English Final

The Importance of Rhetoric

12.1 Describe some of the key issues in rhetorical communication.

The rhetorical tradition lies at the heart of communication studies. Since the days of Aristotle in ancient Greece, rhetoric has been considered the art of persuasion. Among the many ways that communication operates, the Greeks felt that the ability to influence how others view the world on various issues was paramount. Rhetoric's practice is contingent on culture, political arrangements, and social contexts and conventions. For example, how might courtroom rhetoric differ among people who believe in magic, witches, and the presumption of guilt from a courtroom rhetoric among people who believe in DNA, forensic science, and the presumption of innocence? Or in a political system with a dictator versus one with elected officials? We'll look at the changing notions of rhetoric as cultures and societies have differed. First, let's look at how rhetoric functions in our society.

What Is Rhetoric? A Broader View

12.2 Identify cultural and social influences on the development of rhetoric.

When you think of rhetoric, you may think about overblown statements, exaggerations, or even outright lies and misstatements —as in "Oh, that's just a bunch of political rhetoric." Unfortunately, this dismissive view of rhetoric is all too common today. However, as we saw in the preceding section, rhetoric has a rich history, and it serves important functions in a democratic society. As you saw in the opening example about debates regarding Black Lives Matter, rhetoric in its truest sense refers to communication that is used to influence others. Thus, rhetoricians would view the president's communication following September 11, 2001, not as simply an attempt to provide information but also as an attempt to guide U.S. Americans to view this topic in a way that suits his particular goals. In both the historical and the contemporary sense, rhetoric focuses primarily on public communication or messages designed to influence large audiences.

More than 50 years ago, communication professor Douglas Ehninger suggested that throughout history people have had different ideas of what rhetoric is and the purposes it serves (1967). Ehninger's thinking sparked interest in connecting rhetoric to the cultural, social, and historical forces that exist in any particular time and in exploring how these forces shape rhetoric. Therefore, scholars began to research the ways that rhetoric serves social needs in societies around the world. For example, they looked at how the uses of rhetoric in a religious state may differ from those in a secular one. In addition, their research showed that the methods and reasons that people speak out in public depend on how such communication is received.

Although Ehninger focused on the European tradition, his argument stirred interest in understanding how non-Western cultures developed their own rhetorical traditions (Lucaites et al.,1999).

The European rhetorical tradition is only one of many in the world, and public communication functions in different ways in other places. It can, however, be difficult to research and study rhetoric historically or globally because the word rhetoric is not used in all cultures to describe that which is called "rhetoric" in the European tradition. The term comes to the English language from the Greek word rhetorike. However, it is important to note that the concept of "rhetoric" can likewise exist in non-Greek cultures whether or not a synonym for the specific word exists in other languages. A rhetor is a person or institution that addresses the public. Public address can happen without reference to the public speech forums of Greek democracy and Roman republicanism. George Kennedy, a scholar of the ancient world, focuses less on the word and more on the concept itself: "Rhetoric is apparently a form of energy that drives and is imparted to communication. ... All communication carries some rhetorical energy" (1998, p. 215). In this sense, rhetoric is not a cultural phenomenon unique to the West, but it is a facet of communication across cultures; it is the motive for communicating.

Culturally, the social position of the rhetor often determines their right to speak or to access civic speaking spaces. In some cultures, it is important that the rhetor is an elder or that he be male or come from a high-status family. In others, everyone is able to speak. These cultural differences influence who has the ability to speak and who needs to study rhetoric to be the most capable communicators.

To understand how these social positions differ across cultures, it is important to seek out the structures of different cultures and societies. In some cultures, people rise to leadership positions by being democratically elected, whereas in other cultures leaders gain and hold onto power through financial prowess, political intrigue, or military force. Religious leaders sometimes hold the most powerful positions. Some cultures are led by a group instead of a single leader. Relationships to certain families, credentials from certain schools, or even one's physical attractiveness can lead to empowerment (or disempowerment). Yet how one's rhetoric is received is dependent on one's social position.

Some rhetorical critics have strategically located rhetoric in spaces traditionally disassociated from civic forums. For example, the kitchen, and kitchen table talk specifically, has been a domestic site of transformative dialogue for many women. This was especially so during America's twentieth-century civil activist history. Today, many Black feminist scholars feature the kitchen table as a metaphor for a place where rhetoric is in action. Even if it is not a location for

legislation, women who have been excluded from public domains of political action have debated political issues and spread word about community at their hearths. In this way, rhetorical criticism can analyze classical modes of rhetoric by changing where we think rhetoric takes place.

As you think about the role of rhetoric around the world, consider how decisions are made in different societies. You might also contemplate how our own culture is changing as we take part in public debates over such far-reaching topics as same-sex marriage, immigration reform, retirement and pension plans, and more.

The Rhetor: Rhetoric's Point of Origin

12.3 Identify and define the three artistic proofs of ethos, pathos, and logos.

It is conventional to think about a rhetor as a specific public speaker; for example, when the president speaks to the nation, the president is a rhetor. As notions of rhetoric have expanded over time, however, corporations, organizations, and governments have also come to be thought of as rhetors. Thus, a rhetor is the originator of a communication message, not necessarily the person delivering it.

Like other areas of communication studies, the study of rhetoric acknowledges the relationship between individual forces and societal forces. In this segment of the chapter, we look at the individual forces that make for more or less effective rhetors. These forces include the rhetor's artistic proofs, position in society, and relationship to the audience.

The Individual, Rhetoric, and Society

12.4 Explain four functions of rhetoric: reaffirming cultural values, increasing democratic participation, securing justice, and promoting social change.

