Read Chapter 11 and 12 and complete the review questions. Due in 20 hours!

~ ------ •

The Research Paper: Using Sources, Writing, and Revising

•

352 W

·t·,ng and Revising U · sources n ' Chapter 12 The Research Paper: sing ' .

. . y ur Argument L01 Plan and organize your argument.

Table 12.1

CLAIMS OFFACT Claim with reasons Induction

Chronology or narra tive

Organ1z1ng O . ---------. h Id think about your claim. What type f Before you be~in drafting, yo~~ ~umethod of organization and types of ~ claiiii are you planmng to_ ma~e? 7 0

:e you have some preliminary ideas abouuPP 0 rt are best suited to this c~a~ - , ~ anize your notes. t Your argument, you can outlme it .. an org

Matching Patterns and Support to Clairns -----Some of the organizational patterns are particularly appropriate for specific tYPes f claims. Table 12 .1 (below) suggests patterns you might want to consider as pro~. ising for particular argumentation purposes. You could, of course, combine mo

1 b . . h re than one pattern to develop a paper. For exan:i,p e, you may . egm wit a narrative of what happened, then describe its causes and effects, and finally propose a solu-

tion for dealing with the problems created by the effects. When you use organizational patterns to help you think, these same patterns can function to organize your ideas into a complete argument. However, the patterns may be too constraining if you start with one and try to fill it in with your material. If you prefer to work with ideas first, without the conscious constraints of a pattern to guide you, at some point patterns of argumentation must be

Appropriate Patterns for Developing Types of Claims (in Descending Order .of Suitability)

CLAIMS CLAIMS CLAIMS OF DEFINITION OF CAUSE OF VALUE Deduction Cause and effect Applied criteria

CLAIMS OF POLICY Problem-solution

-Claim with Claim with Cause and effect Applied criteria . reasons reasons Compare and Rogerian ---Claim with Cause and effect contrast argument reasons Cause and effect Rogerian Deduction -----Chronology or Claim with argument

Rogerian narrative Exploration Exploration r~~~?~ argument Rogerian Ro gerian Exploration Induction

argument argu~~ Induction

Exr1.~ Deduction

. -·· ---------Compare and contrast

~ Exploration

Matching Patterns and Support to Claims 353

.d d When you are finished or ne 1 f· · h

ns1 ere · . ' ar Y lllls ed, organizing your research

co . move out of the creative Il l.ode d · h • •

and ideas, . . an uuo t e cntical mode to analyze

hat you have done. You may fm? that Y ou have arranged your ideas according

w one or more of the pattems Without being co nsciously aware of it. This is a

to on discovery. Now use what you k now about the patterns to improve and

~9nui;,n the divisions among Your ideas a nd to clarify these ideas with transitions.

sharJl ill ultimately improve the readability o f your paper by making it conform

you w losely to one or more specific patte rns of organization. ·

mor:ime proofs and support work bet.te r !han others to establish different types

. s I Table 12.2 offers suggestions, not ru les, for you to consider. Remember

of \laim · . ty of types of proof and a gener ous amount of specific support create ht a vane .

t a t most convincing argument pa pers. the bes,

Table 12.2

CLAIMS OFFACT

Facts

Statistics

Real examples

Quotations

from reliable

authorities

Induction

· te Proofs and Support That Are Particu larly Appropna

for Developing Specific Types of Cla ims

CLAIMS OF DEFINITION

Reliable authorities

Accepted sources

Analogies with

the familiar

Examples (real

or made up)

Signs

CLAIMS OF CAUSE

Facts

Statistics

Historical analogies

Literal analogies

Signs

Induction

CLAIMS OF VALUE

Value proofs

Motivational proofs

Literal analogies

Figurative analogies

Quotations from reliable authorities

Induction

CLAIMS OF POLICY

Facts

Motivational proofs

Value proofs

Literal analogies

Reliable authorities

Deduction

Literal and historical analogies

Signs

Definition ~

·- , Deduction Sign! __ - ------ · · ---St~istk s

=---~ I 1Dri-efinition - Quotations

Informed opinion

from reliable

authoriti~s .

