the pressures of race day to the routines of everyday team management. When and in what situations would you see teams making decisions by authority rule, minority rule, majority rule, consensus, or unanimity? Are all of these decision approaches acceptable at some times and situations, or are some unacceptable at any time? Defend your answer.

Assume you have been retained as a team-building consultant by a famous and successful racing team whose performance fell badly during the prior season. Design a series of team- building activities you will lead the team in performing to strengthen their trust in each other and to improve their individual and collective efforts.

Choose a racing team of interest to you. Research the team, its personnel, and its performance in the most recent racing season. Try to answer this question: What accounts for this team’s success or lack of success—driver talent, technology, teamwork, or all three? Can you �ind lessons in the racing team that might apply to teams and organizations in any setting? If so, list at least three that you believe are valuable and transferable insights.

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CASE 9 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions Developed by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Ohio University

The Case of the Diamond Ring Setting—A woman is preparing for a job interview.

Dilemma—She wants the job desperately and is worried that her marital status might adversely affect the interview.

Decision—Should she or should she not wear her diamond engagement ring?

Considerations—When queried for a column in the Wall Street Journal, some women claimed that they would try to hide their marital status during a job interview.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr9ntr1) One said, “Although I will never remove my wedding band, I don’t want anyone to look at my engagement ring and think, she doesn’t need this job, what is she doing working?” Even the writer remembers that she considered removing her engagement ring some years back when applying for a job. “I had no idea about the of�ice culture,” she said. “I didn’t want anyone making assumptions, however unreasonable, about my commitment to work.”

Wellness or Invasive Coercion? Setting—Scotts Miracle-Gro Company, Marysville, Ohio.

Dilemma—Corporate executives are concerned about rising health-care costs. CEO Jim Hagedorn backs an aggressive wellness program and anti-smoking campaign to improve health of employees and reduce healthcare costs for the �irm. Scott employees are asked to take extensive health-risk assessments; failure to do so increases their health insurance premiums by $40 a month. Employees found to have “moderate to high” health risks are assigned health coaches and given action plans; failure to comply adds another $67 per month. In states where the practice is legal, the �irm will not hire a smoker and tests new employees for nicotine use. In response to complaints that the policy is intrusive, Hagedorn says, “If people understand the facts and still choose to smoke, it’s suicidal. And we can’t encourage suicidal behavior.”

Decision—Is Hagedorn doing the right thing by leading Scotts’s human resource policies in this direction?

Considerations—Joe Pellegrini’s life was probably saved by his employer. After urging from one of Scotts’s health coaches, he saw his doctor about weight and cholesterol concerns. This led to a visit with a heart specialist who inserted two stents, correcting a 95 percent blockage. Scott Rodrigues’s life was changed by his employer; he is suing Scotts for wrongful dismissal. A smoker, he claims that he was �ired after failing a drug test for nicotine even though he wasn’t informed about the test and had been told the company would help him stop smoking. CEO Hagedorn says, “This is an area where CEOs are afraid to go. A lot of people are watching to see how badly we get sued.”2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr9ntr2)

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Super Saleswoman Won’t Ask for Raise Setting—A woman is described as a “productive star” and “super-successful” member of an eighteen- person sales force.3

Dilemma—She �inds out that both she and the other female salesperson are being paid 20 percent less than the men. Her sister wants her to talk with her boss and ask for more pay. She says, “No, I’m satis�ied with my present pay, and I don’t want to ‘rock the boat’.” The sister can’t understand how and why she puts up with this situation, allowing herself to be paid less than a man for at least equal and quite possibly better performance.

Considerations—Women still earn only about 75 cents on the average for each dollar earned by a man. Some claim that one explanation for the wage gap and its growing size is that women tolerate the situation and allow it to continue, rather than confronting the gap in their personal circumstances and trying to change it.

Firm Goes Public with Annual Bonuses Setting—Executives released to the public information on the annual bonuses paid to store employees.

Dilemma—The bonus program has been in place for a number of years. The goal is to link employee motivation and performance with the �irm’s �inancial success. In the past each person’s bonus was considered a private matter and no bonuses were made public within the �irm. However, recently the �irm has released to the news media data on bonuses paid to lower-level employees. Coincidentally, the �irm has been receiving negative publicity about the low wages paid to employees and the minimal bene�its they are eligible to receive. A company spokesperson says that going public with the bonuses was not a response to such criticism.