Because rhetoric always arises within a specific social context, its functions can vary considerably. The distinct cultural forces that influence a particular society should be considered when studying its rhetoric. In the United States today, rhetoric serves four important democratic functions that form the basis of how we come to decisions and work together collectively. We will look at these four functions next.

Ethics and Rhetoric

12.5 Understand the ethical issues facing rhetors and audience members.

Concerns about ethics and rhetoric have been a mainstay in rhetorical studies since the origins of rhetoric. From ancient Greeks to contemporary thinkers, rhetoricians have wrestled with the best ways to be ethical in using and consuming rhetorical messages. There have been many debates over what is ethical and unethical in attempting to persuade others to view the world as the rhetor does. Although most would agree that the use of outright deception or lying would be unacceptable, there is no set list of rules that are universally agreed on to guide your ethical choices. In building a rhetorical case advocating a particular way of viewing a topic-for example, death penalty, abortion, financial reform —be aware of the choices that the rhetor is making. Is the best available evidence being used? Is the message adapted to the audience?

During the 2016 election, Melania Trump faced backlash after giving a speech at the Republican National Convention that mirrored a speech Michelle Obama gave in 2008. Watch the video, and then answer the questions that follow.

It is important to be aware of the language that is used. Obviously, pejorative terms for members of various cultural groups should be avoided because it is unethical to dismiss entire groups of people with negative terms. Sometimes rhetors demean or disparage particular social groups, either overtly or subtly. When someone engages in this communication behavior, much of the audience may turn against the rhetor. For example, when Mayor Barry Presgraves of Luray, Virginia, referred to Kamala Harris with a racist and sexist term, he felt the need to apologize: "Passing off demeaning and worn-out racial stereotypes as humor isn't funny. I now fully understand how hurtful it is. I can and will do better, and we can all do better. We must. From the bottom of my heart I am sorry and humbly ask for your forgiveness and your grace" (qtd. in VanHoose, 2020).

Aside from such obvious choices, you should also consider your use of what rhetorician Richard Weaver described as "god terms" and "devil terms" (1985). These terms too easily lead (or mislead) people without critical reflection. God terms are words such as freedom, equality, and so on. Devil terms are similar but negative, such as communist, nazi, and so on. God terms and devil terms must be used carefully because they can serve more as propaganda than rhetoric, and when we hear those terms, we should carefully consider what the rhetor is trying to persuade us to think or do.

Rhetorical ethics are also focused on the ends or goals of the rhetorical messages. For example, if someone is trying to convince people that we should undertake the genocide of a

particular cultural group, does it matter if they do not lie or fabricate any evidence in making the argument? So, ethics in rhetoric include a consideration of the goals of the rhetoric. What do these rhetorical messages encourage us to do or to think?

Social media present new challenges to the need to think through how we attempt to persuade others to view the world as we do (and vice versa). The Internet not only reproduces and reflects larger social issues, but it can also shape the ways that the rhetorical discussions take place (Nakamura & Chow-White, 2012). You may have encountered many problematic comments online. This phenomenon is interesting in that it creates a space for people to try to align others to their worldviews. Because of the rhetorical power of social media, there has been much pressure put on Facebook, Iwitter, and other platforms to regulate what happens there. In response, Twitter has permanently banned white supremacist and former Ku Klux Klan member David Duke (Effron, 2020), and Twitter has also taken down thousands of accounts associated with Anon, a group that promotes conspiracy theories, with one of their central beliefs that "Mr. Trump ran for office to save Americans from a so-called deep state filled with child-abusing, devil-worshipping bureaucrats" (Conger, 2020). Chapter 14 explores social media in more detail, but the rhetorical power of these platforms can shape how people view the world whether those views are true in Plato's sense or not.

Guidelines to Become an Ethical Receiver

Using what you know about rhetoric, then, what can you do to become an ethical receiver of rhetorical communication? Here are some guidelines:

• Be willing to listen to a range of perspectives on a particular topic. Although you may not initially agree with a particular rhetor, you should consider their perspective (Makau, 1997), including why you do or do not agree.

• Be willing to speak out if you know that a rhetor is giving misinformation or deceiving an audience.

• Don't be silenced by information overload. If a speaker gives too much information, focus on the main points and be critical of this kind of presentation.

• Listen critically to the rhetor; don't accept the arguments presented at face value.

• Be willing to speak out publicly if a rhetor communicates in a way that dehumanizes or demeans others (Johannesen, 1997).

• Listen to and fairly assess what you hear, which may require that you postpone judgment until you hear the entire message.

• Be willing to change your mind as more evidence becomes available.

Using Your Rhetorical Skills: Speaking in Public

12.6 Identify the basic steps in preparing a speech.

Throughout this chapter, we have discussed rhetoric primarily from the viewpoint of the receiver or critic. But we can also be rhetors by writing for an audience, by using other media such as video to reach audiences, and by practicing the art of public speaking. Becoming an effective rhetor is important because speaking in public is a cornerstone of our participatory democracy in the United States. Citizens need to become adept public speakers so that they can advocate for what they think is best (Gayle, 2004). Learning to speak up for your interests can also improve your satisfaction from participating in student organizations, as well as in local organizations such as a city council or a volunteer group. Public speaking skills are also important for success in most jobs. Increasingly, businesses want employees who can speak well in meetings and in public settings outside the organization (Osterman, 2005).

In the following sections, we introduce the basic elements of speech preparation. We 1l look at the range of communication events in which people may be called to speak, the importance of understanding audiences, and the basics of constructing, organizing, and delivering a speech. These elements supply the foundations for effective public speaking.