. Table 12 .2 . They tions m . f the sugges . Argum ent.

for some o ·c1 e "Toulmm on EhJ1inger . heir aru ,

d Douglas f claims m t

E Brockriede an different sorts o I 960): 44--53 .

ti arn indebted to Wayne . ppropriate for I of Speech 46 (

f oof as a 1 Journa

identily some types o pr _ . • Qua rterY

An Interpretation an P d A p ltcauon.

-·

1¥ 5 @M working Title: "The Big Barbie Controversy" StrategyforPaiar

~~=~•~7,:::=~~:,,':,,~ ::i,:o;;;:;~;,.-:;~g~~:-=~= n • rolo~l<>rb<J ildi"9 girtl'i<lf• .. •• om•ndbad fo,U1•l!IU'Po<e;«>n<ludeb)'stotiagtllit sarbi• ;, n• itl'tr ~oo~ ""' i,.<I and d>ou ld not be the foc u, ot thi< ;,..,,; in<toad , ~ re11U .-,:I co,nmuriO/•ro,.,pomibloforhelpiog chll<lt• nb<J il(l,. lf~t Offll. V• luo <lalmatthet<'od Introduction (Summary of Po$itions in EXploratory Paper a nd Background History)

I My ,:nlklhood into,est inBar--he< . My,in «-1dnint~ro,t . I F•m ini<m-l>owch• fllledmyl'l<lw;n,w, o,pe<tfo,,incr I N""' '°'""""""""'"-la<blo Just • dollwilhmi,rKetat>o apJ><al I Hi<tor,-ofBarbiedoll:"°"'c""ce pt inl9S9;otfer,ch0k"> tO gir~~d• .-.a, of ,v;rn,

Is Barbie Good for Girls' Confidllnce and Self-Esteem ? l ,. powufu l i<on;••-ol doll'spopularil)' I ~~y• ::.:h-:::~:/i~ ri~i~u~~,;:~~l~•~:-s:.::=:~~~;i~~lt~:td•;:~ roie!t'Od<lbe-c1use<hee&nbkeonmanyfol0<

--...____

)llt

llt, )llt

the llal ::ed io11 :::i -ay rts. led . It ive

lncorporat" ing Research into Y .

- our First Draft Sample Outline

continued

• • • Is Barbie Bad for . Girls' Conf"d

t Criteria for showing 8 b. 1

ence and Self-Est d

. d ar ie is bad f eem., 1sor ers; encourages t or girls: she •

s ereotypes; is a ne . creates a poor bod im t • I Refutation· D gat1ve role model. Y age; encourages eating

. oes Ba b" r ie Have to Be E"th

t Refute those who say all bad· a . 1

er Good or Bad? everything that might b · norexia older than Barb· .

t R f t th e a negative influence. ie, cannot protect children from e u e ose who say all good·

limited insight into themselve~ people who played with Barbie still self-c ·t· I · . n 1ca and have

t •• Conclusion

It is not Barbie's responsibilit t y o create a self-image in children.

• t • Claim

Adults and society are responsible for children's s If . . . . e -images. Barbie is being used as a scapegoat.

Note that this outline is worked out in detail in some areas but not in others. !he id~as in it so far, however, belong to the author. The peer group that critiques it at this stage would be able to help the author decide whether she has gathered enough source material to write a credible paper or whether she needs to read and take more notes. When your own research seems to be complete, and you have on fil e the notes you intend to include in the paper, they can now be cross-referenced to your outline and placed in the order in which you will use them in the paper. You are ready to write the draft next. Most of the material in the paper will be your own insights, observations, ideas, and examples. The researched material will be incorporated into the paper to add information, interest, clarity, and credibility.

355

Incorporating Research into Your First Draft

L02 Incorporate research into your first draft.