Considerations—One employee said she received over $1,000 as a bonus, more than the prior year. But a critic stated that the �irm “gives executives millions in bonuses and the mere crumbs to the workers.”

Review Questions Critique the decisions being made in these situations. Identify how, where, and why different decisions might be made.

What are the issues involved in these situations? How are they best addressed by the decision makers?

Find other decision-making examples that raise similar issues and quandaries. Share them with classmates and analyze the possible decisions.

CASE 10 The Case of the Missing Raise Prepared by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

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It was late February, and Marsha Lloyd had just completed an important long-distance telephone call with Professor Fred Massie, head of the Department of Management at Central University. During the conversation Marsha accepted an offer to move from her present position at Private University, located in the East, to Central in the Midwest as an assistant professor. Marsha and her husband, John, then shared the following thoughts.

Marsha: “Well, it’s �inal.”

John: “It’s been a dif�icult decision, but I know it will work out for the best.”

Marsha: “Yes, however, we are leaving many things we like here.”

John: “I know, but remember, Professor Massie is someone you respect a great deal, and he is offering you a challenge to come and introduce new courses at Central. Besides, he will surely be a pleasure to work for.”

Marsha: “John we’re young, eager, and a little adventurous. There’s no reason we shouldn’t go.”

John: “We’re going, dear.”

Marsha Lloyd began the fall semester eagerly. The points discussed in her earlier conversations with Fred were now real challenges, and she was teaching new undergraduate and graduate courses in Central’s curriculum. Overall, the transition to Central had been pleasant. The nine faculty members were warm in welcoming her, and Marsha felt it would be good working with them. She also felt comfortable with the performance standards that appeared to exist in the department. Although it was certainly not a “publish or perish” situation, Fred had indicated during the recruiting process that research and publications would be given increasing weight along with teaching and service in future departmental decisions. This was consistent with Marsha’s personal belief that a professor should live up to each of these responsibilities. Although there was some con�lict evident among the faculty over what weighting and standards should apply to these performance areas, she sensed some consensus that the multiple responsibilities should be respected.

It was April, and spring vacation time. Marsha was sitting at home re�lecting upon her experiences to date at Central. She was pleased. Both she and John had adjusted very well to Midwestern life. Although there were things they both missed from their prior location, she was in an interesting new job and they found the rural environment of Central very satisfying. Marsha had also received positive student feedback on her fall semester courses, had presented two papers at a recent professional meeting, and had just been informed that two of her papers would be published by a journal. This was a good record, and she felt satis�ied. She had been working hard, and it was paying off.

The spring semester ended, and Marsha was preoccupied. It was time, she thought, for an end-of-the-year performance review by Fred Massie. This anticipation had been stimulated, in part, by a recent meeting of the College faculty in which the dean indicated that a 7 percent pay raise pool was now available for the coming year. He was encouraging department chairpersons to distribute this money differentially based on performance merit. Marsha had listened closely to the dean and liked what she heard. She felt this meant that Central was really trying to establish a performance-oriented reward system. Such a system was consistent with her personal philosophy and, indeed, she taught such reasoning in her courses.

Throughout May, Marsha kept expecting to have a conversation with Fred Massie on these topics. One day, the following memo appeared in her faculty mailbox.

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MEMORANDUM

TO: Fellow Faculty

FROM: Fred

RE: Raises for Next Year

The Dean has been most open about the �inances of the College as evidenced by his detail and candor regarding the budget at the last faculty meeting. Consistent with that philosophy I want to provide a perspective on raises and clarify a point or two.

The actual dollars available to our department exclusive of the chairman total 7.03 percent. In allocating those funds I have attempted to reward people on the basis of their contribution to the life of the Department and the University, as well as professional growth and development. In addition, it was essential this year to adjust a couple of inequities which had developed over a period of time. The distribution of increments was the following:

5 percent or less 3

5+ percent to 7 percent 2

7+ percent to 9 percent 3

More than 9 percent 2

Marsha read the memo with mixed emotions. Initially, she was upset that Fred had obviously made the pay raise decisions without having spoken �irst with her about her performance. Still, she felt good because she was sure to be one of those receiving a 9+ percent increase. “Now,” she mused to herself, “it will be good to sit down with Fred and discuss not only this past year’s efforts, but my plans for next year’s as well.”

Marsha was disappointed when Fred did not contact her for such a discussion. Furthermore, she found herself frequently involved in informal conversations with other faculty members who were speculating over who received the various pay increments.

