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Chapter12InstructorNotes.docxChapter 12 Instructor Notes – “Virtue Ethics and the Good Life ”
I. Introduction:
Community service is increasingly required of college students with some arguing that this is real opportunity for the development of moral character and sentiment. Others argue that mandatory benevolence is shallow and/or may incline students away from these sorts of actions in the future. The position of virtue ethics argues that: “It is through habituation, the repeated performance of good works, that we become virtuous: (383). It “emphasizes right being over right action” (384) but acknowledges that the focus on being virtuous provides a grounding that leads to moral acts.
A moral virtue is “an admirable character trait or disposition to habitually act in a manner that benefits oneself and others” (384). The integration of these virtues into an “overarching character of goodness or excellence” is an interest in Christianity (compassion, courage, generosity, loyalty), Hinduism (nonviolence, truth, purity and self-control) and Confucian “Jen” (benevolence, love, affection, compassion). A vice by contract is a character trait or disposition to act in ways that harm ourselves or others.
Aristotle divided virtues into: intellectual (excellence in reasoning that includes wisdom – the most important of virtues -and prudence) and moral virtues which are acquired by habit. Moral virtues are driven by reason and intention. Natural virtues, according to Aristotle, (gentleness, compassion, friendliness, and others) are traits that even animals can demonstrate and that are desirable, but are not moral as they do not involve the formation of intentions (385). Like Aristotle, one of the prima facie duties of Ross is self-improvement – development of a virtuous character.
Until we learn to be virtuous ourselves, we should follow the example of moral leaders and consider how they would likely respond in a situation. Some of the moral leaders who may serve as role models and can be counted upon to act in a manner that benefits others are Harriet Tubman, Buddha, Jesus, Socrates, and MLK Jr. These people show a propensity as well for supererogatory actions (386).
Virtue ethics focuses on psychological well-being of humans. It is part of our ultimate purpose as individuals. Intentions stem from an underlying concern for the well-being of others and themselves, or what Aristotle calls “a certain frame of mind” (387). A good-will has to be cultivated. We have discussed the importance of good-will for Kant also (for a reminder see p. 388).
II. Aristotle: Reason and Virtue
“Western philosophy has long considered reason to be more important than sentiment or emotions. ‘Moral’ sentiments such as sympathy have often been dismissed as residual instincts belonging to our lower or animal nature” (389). Aristotle is largely responsible for this position with his distinction between moral and natural virtues above discussed. Aristotle believed that all life has a function that is peculiar to its particular life form. For humans, our role was to exercise reason and this was the only way to be truly virtuous (389).
Immorality results from a dis-ordered psyche, so our goal is to apply reason to an understanding of the virtues and how to obtain them through a corrective process that draws us ever nearer to a good-life and well-formed character. A principle way to accomplish this task (for Aristotle and Confucius and Islam) is to act according to the “Doctrine of the Mean” (391). “According to the doctrine of the mean, virtues generally entail moderation or seeking the middle path between excess and deficiency. This is not a wishy-washy, indecisive position, but one that boldly asserts that the middle ground is nearly always the correct one. The mean is to some extent based on the individual person as well as his or her culture. As Confucius would say “when traveling the Way, we must start from the nearest point (392). In other words, we access our natural tendencies, either to deficit or excess and slightly overshoot the target of virtue toward the other extreme. By doing so, we are likely to end up behaving closer to virtue. Aristotle put it this way:
1) Keep away from that extreme which is opposed to the mean
2) Note the errors into which we personally are most liable to fall
3) Always be particularly on your guard against pleasure and pleasant things [other than those that come from being virtuous] (393).
[Consult Table 12.1 on page 392]. We must also be aware (following Hinduism) that we may become so self-absorbed in an attempt to achieve perfection that we are no longer able to relate well to others (393).
III. David Hume: Sentiment and Virtue
Contrary to most western philosophers, David Hume believed that sympathy and caring are the most important virtues. Sympathy forms the heart of our conscience. Hume also disagreed with the rationalists regarding the role of reason in willing actions. He was himself described as one of the most pleasant and sweet-tempered men ever born (394). Hume’s claim that “sympathy is the greatest virtue, and cruelty…the greatest vice” (394) has some empirical support (appropriate for this empiricist). One of the primary values of sympathy is that it opens us up by breaking down the us-v-them mentality that often leads to marginalization or elimination of consideration of what should members of our moral community.