- be read easily whil e, at

Y h d

ment that can • 1 ours our obiective is to create a smoot ocu ctly which rnatena

5 are Y

J readers exa · t help you the same time, demonstrating to your oere are sorne sugge

5t wns

0

•de sources . . n anct which are drawn from outSI

accomplish this.

I II

'I 1

1

1

:1' I' ,, 11

356

. . and Revising writing, . Using sources, Chapter 12 The Research Paper. t have the controlling voice in

. I sparingly. you want opaper should be made up of d~O\ir ted ,nateria t of your 1 lteq 1. Use quo ore than 20 percen When you do quote, se ect material th paper. _No mf other people's wordds.. the quoted words. at quotations O db st state 10 . ;nteresting, vivid, an e u do not know enough to use your oi 1s .,,.. . when yo . th 1111 ra hrase or summarize rds to rephrase or su~ar~ze o er People's 2. Pa p t' s Use your own wo . the dominant v01ce m your paper explana ion · . so that yours 1s . · explanations and ideas ith your own words mste~d ~f a quotation 3. Begin and end your paper ::her people's ideas. The begmnmg and end ar~ raphrase or summary of best ideas there, not someone else's pa ' . per Put your · emphatic places m a pa · or summary in your paper so that you t' n paraphrase, k . 1 h r 4 Introduce each quota w , . . al material. Ma e it c ear w ere You . readers will know who wrote the ohr191:omeone else's begin. Introduce eac~ 1 off and w ere f h words and ideas eave with the name o t e person you are quotation, paraph~ase,. ~r su~;:;rer adding a description of that person's quoting or otherwise c1tmg. h nd authority. . 1 stablish his or her et os a credent1a s to e that it flows with the rest of th t ti n into your paper so e 5. Integrate every quo a O d Work in the quotations so that they make text and makes sense to the rea er.

sense in context. . lse and you want to use that quote m your own 6. If your ~uthor quohtes somt e;ne ~y indicating who originated it. Make clear you paper, introduce t e quo a ion ,

are quoting someone your source-quoted. . 7. Cite the source of the quotation, paraphrase, or summary m _ par~nt~eses at the end of it. Further instructions for writing in-text parenthetical citations are given in the Appendix to this chapter.

Write all quotations, paraphrases, and summaries into your first draft so that your entire paper will be in place for smooth reading.

CLEARLY IDENTIFY WORDS AND IDEAS FROM ALL SOURCES TO AVOID PLAGIARIS M Whenever you use quoted, paraphrased, and summarized material from other sources in your paper, you must indicate where your words leave off and someone else's begin, and you must identify the original source for all borrowed material. Sometimes students mix their words in with the words of the author they are quoting and, as a result, the reader cannot easily sort out the students' words from those of the person being quoted. This is a form of plagiarism. Plagiarism is a ~ery serious offense. Be sure to carefully document your sources using the guidelines given in the Appendix to this chapter.

DOCUMENT YOUR SOURCES Some o_f the n_iain features of source acknowle~gment are ex plained in ~: Appendix to this chapter on pages 362-402. Use this section as a reference gUJ when you are working borrowed material into your paper and when you are

t

~r 1e

L re 111

ry _es

Making R ·. ev,s,ons and Pre ·

preparing the final list of the w k

paring the Final Copy 357

Your rea der about exactly wha

t or s Y?u have used. T hese h

1 d material in

met ods will inf

other peop e, an where you found th your

paper is yours what b 1 orm

As you incorporate bo rrowed e ~aterial in y

our resear~h e ongs to

11 material fr h

·

to fo ow a system and a set of con .