One day Carla Block, a faculty colleague, came into Marsha’s of�ice and said she had asked Fred about Marsha’s raise. She said that Marsha received a 7+ percent increase and also learned that the two 9+ percent increases had been given to senior faculty members. Marsha was incredulous. “It can’t be,” she thought. “I was a top performer this past year. My teaching and publications records are strong, and I feel I’ve been a positive force in the department.” She felt Carla could be mistaken and waited to talk the matter out with Fred.

A few days later another colleague reported to Marsha the results of a similar conversation with Fred. This time Marsha exploded internally. She felt she deserved just reward.

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The next day Marsha received a computerized notice on her pay increment from the Accounting Of�ice. Her raise was 7.2 percent. That night, after airing her feelings with John, Marsha telephoned Fred at home and arranged to meet with him the next day.

Fred Massie knocked on the door to Marsha’s of�ice and entered. The greetings were cordial. Marsha began the conversation. “Fred, we’ve always been frank with one another, and now I’m concerned about my raise,” she said. “I thought I had a good year, but I understand that I’ve received just an average raise.” Fred Massie was a person who talked openly, and Marsha could trust him. He responded to Marsha in this way.

“Yes, Marsha, you are a top performer. I feel you have made great contributions to the department. The two nine-plus percent raises went to correct ‘inequities’ that had built up over a period of time for two senior people. I felt that since the money was available this year, I had a responsibility to make the adjustments. If we don’t consider them, you received one of the three top raises, and I consider any percentage differences between these three very super�icial. I suppose I could have been more discriminating at the lower end of the distribution, but I can’t give zero increments. I know you had a good year. It’s what I expected when I hired you. You haven’t let me down. From your perspective I know you feel you earned an ‘A,’ and I agree. I gave you a ‘B-plus.’ I hope you understand why.”

Marsha sympathized with Fred’s logic and felt good having spoken with him. Although she wasn’t happy, she understood Fred’s position. Her �inal comment to Fred was this: “You know, it’s not the absolute dollar value of the raise that hurts. It’s the sense of letdown. Recently, for example, I turned down an extensive consulting job that would have paid far more than the missing raise. I did so because I felt it would require too many days away from the of�ice. I’m not sure my colleagues would make that choice.”

In the course of a casual summer conversation, Carla mentioned to Marsha that she had heard two of the faculty who had received 4+ percent raises had complained to Fred and the dean. After lodging the complaints, they had received additional salary increments. “Oh, great,” Marsha responded to herself, “I thought I had put this thing to rest.”

About three weeks later, Marsha, Fred, Carla, and another colleague were in a meeting with the dean. Although the meeting was on a separate matter, something was said which implied that Carla had also received an additional pay increment. Marsha confronted the dean and learned that this was the case. Carla had protested to Fred and the dean, and they had raised her pay on the justi�ication that an historical salary inequity had been overlooked. Fred was visibly uncomfortable as a discussion ensued on how salary increments should be awarded and what had transpired in the department on this matter.

Fred eventually excused himself to attend another meeting. Marsha and the others continued to discuss the matter with the dean, and the conversation became increasingly heated. Finally, they each rose to terminate the meeting. Marsha felt compelled to say one more thing: “It’s not that I’m not making enough money,” she said to the dean, “but I just don’t feel I received my fair share, especially in terms of your own stated policy of rewarding faculty on the basis of performance merit.”

With that remark, Marsha left the meeting. As she walked down the hall to her of�ice, she said to herself, “Next year there will be no turning down consulting jobs because of a misguided sense of departmental responsibility.”

Review Questions What is Marsha’s con�lict management style, and how has it in�luenced events in this case? What were Marsha’s goals, and what con�lict management style would have worked best in

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helping her achieve them?

What is Fred’s con�lict management style and how has it in�luenced events in this case?

Once Marsha found out what her raise was to be, how could she have used the notion and elements of distributive negotiation to create a situation in which Fred would make a raise adjustment that was favorable and motivating for her?

CASE 11 The Poorly Informed Walrus Developed by Barbara McCain, Oklahoma City University

“How’s it going down there?” barked the big walrus from his perch on the highest rock near the shore. He waited for the good word.

Down below, the smaller walruses conferred hastily among themselves. Things weren’t going well at all, but none of them wanted to break the news to the Old Man. He was the biggest and wisest walrus in the herd, and he knew his business, but he had such a terrible temper that every walrus in the herd was terri�ied of his ferocious bark.