Key claims of Virtue Ethics:
· Right being, or the type of person we are, is more important that right action
· A virtue is a character trait or disposition to habitually act in a manner that benefits ourselves and others.
· A virtuous person, as a person of good will, is more likely to do what is right
· Virtue contributes to our moral well-being as well as our happiness
· In general, virtue entails hitting the mean between excess and deficit.
IV. Nel Noddings: Feminist Care Ethic
Feminist Ethics involve the re-thinking of traditional ethics to create a non-sexist, gender-equal ethics that takes into account the importance of moral sentiment in women’s moral reasoning. There are several approaches (maternal ethics, lesbian ethics, care ethics, and ecofeminism) (396).
Most believe that gender differences are a combination of nature and nurture and that the issues that arise within families “private worlds” have too often been ignored by philosophy. Care ethics also believe that it is care, not rational calculations or an abstract sense of duty that create moral obligations (398). Caring is seen as an active virtue. Active virtues require two things: the sentiment of natural caring and love, which is our response to the remembrance of caring. Care ethics does not advocate for complete self-sacrifice. Nel Noddings includes only humans in the moral community because only humans are capable of being in reciprocal relationships. A criticism of this position is that by requiring a reciprocal relationship, the ethic is not broad enough to address many moral concerns (400). It has also been accused of fostering injustice by reinforcing the traditional role of women as care-givers. It is also worth noting that care ethics and deontological positions often seem to complement each other (400-401).
V. Is Virtue Relative to Culture, Social Status, and Gender?
Most people seem to agree on what is a virtue and what is a vice (402) within a culture. Women and men within that culture will often place different emphasis on which of the virtues are more important.
Cultural: Although different cultures and groups of people may emphasize different virtues (sociological relativism), this does not mean that virtue is culturally relative in the sense that virtue is a cultural creation. The similarities appear to outweigh the disagreement (self-control, peacefulness, amity, courteousness,…) A list from 4,000 years ago is very close to one’s developed recently. Still, our culture does influence the way in which virtues are expressed (403-404). “Certain basic virtues, as Aristotle noted, seem to be necessary for our well-being as humans and for the achievement of the good life, no matter who are or where we live” (404).
Virtue development: virtue development occurs within community, not in isolation. “The virtues of independence and economic success that we emphasize in the United States…might not be moral virtues at all, because, in general, they do not benefit, but rather harm, the individual…our push of self-reliance has become so extreme that it appears to have become a vice” (407).
VI. Moral Integrity and the Unity of Virtue
This section of the text again stresses the importance of virtues being integrated into fully formed moral character such that people are habituated toward spontaneously wanted to perform good deeds. It also highlights several traditions: Christianity, Taoism, Confucian Ethics, Islamic Ethics, and several others that place emphasis on the importance of virtue development as “no good tree bears bad fruit.” The cultivation of virtue and good will is a lifelong process.
VII. Virtue and Moral Education
Are people basically good or evil? Taoism, Confucianism, Rousseau, Thoreau, Locke tend to come down on the side of humans being fundamentally good by nature. Still, moral education may be required to develop our natural inclinations. The cultivation of virtue also requires willpower and practice. According to Aristotle, it is easier to be virtuous if we are trained early in life, but like any art or craft, if we fail to practice, we lose the skills required and have to re-learn. Continuous practice, like playing an instrument makes it much easier to remember and to improve.
VIII. Critique of Virtue Ethics (414-415)
1. The primary criticism is that it is incomplete, by not placing enough emphasis on actions.
2. Virtue alone does not offer sufficient guidance for making moral decisions in the real world as the principles of utility and Kant’s imperatives attempt to do. Virtue ethics does not suggest that we ignore moral principles. They are saying the virtue is more fundamental.
3. Virtue ethics, and particularly feminist care ethics, does not pay enough attention to the considerations of justice and impartiality. It may also reinforce gender stereotypes.
4. Virtue ethics goes beyond pure duty and rights-based ethics by challenging us to rise above ordinary moral demands. Christina Sommers argues that we are placing too much responsibility for the well-being of others onto institutions, what is required instead is for virtuous persons to step up on take on these acts of kindness.