om ot er sources you will

T h ventions that h b

' need

purpose. wo sue syst ems are described later

. as een prescribe d for this

is recommended by the Modern Lang

m_ t~e chapter: MLA styl e whi h

· · · I · uage Assoc1at1o f

' c

hum~t1es, IS exp ame d first. MLA documenta

tio n or papers writt en in the

to acknowledge the wor k of other indi . d 1

. n sty1e provides advi ce on how

full information about t hese sources . VI u1

_a s m,,your paper itself a nd how to give

11 . h . ma ist of Works C"t d

" h

paper. Fo owmg t e dis cussion of MLA t 1

. 1 e at t e end of your

style format (pages 363 -383 ). It was wrtu~::

aar~;earched position pap er~ MLA

example when you wri te your own pa S Y

d udent, and you can u se It as an

of this paper. They dem onstrate how pqer. t tdu

y dthe annotations in the margins

d · uo e an summarized

material b

incorporate mto paper s and acknowledged

ct· can e

. h accor mg to MLA style

Answer the

questions t at accompa ny this paper (page 383

) t f h d 1 · .

. . MLA t 1 o urt er eve op your ex

pertise

m usmg s ye.

The second documenta tion style is AP A style, r

ecommended by the Am ·

h l · l A · • encan

Psyc o ogica s~ociat10 n for papers written in

education and the social sciences.

APA documentat10n cal ls for a somewhat differ

ent system from MLA. Inf ormation

is provided for citing so urces in the text of an

APA-style paper and listi ng these

sources on a "Reference s" page at the end. A st

udent paper written in A PA style

provides an illustration of this documentation

format (pages 392-401).

Other documentation styles, not described in

this text, include CSE s tyle,

which is recommended by the Council of Scie

nce Editors for scientific papers,

including natural scienc es, chemistry, geograph

y, and geology; and Chica go style,

the ityle recommended by the University of Chic

ago Press. Chicago style is followed

throughout this book. I f an instructor asks you

to use CSE or Chicago s tyle in a

paper, consult the Inter net or a published I!lanu

al for guidelines. No matt er which

system you use while w riting a paper, be consis

tent, and never mix style s.

Making Revisions and Pr eparing

the Final Copy -

·n t all get a version of you r paper that

It may take several tries , but you w1 even k uh

yh 1 of yo ur peer editing group, a

You are ready to show to other readers. See t ~

e Ph u have improved your

d once agam w . en yo .

will

tutor your instructor or other rea ers

' • e at this point, yo u

, , When you arnv

. d ys to

Paper as much as possib le on your own.

ader will always fm wa k a

thin d However a new re

. d Jet others ta e

k your paper is pretty g oo · . h ' to put as

ide pnde an ally adds to

i,-.,.. h" · the time t en,

( dears) usu

~uprove your paper. T i s IS . , A fresh set

of e~es ai:i f al revision p rocess,

final look at what you ha ve ~1tten.accomplish. D

unng th1sh~~ you identify and

the careful refining you a re trymg to he Toulmin

model to P .

also use t You and your readers ca

n r paper. .

t in you reVise the major eiemen

5

L03 Revise and

prepare your

fi nal research

draft.

358

Writing, and Revising r· Using sources,

Chapter 12 The Research Pape .

L04 Present your research oral ly to your class .

. ? Is it well positioned? 1 . Is it clear. h h?

1. Find your c aim. . f our support. Is t ere enoug . Is it reie uantity and quality o Y Vann

2. Check the~ . and accurate? Is it authontauve l'kely to be acceptable to your audience?

ts Are they 1 · 3. Check your warran · rants Should you explain backing for

ki g for your war · 1 Your

4 Think about bac n nd more acceptab e to your audience? . ke them stronger a .

warrants to ma . u have one. Does it effectively address the opposin 5. Focus on your rebuttal, if yo g

arguments? If· Would a qualified claim make your arg1un 6. Consider a qualifier. Ask yourse . en1

stronger? . d these questions, it is time to prepare the final copy

Once you have rev1ewe h Appendix to this chapter for further details on using MLA or AP A format. See t e

formatting. and proofread it one last time. Correct all of Finally spell-check your paper, . d h

' f' d Errors in a research paper amage your et os with the errors that you can m · 11 1 1 mmunicate that you do not rea y va ue your own your readers. Care ess errors co k . . .

di When your paper is as error-free as you can ma e It, His work or your au ence. ready for submission.