“What will we tell him?” whispered Basil, the second-ranking walrus. He well remembered how the Old Man had raved and ranted at him the last time the herd had caught less than its quota of herring, and he had no desire to go through that experience again. Nevertheless, the walrus noticed for several weeks that the water level in the nearby Arctic bay had been falling constantly, and it had become necessary to travel much farther to catch the dwindling supply of herring. Someone should tell the Old Man; he would probably know what to do. But who? and how?

Finally Basil spoke up: “Things are going pretty well, Chief,” he said. The thought of the receding water line made his heart grow heavy, but he went on: “As a matter of fact, the beach seems to be getting larger.”

The Old Man grunted. “Fine, �ine,” he said. “That will give us a bit more elbow room.” He closed his eyes and continued basking in the sun.

The next day brought more trouble. A new herd of walruses moved in down the beach and, with the supply of herring dwindling, this invasion could be dangerous. No one wanted to tell the Old Man, though only he could take the steps necessary to meet this new competition.

Reluctantly, Basil approached the big walrus, who was still sunning himself on the large rock. After some small talk, he said, “Oh, by the way, Chief, a new herd of walruses seems to have moved into our territory.” The Old Man’s eyes snapped open, and he �illed his great lungs in preparation for a mighty bellow. But Basil added quickly, “Of course, we don’t anticipate any trouble. They don’t look like herring eaters to me. More likely interested in minnows. And as you know, we don’t bother with minnows ourselves.”

The Old Man let out the air with a long sigh. “Good, good,” he said. “No point in our getting excited over nothing then, is there?”

Things didn’t get any better in the weeks that followed. One day, peering down from the large rock, the Old Man noticed that part of the herd seemed to be missing. Summoning Basil, he grunted peevishly. “What’s

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going on, Basil? Where is everyone?” Poor Basil didn’t have the courage to tell the Old Man that many of the younger walruses were leaving every day to join the new herd. Clearing his throat nervously, he said, “Well Chief, we’ve been tightening up things a bit. You know, getting rid of some of the dead wood. After all, a herd is only as good as the walruses in it.”

“Run a tight ship, I always say,” the Old Man grunted. “Glad to hear that all is going so well.”

Before long, everyone but Basil had left to join the new herd, and Basil realized that the time had come to tell the Old Man the facts. Terri�ied but determined, he �lopped up to the large rock. “Chief,” he said, “I have bad news. The rest of the herd has left you.” The old walrus was so astonished that he couldn’t even work up a good bellow. “Left me?” he cried. “All of them? But why? How could this happen?”

Basil didn’t have the heart to tell him, so he merely shrugged helplessly.

“I can’t understand it,” the old walrus said. “And just when everything was going so well.”

Review Questions What barriers to communication are evident in this fable?

What communication “lessons” does this fable offer to those who are serious about careers in the new workplace?

CASE 12 Political Behavior Analysis Developed by John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., Ohio University

Read the following incidents and answer the following questions for each:

To what extent are power and politics already at play in this situation?

How might one of the actors in the incident use power and politics to achieve advantage in the situation described?

Incident 1: New Product Development Two research scientists are competing for an internal new product development award worth $300,000 and a nice résumé boost. Scientist A is technically the stronger of the two. She is also relatively quiet, reserved, and modest in her dealings with co-workers and higher management. Scientist B is technically good and is considered a good candidate for a management position sometime in the future. He is outgoing, networks widely, and is a real self-promoter. After the proposals were submitted, Scientist A went back to work to await �inal word on the winner. Scientist B began an aggressive campaign to win the award by making sure that those in charge of the decision and others knew why his proposal should be considered the best one.

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Incident 2: Career Advancement A young woman has been with the �inancial services �irm for two years. She is happy with the work, pleased with her responsibilities, and looking forward to career advancement within the �irm. During a casual conversation over coffee she has just learned that a male colleague with less time at the �irm has gone to higher management and negotiated a special off-cycle pay raise. The colleague is now earning more, in fact quite a bit more, than she is. The �irm’s CEO has made many public statements supporting career advancement for women. The culture is one in which no one is supposed to talk about their pay with others inside or outside the �irm. The young woman wants more pay and is now unhappy in a situation that she had previously found very satisfying.

