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Chapter 11

Groups, Teams, and Their Leadership

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Lecture Script 6-1

Chapter Outline

Introduction

Individuals versus groups versus teams

The nature of groups

Teams

Virtual teams

On the Horizon

Groups, Teams, and Their Leadership

We are born for cooperation, as are the feet, the hands, the eyelids, and the upper and lower jaws.

Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, 161 to 180

Introduction

Groups and teams are different from the skills, abilities, values, and motives of those who compose them

Groups and teams have their own special characteristics

Groups are essential if leaders are to impact anything beyond their own behavior

Group perspective: How different group characteristics can affect relationships both with the leader and among the followers

Individuals versus Groups versus Teams

Team members usually have a stronger sense of identification among themselves than group members do

Teams have common goals or tasks, whereas group members may not have the same degree of consensus about goals that team members do

Task independence is greater with teams than with groups

Team members have more differentiated and specialized roles than group members

Nature of Groups

Group: Two or more persons interact with one another in a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person

Definition incorporates the concept of reciprocal influence between leaders and followers

Does not constrain individuals to only one group

Points out the group members interact and influence each other

Although groups play a pervasive role in society, most people spend little time thinking about the factors that affect group processes and intragroup relationships

Implications of Group Size

Leader emergence is partly a function of group size

As size increases, cliques are more likely to develop

Cliques: Subgroups of individuals who often share the same goals, values, and expectations

Affects a leader’s behavioral style

Leaders with a large span of control tend to be more directive, spend less time with individual subordinates, and use impersonal approaches when influencing followers

Leaders with a small span of control tend to show more consideration and use personal approaches when influencing followers

Affects group effectiveness

Limitations to the Benefits of Size

There may be decreasing returns, on a per-capita basis, as group size increases

May occur in additive tasks due to process losses

Additive task: A task where the group’s output simply involves the combination of individual outputs

Process losses: Inefficiencies created by more and more people working together

Social loafing: Phenomenon of reduced effort by people when they are not individually accountable for their work

Social facilitation: People increasing their level of work due to the presence of others

Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development

Forming: Characterized by polite conversation, the gathering of superficial information about fellow members, and low trust

Storming: Marked by intragroup conflict and status differentiation as remaining contenders struggle to build alliances and fulfill the group’s leadership role

Norming: Characterized by the clear emergence of a leader and the development of group norms and cohesiveness

Performing: In this stage, group members play functional, interdependent roles that are focused on the performance of group tasks

Gersick’s Punctuated Equilibrium Model

Teams do not necessarily jump right in and get to work

Spend the initial months trying out various ideas and strategies

Experience the equivalent of a midlife crisis midway into the project

There is a flurry of activity and a reexamination of the strategy to see if it will allow them to complete their work

Group Roles

Sets of expected behaviors associated with particular jobs or positions

Can be categorized in terms of task and relationship functions

Task role: Deals with getting a task done

Relationship role: Deals with supporting relationships within a work group

Problems that can impede group performance

Dysfunctional roles

Role conflict

Role ambiguity

Role Conflict

Receiving contradictory messages about expected behavior

Ways in which role conflict can occur

Intrasender role conflict: Same person sends mixed signals

Intersender role conflict: Receiving inconsistent signals from several others about expected behavior

Interrole conflict: Inability to perform one’s roles as well as one would like

Person-role conflict: Violation of a person’s values by role expectations

Group Norms, 1

Norms: Informal rules groups adopt to regulate and regularize group members’ behavior

More likely to be seen as important and apt to be enforced if they:

Facilitate group survival

Simplify, or make more predictable, what behavior is expected of group members

Help the group avoid embarrassing interpersonal problems

Express the central values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group’s identity

Group Norms, 2

Hackman recommends that a leader has a responsibility to focus the team outwardly to enhance performance

Group members should actively scan the environment for opportunities that would require a change in operating strategy to capitalize upon them

Teams should identify the few behaviors that team members must always do and those they should never do to conform to the organization’s objectives

Group Cohesion, 1

Sum of the forces that attract members to a group, provide resistance to leaving it, and motivate them to be active in it