Present Your Paper Orally to the Class Your instructor may ask you to present the results of your research to the class in the form of oral argument. Like written and visual argument, oral argument possesses special features that make it uniquely effective for presenting arguments. Listed below are a few of these advantages.

I. Oral argument is immediate. When the speaker and the audience ~re together in the same physical location, face to face, the potential for effecnve argument is greatly enhanced. This is true of all forms of oral argument, whether spoken, chanted, or sung. Tb.e physical presence of an effective speaker intensifies what is said, and the audience is thus more likely to pay attention and be influenced. Furthermore, a good speaker is always aware of the audience and c~ adapt both words and delivery to keep listeners' attention and infl uence theID in desired ways. At times, the effectiveness of oral argument can be enhanced bylbe use of multimedia tools such as PowerPoint, slide shows, and video.

2. Oral argument employs physical as well as verbal strategii~:,. speakers are bl · fl · · eakers a e to m uence percept10n m ways that writers cannot. For exa ..:'aple, sp ·cal

can_ use physical gestur~s, vocal inflecti?ns, facial expressions, eye contact, phY51 e!l settmg, dress, and physical appearance m effective and dramatic ways to strength delivery and make their words more powerfully convincing.

,,,e,if 3. Oral argument usually employs a less formal style than w ritten argtt . e!l

and can be easier to respond to and understand. When compared with w~ttds, argument, oral argument usually has fewer main points, more support of all ~er. and more obvious transitions to help the listener move from one idea to ano

d

lil an enh Exercises a d . such informality results · ,011unon groun between th anced rap n Activities

359

ar~ent, when compared e ~Peaker and th::: _and the establishmen audience and makes it ea . with wntten arg dience. The informality t of more s1er for li ument is ft of spok and become convinced steners to P '

0 en more invif en . ay attention b li mg to an

Analyze oral argument . ' e eve the speaker

argument. That is, when liste Just as you would wr"t , stand the rhetorical situati ~mg to oral argument ' ten, visual, or multimedi on, analy h ' you can rec · a and expose fallacies· apply th ze t e use of lo,go h ogmze and under-

Id

' e Toulmin s, et os and th as you wou when reading model; and mak h, . pa os; identify

h d f

an essay O

· e et ical jud rnet o so analysis when y r viewing a visu I gments, just explains how to prepare yoou create oral argument. Exe:;r8;:"'ent. Apply these class. ur researched position pa f se on pages 360-361 per or oral presentation in

Review Questions

1. What steps can you take t . h

O av01d plagiarism h researc materials into your draft w en you are incorporating copy? (L02) and when you are preparing the final

2. What is the purpose of the "Works Cit ,, page (APA)? (L02) ed page (MLA) and the "References"

spec1a eatures of oral argument? (L03) 3. What are some of the · I f

Exercises and Activities

A. Writing A ssignment: The Researched Position Paper

1. Write a list, outline, or partial manuscript that will serve as a plan for your paper, and bring it to class. Refer to the example on pages 354-355 in this chapter. In peer editing groups of three or four students, explain to the group what your paper is about, and how you plan to organize and develop it.

Suggestions from the others can help with ideas and organization, as well

as adding research. Decide whether or not to add images or graphics as

support. 2. Create a class peer critique sheet. The peer critique sheet provides a guide for critiques and revision. Make a list of all of the special requirements for a . I I I . d te support, dear

researched position paper: a ut e, a c ear c am1, a equa . . . . S Iect five to ten items

organization, accurate documentauon, and so on- e ·der during . . . l 1 rnents to cons1 from this list that you beheve are essenua e e h e sheets in your . . sheet use t es revision. Organize them on a peer cnuque d ·t papers and make good . . . d"vidual stu en

peer editing group to cnuque in 1

recommendations for revision- . ·1 to class. At this point, it is · e it and bring 1 d · u ideas 3. Write a draft of your paper, re;o;le read your paper _an g~:eiso created

useful to have one or rnorde rnaY use the peer cnnque s . your rea ers

for improving 11

·