Incident 3: Headphones On in the Of�ice Saul, aged twenty-�ive, has just started a new job where everyone works in an open-plan of�ice. He’s been there about three weeks and is content. A music lover, he has been wearing headphones during the day while working on the computer. Yesterday a colleague who Saul guesses to be about forty to forty-�ive years old, offered him some “advice.” “You should take off the headphones in the of�ice,” she said, “that’s not the way we do things here. People are starting to say that you aren’t friendly and tend to be a loner.” This caught Saul by surprise since he has the headphones on most of his free time as well, and he thinks the music helps him stay relaxed and focused while doing detailed computer work. Nobody said anything about such things when he interviewed, and he can’t �ind any company policy or rule that forbids wearing headphones at work. He likes the job, even likes the people, but he doesn’t like being told to take the headphones off.

CASE 13 Selecting the New Vice President Note: Please read only those parts identi�ied by your instructor. Do not read ahead.

Part A When the new president at Mid-West U took over, it was only a short time before the incumbent vice president announced his resignation. Unfortunately, there was no one waiting in the wings, and a hiring freeze prevented a national search from commencing.

Many faculty leaders and former administrators suggested that the president appoint Jennifer Treeholm, Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs, as interim. She was an extremely popular person on campus and had ten years of experience in the role of associate vice president. She knew everyone and everything about the campus. Treeholm, they assured him, was the natural choice. Besides, she deserved the job. Her devotion to the school was unparalleled, and her energy knew no bounds. The new president, acting on advice from many campus leaders, appointed Treeholm as interim vice president for a term of up to three years. He also agreed that she could be a candidate for the permanent position when the hiring freeze was lifted.

Treeholm and her friends were ecstatic. It was high time more women moved into important positions on campus. They went out for dinner to their every-Friday-night watering hole to celebrate and re�lect on

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Treeholm’s career.

Except for a brief stint outside of academe, Treeholm’s entire career had been at Mid-West U. She started out teaching introductory history, then, realizing she wanted to get on the tenure track, went back to school and earned her Ph.D. at Metropolitan U while continuing to teach at Mid-West. Upon completion of her degree, she was appointed as an assistant professor and eventually earned the rank of associate based on her popularity and excellent teaching.

Treeholm was well liked, and she devoted her entire life, it seemed, to Mid-West, helping to form the �irst union, getting grants, writing skits for the faculty club’s annual follies, and going out of her way to befriend everyone who needed support.

Eventually, Treeholm was elected president of the faculty senate. After serving for two years, she was offered the position of associate vice president. During her ten years as associate vice president, she handled most of the academic complaints, oversaw several committees, wrote almost all of the letters and reports for the vice president, and was even known to run personal errands for the president. People just knew they could count on her.

Review Questions At this point, what are your predictions about Treeholm as the interim vice president?

What do you predict will be her management/leadership style?

What are her strengths? Her weaknesses? What is the basis for your assessment?

After you have discussed Part A, please read Part B.

Part B Treeholm’s appointment as interim vice president was met with great enthusiasm. Finally the school was getting someone who was “one of their own,” a person who understood the culture, knew the faculty, and could get things done.

It was not long before the campus realized that things were not moving and that Treeholm, despite her long-standing popularity, had dif�iculty making tough decisions. Her desire to please people and to try to take care of everyone made it dif�icult for her to choose opposing alternatives. (To make matters worse, she had trouble planning, organizing, and managing her time.)

The biggest problem was that she did not understand her role as the number-two person at the top of the organization. The president expected her to support him and his decisions without question. Over time the president also expected her to implement some of his decisions—to do his dirty work. This became particularly problematic when it involved �iring people or saying “no” to longtime faculty cronies. Treeholm also found herself uncomfortable with the other members of the president’s senior staff. Although she was not the only woman (the general counsel, a very bright, analytical woman was part of the group), she found the behavior and decision-making style to be different from what she was used to handling.

Most of the men took their lead from the president and discussed very little in the meetings. Instead, they tried to in�luence decisions privately. Often, a decision arrived in a meeting as a fait accompli. Treeholm felt excluded and wondered why, as vice president, she felt so powerless.

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In time, she and the president spent less and less time together talking and discussing how to move the campus along. Although her relations with the men on the senior staff were cordial, she talked mostly to her female friends.

Treeholm’s friends, especially her close-knit group of longtime female colleagues, all assured her that it was because she was “interim.” “Just stay out of trouble,” they told her. Of course this just added to her hesitancy when it came to making tough choices.

As the president’s own image on campus shifted after his “honeymoon year,” Treeholm decided to listen to her friends rather than follow the president’s lead. After all, her reputation on campus was at stake.

Review Questions What is the major problem facing Treeholm?