Highly cohesive groups interact with and influence each other more than less cohesive groups do

Have lower absenteeism and lower turnover, which can contribute to higher group performance

Greater cohesiveness does not always lead to higher performance

May sometimes develop goals contrary to the larger organization’s goals

Group Cohesion, 2

Disadvantages of highly cohesive groups

Overbounding: Tendency to erect what amount to fences or boundaries between themselves and others

Groupthink: People in highly cohesive groups often become more concerned with striving for unanimity than objectively appraising different courses of action

Ollieism: Occurs when illegal actions are taken by overly zealous and loyal subordinates who believe that what they are doing will please their leaders

Key Characteristics of Effective Teams, 1

Have a clear mission and high performance standards

Leaders often evaluate equipment, training facilities and opportunities, and outside resources available to help the team

Spend a considerable amount of time assessing the technical skills of team members

Work to secure the resources and equipment necessary for team effectiveness

Spend time planning and organizing in order to make optimal use of available resources

Key Characteristics of Effective Teams, 2

Teams have high levels of communication, which:

Help team members stay focused on the mission and take better advantage of the skills, knowledge, and resources available to the team

Help minimize interpersonal conflicts

Effective Team Characteristics and Team Building

Following variables need to be in place for a team to work effectively:

Task structure

Group boundaries

Appropriate norms

Authority

Hackman and Ginnett developed the concept of organizational shells to help team leaders consider the variables

Figure 11.1: Organizational Shells

Jump to Figure 11.1: Organizational Shells , Appendix

Team Leadership Model, or T L M

Identifies what a team needs to be effective

Points the leader either toward the roadblocks that are hindering the team or toward ways to make the team even more effective than it already is

Resembles a systems theory approach

Inputs are at the base

Processes or throughputs are in the center

Outputs are at the top

Figure 11.2: Systems Theory Applied to Teams

Jump to Figure 11.2: Systems Theory Applied to Teams , Appendix

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Lecture Script 6-22

Figure 11.3: Basic T L M Outputs: Outcomes of High-Performance Teams

Jump to Figure 11.3: Basic T L M Outputs: Outcomes of High-Performance Teams, Appemdix

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Lecture Script 6-23

Figure 11.4: T L M Process Variables: Diagnose the Team Using the Process Variables

Jump to Figure 11.4: T L M Process Variables: Diagnose the Team Using the Process Variables, Appendix

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Lecture Script 6-24

Leadership Prescriptions of the Model

Team should be built like a house or an automobile

Start with a concept

Create a design

Engineer it to do what you want it to do

Manufacture it to meet those specifications

Critical functions for team leadership

Dream

Design

Development

Concluding Thoughts about the T L M

Even if a team is well designed, has superior organizational systems, and has access to superior-quality ongoing development, without adequate material resources, it is not likely to do well on the output level

Leaders can influence team effectiveness by:

Ensuring the team has a clear sense of purpose and performance expectations

Designing or redesigning input stage variables at the individual, organizational, and team design levels

Improving team performance through ongoing coaching

Figure 11.7: Factors from the Team Leadership Model and the Interactional Framework

Jump to Figure 11.7: Factors from the Team Leadership Model and the Interactional Framework , Appendix

Virtual Teams, 1

Also known as geographically dispersed teams, or G D T’s

Areas that require change for global teams to work

Senior management leadership

Innovative use of communication technology

Adoption of an organization design that enhances global operations

Prevalence of trust among team members

Ability to capture the strengths of diverse cultures, languages, and people

Virtual Teams, 2

Leaders of virtual teams need to bear in mind the following research conclusions:

Distance between members is multidimensional

Impact of distances on performance is not directly proportional to objective measures of distance

Differences in the effects that distance seems to have is due at least partially to the following intervening variables:

Integrating practices within a virtual team

Integrating practices between a virtual team and its larger host organization

On the Horizon

Team leadership appears to be the most studied and applied in comparison to network leadership, shared leadership, complexity leadership, and collective leadership

