need a reading response. ( two pages, in 5 hours)

11/1/2017 Yuzu: Psychology of Gender: Fourth Edition

https://reader.yuzu.com/#/books/9781317345046/cfi/6/42!/4/2/2/12/4@0:0 1/2

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jobs available to younger people. This is one reason many organizations are offering incentives to retire early. In 1930, 5.4% of the population was over 65; in 2008, 12% of the population was over 65.

If work is associated with good health, what is the effect of retirement on health? One determinant will be whether the person chooses to retire or feels forced to retire. People who are forced to retire and retire early due to health reasons do not benefit from retirement as much as people who choose to retire (Brockmann, Muller, & Helmert, 2009; van Solinge, 2007). Longitudinal studies have linked retirement to improved mental health in both women and men in the United States (Mandai & Roe, 2008), in France (Westerlund et al., 2009), and in Switzerland (Mojon-Azzi, Sousa-Poza, & Widmer, 2007).

Who benefits the most from retirement? One study showed that people with higher incomes benefit the most from retirement (Price & Balaswamy, 2009). This is likely due to the fact that high income can be translated into more discretionary money to spend on leisure activities during retirement. However, another study showed that people benefited more from retirement when they had low job satisfaction, low occupational status, or worked in poor environmental conditions (Westerlund et al., 2009). These people would have more to gain from retirement because retirement would signify the removal of sources of stress.

Given these facts, do women and men benefit equally from retirement? The evidence here is contradictory. Retired women show better psychological and physical health than women who did not work outside the home (Silver, 2010), but a selection effect could explain these findings. If healthier people select into the paid workforce, they may still have better health when they retire than those who did not select into the paid workforce. Research that compares the effect of retirement on women and men has revealed inconsistent findings: One study showed women benefited more from retirement than men (Mandai & Roe, 2008), one study showed that retirement is a greater risk for mortality for men than women (Pizzetti & Manfredini, 2008), some studies showed no differences (Mojon-Azzi et al., 2007; Westerlund et al., 2009), and one study showed women gained more weight following retirement compared to men because men were more active than women after retirement (Forman-Hoffman et al., 2008).

What are the reasons for these contradictory findings? The effects of retirement not only depend upon whether one chooses to retire, the income available after retirement, and the centrality of paid work to one’s sense of self, but also on the context in which retirement occurs. Retirement is more likely to take place in the context of other life events for women. Women are more likely than men to retire due to family obligations— caring for an ill spouse, a parent, or a relative. These life events have a stronger effect on women’s than men’s adjustment to retirement because the life events are more strongly linked to caregiving responsibilities for women.

TAKE HOME POINTS

Paid employment has a positive effect on both women’s and men’s health. The effects may be stronger among men, supporting the differential vulnerability hypothesis, but this difference may be due to the fact that men and women who are not in the paid labor force are not the same. Men who are not in the paid labor force are likely to be unemployed, whereas women who are not in the paid labor force are likely to have opted out of paid labor to work inside the home. Although there is a selection effect, meaning that the healthiest people are likely to become employed, longitudinal studies show that employment leads to good health for women and men. Control theory explains how women’s paid employment can influence both women’s and men’s health: Increased relative income has a positive effect on health, whereas increased family demands have a negative effect on health. The effect of retirement on health depends on whether the person chooses to retire and the circumstances surrounding retirement. Retirement takes place in the context of other life stressors that entail caregiving responsibilities for women.

COMBINING PAID LABOR WITH FAMILY ROLES

11/1/2017 Yuzu: Psychology of Gender: Fourth Edition

https://reader.yuzu.com/#/books/9781317345046/cfi/6/42!/4/2/2/12/4@0:0 2/2

Historically, men have easily combined the roles of paid worker, spouse, and parent. Today, more women are combining all three of these roles. The labor force participation rates of married women are as high as, or even higher than, those of unmarried women. In 2007, 69% of married women with children were employed; 75% of women with children between the ages of 6 and 13 and 62% of women with children under 6 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Women with children are not necessarily employed full time, however. More married than unmarried women work part time, especially if they have children. Many reasons account for the sharp increase in the number of married working women since 1960. Desire for more income is one reason, but there are other important factors, such as birth control, women’s increase in education, and the decline in the wage gap. In fact, the increase in employment among married women is larger among those whose husbands are in the top half rather than the bottom half of the income distribution.

The question is, are combining work and family roles good for health? This is the “multiple roles question.” There are two theories about the effects of multiple roles on health, each of which makes opposing predictions. The role scarcity hypothesis suggests multiple roles have a negative effect on health because time and resources are limited and additional roles tap resources. This is also referred to as role strain. The scarcity hypothesis predicts two kinds of strain that stem from the possession of multiple roles: Role overload refers to the difficulties in fulfilling obligations for all of one’s roles because time is limited; role conflict refers to the demands of one role conflicting with the demands from another role. You are suffering from role overload when you feel stressed because you have three exams on Monday, a party to plan for Saturday, and a fund-raising event to attend on Sunday. You suffer from role conflict when your grandmother turns 90 and your best friend turns 21 on the same Saturday, and family obligations prevent you from celebrating the occasion with your best friend. In either case, having more roles is problematic because it is difficult to meet all the demands of multiple roles.

By contrast, the role expansion hypothesis (also known as the role enhancement hypothesis) suggests benefits are to be gained from having diverse roles. The additional resources gained by multiple roles outweigh the increase in strains that might arise from more roles. Resources from one role can be used to buffer strains arising from another role, which has been referred to as stress buffering (recall Figure 11.3b). For example, social support from coworkers may help alleviate distress arising from family problems. Examples of the role scarcity and role expansion hypotheses regarding employment and family roles are shown in Figure 12.5. Role Expansion

Family Role Provides Resources to Employee Role Ex: Spouse gives me advice about how to solve problems at work

Employee Role Provides Resources to Family Role Ex: Having a fulfilling job makes me a happier person at home

Role Scarcity Family Roles Overburden Employee Roles

Ex: Taking care of children reduces the time I can spend at work Employee Roles Overburden Family Roles

Ex: Working long hours means I miss some family activities