What would you do if you were in her position?

Would a man have the same experience as Treeholm?

Are any of your predictions about her management style holding up?

Part C When the hiring freeze was lifted and Treeholm’s position could be �illed, the president insisted on a national search. Treeholm and her friends felt this was silly, given that she was going into her third year in the job. Nonetheless, she entered the search process.

After a year-long search, the search committee met with the president. The external candidates were not acceptable to the campus. Treeholm, they recommended, should only be appointed on a permanent basis if she agreed to change her management style.

The president mulled over his dilemma, then decided to give Treeholm the bene�it of the doubt and the opportunity. He appointed her permanent provost, while making the following private agreement with her.

She would organize her of�ice and staff and begin delegating more work to others.

She would “play” her number-two position, backing the president and echoing his position on the university’s vision statement.

She would provide greater direction for the deans who report to her.

Treeholm agreed to take the position. She was now the university’s �irst female vice president and presided over a council of eleven deans, three of whom were her best female friends. Once again, they sought out their every-Friday-night watering hole for an evening of dinner and celebration.

Review Questions If you were Treeholm, would you have accepted the job?

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What would you do as the new and permanent vice president?

Will Treeholm change her management style? If so, in what ways?

What are your predictions for the future?

Part D Although people had predicted that things would be better once Treeholm was permanently in the job, things in fact became more problematic. People now expected Treeholm to be able to take decisive action. She did not feel she could.

Every time an issue came up, Treeholm would spend weeks, sometimes months, trying to get a sense of the campus. Nothing moved once it hit her of�ice. After a while, people began referring to the vice president’s of�ice as “the black hole” where things just went in and disappeared.

Her immediate staff members were concerned and frustrated. Not only did she not delegate effectively, but her desire to make things better led her to try to do more and more herself.

The vice president’s job also carried social obligations and requests. Here again, she tried to please everyone and often ran from one evening obligation to another, trying to show her support and concern for every constituency on campus. She was exhausted, overwhelmed, and, knowing the mandate under which she was appointed, anxious about the president’s evaluation of her behavior.

The greatest deterioration occurred within her dean’s council. Several of the male deans, weary of waiting for direction from Treeholm regarding where she was taking some of the academic proposals of the president, had started making decisions without Treeholm’s approval.

“Loose cannons,” was how she described a couple of them. “They don’t listen. They just march out there on their own.”

One of the big problems with two of the deans was that they just didn’t take “no” for an answer when it came from Treeholm. Privately, each conceded that her “no” sounded like a “maybe”—she always left room to renegotiate.

Whatever the problem—and there were several by now—Treeholm’s ability to lead was being questioned. Although her popularity was as high as ever, more and more people on campus were expressing their frustrations with what sometimes appeared as mixed signals from her and the president and sometimes was seen as virtually no direction. People wanted priorities. Instead, crisis management reigned.

Review Questions If you were president, what would you do?

If you were Treeholm, what would you do?

Conclusion Treeholm had a few retreats with her senior staff. Each time, she committed herself to delegate more, prioritize, and work on time management issues, but within ten days or so, everything was back to

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business as usual.

The president decided to hire a person with extensive corporate experience to �ill the vacant position of vice president of �inance and administration. The new man was an experienced team player who had survived mergers, been �ired and bounced back, and spent years in the number-two position in several companies. Within a few months he had earned the respect of the campus as well as the president and was in fact emerging as the person who really ran the place. Meanwhile, the president concentrated on external affairs and fund-raising.

Treeholm felt relieved. Her role felt clearer. She could devote herself to academic and faculty issues and she was out from under the pressure to play “hatchet man.”

As she neared the magic age for early retirement, Treeholm began to talk more and more about what she wanted to do next.

CASE 14 Zappos Does It with Humor Zappos.com (http://www.Zappos.com) customers are known for their �ierce loyalty, and it’s easy to see why. CEO Tony Hsieh has built a billion-dollar business providing happiness to his customers, employees, and even fellow businesspeople seeking to learn more about the company’s unique blend of humor, compassion, and high-quality customer service. How does Zappos do it?

Unusual Leader Faces Unusual Circumstances No stranger to high-pressure conversations, Zappos CEO Tony Hsieh recently found himself discussing a very familiar topic under unusual circumstances.