Clusters: New alternative to the traditional idea of teams

Formed outside a company context, but are hired and paid by companies as a unit, as a permanent part of the company

Manage, govern, and develop themselves

Define their own working practices and tools and share out remuneration

Summary

Group perspective shows that followers’ behaviors can be the result of factors somewhat independent of their individual characteristics

Leaders should use a team perspective for understanding follower behavior and group performance

The Team Leadership Model suggests that team effectiveness can be best understood in terms of inputs, processes, and outcomes

By identifying certain process problems in teams, leaders can use the model to diagnose appropriate leverage points for action

Appendices

Figure 11.1: Organizational Shells, Appendix

The figure illustrates four concentric ovals. The innermost oval is labeled team at work, the second oval from the center is labeled group formation, the third oval is labeled organization, and the fourth oval is labeled industry. The label outside the outermost oval reads environment. Four dashed arrows extend from the outside of the concentric ovals to the innermost oval. The arrows are labeled task, norms, authority, and boundary.

Jump Back to Figure 11.1: Organizational Shells

Figure 11.2: Systems Theory Applied to Teams, Appendix

The figure shows an iceberg submerged in water with only the tip visible above the waterline. Rectangles have been used to highlight portions of the iceberg. The rectangle covering the tip of the iceberg is labeled output. The second rectangle, labeled process, encompasses some parts of the iceberg that is above the waterline and some parts that are right below the waterline. The third rectangle, labeled input, highlights a large portion of the iceberg that is completely under water. A flower bracket indicates that inputs comprise individual characteristics, team factors, and organizational systems.

Jump Back to Figure 11.2: Systems Theory Applied to Teams

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Lecture Script 6-34

Figure 11.3: Basic T L M Outputs: Outcomes of High-Performance Teams, Appendix

The pyramid is divided into five blocks. Starting from the bottom, the first block is labeled organizational system, the second block is labeled team factors, the third block is labeled individual characteristics, the fourth block is labeled what’s going on?, and the fifth block is labeled H P T goals. The fifth block is shaped like a triangle, and each corner of the triangle is labeled. The bottom-left corner is labeled individuals are satisfied. The bottom-right corner is labeled future capability of the team improves. The top of the triangle is labeled outcomes are acceptable to stakeholders. The three blocks at the bottom are clubbed and labeled input. The label next to the fourth block reads process. The label next to the fifth block reads output.

Jump Back to Figure 11.3: Basic T L M Outputs: Outcomes of High-Performance Teams

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Lecture Script 6-35

Figure 11.4: T L M Process Variables: Diagnose the Team Using the Process Variables, Appendix

The pyramid is divided into five blocks. Starting from the bottom, the first block is labeled organizational system, the second block is labeled team factors, and the third block is labeled individual characteristics. These three blocks are collectively labeled input. The fourth block is subdivided into four parts. The parts are labeled P-1, effort; P-2, skills and knowledge; P-3, strategy; and P-4, group dynamics. The parts are collectively labeled process. The fifth block is labeled H P T. It is also labeled output.

Jump Back to Figure 11.4: T L M Process Variables: Diagnose the Team Using the Process Variables

Figure 11.7: Factors from the Team Leadership Model and the Interactional Framework, Appendix

The figure shows three circles partially overlapping each other. The first circle is labeled leader. The content within this circle reads leader assesses process criteria and corrects through design, coaching, and modeling. The second circle is labeled followers and has a main point that reads individual factors. The subpoints under individual factors are interests slash motivation, skills slash abilities, values slash attitudes, and interpersonal behavior. The third circle is labeled situation. Two main points are listed along with subpoints in this circle. The first main point reads team design, and the subpoint under it reads task structure. The second main point reads organizational context, and the subpoints listed under it are reward system, educational system, information system, and organizational structure or design. The area where the three circles intersect has a main point that reads team design. The subpoints under team design are team composition, norms, and authority dynamics. Outcomes are listed on the right side in the figure. They are output acceptable to client, future capability of team, and individual satisfaction.

Jump Back to Figure 11.7: Factors from the Team Leadership Model and the Interactional Framework