Hsieh was the featured guest on The Colbert Report, where host Stephen Colbert grilled Hsieh to learn the secrets of Zappos’s phenomenal success and rabid customer loyalty. Hsieh simply replied that it’s Zappos’s goal to deliver WOW in every shoe or clothing box. When Colbert pressed him to explain, Hsieh elaborated that, among other tactics, loyal Zappos customers are sometimes treated to a complementary upgrade to overnight shipping. “A lot of people order as late as midnight Eastern, and the shoes show up on their doorstep eight hours later,” he explained.

Seemingly speechless, Colbert peered over his glasses and only said, “Wow.”1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr1)

From Start-up to One of Fortune’s Best Places to Work The brainchild of Hsieh and founder Nick Swinmurn, Zappos.com (http://www.Zappos.com) launched in 1999, selling only shoes complemented with the unique premise to deliver happiness with every customer interaction. By 2001, gross sales had reached $8.6 million. That number nearly quadrupled to $32 million in 2002. A few years later, Zappos caught the eye of Amazon’s Jeff Bezos. He liked what he saw and spent $928 million to buy the �irm for Amazon’s business stable in 2009.

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Today, the company is one of Fortune’s 15 Best Companies to Work For and continues to earn more than $1 billion annually. Zappos ful�illment centers currently stock more than three million shoes, handbags, clothing items, and accessories from over 1,130 brands.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr2)

Zappos Grows, Amazon Buys In Zappos sees a lot of potential in continuing to expand beyond shoes. While footwear still constituted 80 percent to 85 percent of Zappos’s business last year, Hsieh wants Zappos’s clothing lineup to be another billion-dollar business, and he’s working hard to attain that goal within the next three years. “Hopefully, ten years from now, people won’t even realize that we started selling shoes,” he said.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr3)

Under Amazon, Zappos has maintained its focus on customer service. For Hsieh, the Zappos brand is less about a particular type of product and more about providing good customer service. He remarked that he could see the Zappos name on things as large as airlines or hotels, as long as the service was up to his exacting standards. “We could be in any industry that we can differentiate ourselves through better customer service and better customer experience,” he said.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr4) This customer-�irst strategy is working out in a big way for the company: At last count, over 75 percent of its customers are repeat customers.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr5)

Customers Get Special Handling The blog search engine Land calls Zappos “the poster child for how to connect with customers online.” It uses Facebook and Twitter to connect with their customers, distributors, employees, and other businesses.

The company’s relentless pursuit of the ultimate customer experience is the stuff of legend. Zappos offers extremely fast shipping at no cost and will cover the return shipping if you are dissatis�ied for any reason at any time.

Hsieh, who was unsurprisingly named “The Smartest Dude in Town” by business magazine Vegas Inc., feels employees have to be free to be themselves. That means no-call times or scripts for customer service representatives, regular costume parties, and parades and decorations in each department. Customer service reps are given a lot of leeway to make sure every customer is an enthusiastic customer.

A Culture to Thrive In Zappos’s past success comes down to the company’s culture and the unusual amount of openness Hsieh encourages employees, vendors, and other businesses. “If we get the culture right,” he says, “most of the other stuff, like the brand and the customer service will just happen. With most companies, as they grow, the culture goes downhill. We want the culture to grow stronger and stronger as we grow.”

Like other CEOs in it for the long haul, Hsieh is forecasting Zappos’s success and the brand experience he intends to deliver years into the future. “Many companies think only one quarter ahead, or one year ahead,” he said. “We like to think about what we want our brand and culture to be like ten or even twenty years down the line. In general, with a ten-to twenty-year timeline versus a three-to �ive-year timeline,

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relationships are much more important. What you do after taking someone’s money, such as customer service, matters much more than what you do to get their money, such as marketing.”6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr6)

A Culture to Share In fact, Hsieh believes so strongly in the organizational culture that encompasses Zappos’s desire to satisfy that he’s on a mission to share it with anyone who will listen via tours of their headquarters, leadership retreats, and even two new books.

It comes together in a program called Zappos Insights. The core experience is a tour of Zappos’s Las Vegas headquarters. “Company Evangelists” lead groups of twenty around the cubicles, which often over�low with kitschy action �igures and brightly colored balloons, giving participants a glimpse of a workplace that prizes individuality and fun as much as satis�ied customers. Staffers blow horns and ring cowbells to greet participants in the sixteen weekly tours, and each department tries to offer a more outlandish welcome than the last. “The original idea was to add a little fun,” Hsieh says, but it grew into a friendly competition “as the next aisle said, ‘We can do it better.’”7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr7)

The tours are free, but many visitors actually come for paid one- and two-day seminars that immerse participants in the Zappos culture. Want to learn how to recruit employees who are committed to your company culture? You’ll get face time with Zappos HR staff. Yearn to learn what keeps customers coming back? Ask their Customer Loyalty Team. Hungry for a home-cooked meal? The capstone of the two-day boot camp is dinner at Tony Hsieh’s house, with ample time to talk customer service with the CEO himself. Seminars range from $497 to $3,997.

“There are management consulting �irms that charge really high rates,” says Hsieh. “We wanted to come up with something that’s accessible to almost any business.”8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr8)

Those who want to learn Zappos’s secrets without venturing to Las Vegas have a few options. For $39 a month, you can subscribe to a members-only community that grants access to video interviews and chats with Zappos management. Ask nicely, and the company will send you a free copy of its Zappos Family Culture Book, an annual compilation of every employee’s ideas about Zappos’s mission and core values. Hsieh has his own tome, too—Delivering Happiness.

They may be giving away hard-earned knowledge, but Zappos de�initely isn’t losing money on the Insights project—pro�its from the seminars pay for the entire program, and Hsieh hopes it will someday represent 10 percent of Zappos’s operating pro�it.

“There’s a huge open market,” says Robert Richman, co-leader of Zappos Insights. “We were afraid that we’ve been talking about this for free for so long. ‘Are people going to be upset we are charging for it?’ Instead, the reaction is opposite.”9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes1#cr14ntr9) Now that Zappos is part of Amazon, will it still prosper and grow? Will the company continue to put customers �irst?

Review Questions

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What traits of effective leadership does Tony Hsieh demonstrate at Zappos? What aspects of his leadership can you criticize, if any? Is his approach transferable to other leaders and other organizations, or is it person and situation speci�ic?

Can you �ind examples of where any of the contingency theories of leadership can be con�irmed or discon�irmed in the Zappos setting? Explain your answer.

Tony Hsieh is a big thinker, and Zappos is clearly his baby. But he’s also into philanthropy and community development activities that are taking up more of his time. Perhaps he’ll come up with other new business ideas as well. As a leadership coach, what steps would you recommend that he take now to ensure that his leadership approach and vision lives on at Zappos long after his departure? What can a strong and secure leader like him do to ensure a positive leadership legacy in any situation?

CASE 15 Never on a Sunday Developed by Anne C. Cowden, California State University, Sacramento

McCoy’s Building Supply Centers of San Marcos, Texas, have been in continuous successful operation for over seventy years in an increasingly competitive retail business. McCoy’s is one of the nation’s largest family-owned and family-managed building-supply companies, serving 10 million customers a year in a regional area currently covering New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. McCoy’s strategy has been to occupy a niche in the market of small and medium-size cities.

McCoy’s grounding principle is acquiring and selling the �inest-quality products that can be found and providing quality service to customers. As an operations-oriented company. McCoy’s has always managed without many layers of management. Managers are asked to concentrate on service-related issues in their stores: get the merchandise on the �loor, price it, sell it, and help the customer carry it out. The majority of the administrative workload is handled through headquarters so that store employees can concentrate on customer service. The top management team (Emmett McCoy and his two sons, Brian and Mike, who serve as co-presidents) has established eleven teams of managers drawn from the different regions that McCoy’s stores cover. The teams meet regularly to discuss new products, better ways for product delivery, and a host of items integral to maintaining customer satisfaction. Team leadership is rotated among the managers.

McCoy’s has a workforce of 70 percent full-time and 30 percent part-time employees. The �irm has a longstanding reputation of fair dealing that is a source of pride for all employees. McCoy’s philosophy values loyal, adaptable, skilled employees as the most essential element of its overall success.

In order to implement this philosophy, the company offers extensive on-the-job training. The path to management involves starting at the store level and learning all facets of operations before advancing into a management program. All management trainees are required to relocate to a number of stores. Most promotions come from within. Managers are rarely recruited from the outside. This may begin to change as the business implements more technology requiring greater reliance on college-educated personnel.

A strong religious belief and a strong commitment to community permeate all that McCoy’s does. Many McCoy family members are Evangelical Christians who believe in their faith through letting their “feet do

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it”—that is, showing their commitment to God through action, not just talk. Although their beliefs and values permeate the company’s culture in countless ways, one very concrete way is re�lected in the title of this case: “Never on a Sunday.” Even though it’s a busy business day for retailers, all 103 McCoy’s stores are closed on Sunday.

Review Questions