reading respond

10/23/2017 Yuzu: Psychology of Gender: Fourth Edition

https://reader.yuzu.com/#/books/9781317345046/cfi/6/40!/4/2/2/12/4@0:0 1/2

SIDEBAR 11.1: Manipulation of Social Support in The Laboratory Because survey studies on support and health cannot distinguish cause and effect, a number of laboratory studies have been conducted in which social support is manipulated while the participant undergoes some kind of Stressor, such as giving a speech or performing a difficult math task. Health is measured in terms of cardiovascular reactivity (e.g., change in blood pressure and heart rate), immune function, or the production of stress hormones (e.g., cortisol). A meta-analytic review of the literature showed that the experimental manipulation of support during a stressful task performed in the laboratory had beneficial effects on heart rate, blood pressure, and cortisol (Thorsteinsson & James, 1999). Most studies only involved female participants. One study that examined both males and females found stronger effects of support on reactivity for females than males (Smith, Ruiz, & Uchino, 2004).

The sex of the support provider also might influence how males and females respond. One study manipulated the sex of the support provider and found that support provided by a female confederate was effective in reducing blood pressure for both male and female participants, but support from a male confederate was ineffective for both male and female participants (Glynn et al., 1999). In fact, there was a slight tendency for male participants to show increased reactivity in response to support from a male confederate. The difference between male and female confederates is interesting, given that the support manipulation was standardized. Thus it is not only that women may provide more support than men, but also that support from women may be more health beneficial. The same behavior may be interpreted differently when displayed by a female than by a male.

The kind of support manipulated in the vast majority of these laboratory studies, including the last one, is emotional support. Thus the extent to which other kinds of support may be effective in reducing reactivity to stress is unknown. It is also not known whether men and women benefit from different kinds of support in terms of reduced reactivity to stress. Dawn Wilson and her colleagues have examined both emotional support and instrumental support (e.g., advice, concrete assistance) in several studies of African American adolescents. In a study that aimed to enhance a low-sodium diet to prevent hypertension, Black boys did not benefit as much from family emotional support as Black girls in terms of dietary compliance (Wilson & Ampey-Thornhill, 2001). In a laboratory study in which Black boys and girls were asked to role-play several stressful encounters, boys showed higher levels of reactivity when provided with emotional support and lower reactivity in response to instrumental support (Wilson et al., 1999).

Thus the laboratory studies of social support leave several questions unanswered. Is support provided by women more effective than support provided by men, or does this pertain only to emotional support? Do women and men benefit more from emotional support compared to other kinds of support, or does the kind of support that is beneficial depend on the sex of the support provider? For example, it may be that instrumental support from men is effective and emotional support from women is effective.

There has been a shift in cultural values toward marriage over the last several decades. Today, there is a greater emphasis on individual and personal fulfillment, which means people may be less likely to tolerate unsatisfying relationships. There also are greater expectations for relationships: Marriage is expected to provide a source of intimacy, sexuality, and companionship. Thus people have increasing expectations of marriage, and marriage may be less likely to meet those expectations. It is also much easier to dissolve a marriage today than it was in the middle of the 20th century, and society is more tolerant of marital breakups.

Thus, one characteristic of modern marriage is that it is less likely to last. In 2004, 23% of women and 21% of women had been divorced at least one time (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007b). The rates were higher among Whites (24%) than Blacks (19%), Hispanics (13%), and Asians (9%). See Table 11.1 for a list of factors that decrease one’s risk of divorce.

Although the divorce rate increased over much of the 20th century, peaking in 1981, it has steadily decreased since that time (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, 2009d). One reason that divorce rates have stabilized is that women and men wait longer before they marry, and older age at first marriage is less likely to result in divorce. Today, the median age of marriage is 28 for men and 26 for women (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010a).

The marriage rate also has declined in recent years, in part due to increased cohabitation and in part due to people waiting longer before getting married. In 2008, 59% of males and 56% of females over 18 in the United States were married, although the rate was much lower among Blacks (44% male; 37% female) than Asians (65% male and female), Whites (55% male; 54% female), and Hispanics (56% male; 58% female; U.S. Census Bureau, 2009a). The percentage of the population marrying has decreased while the percentage of people who are divorced and never married has increased. In 2009, 30% of men and 23% of adult women had never married

10/23/2017 Yuzu: Psychology of Gender: Fourth Edition

https://reader.yuzu.com/#/books/9781317345046/cfi/6/40!/4/2/2/12/4@0:0 2/2

• • • • • •

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2010b), but these numbers varied greatly by race. Figures for never-married males and females were comparable among Whites and Asians (White: 26% male; 19% female; Asian: 28% male; 19% female) but much larger for Blacks (43% male; 41% female) and much lower for Hispanics (4% male; 5% female). TABLE 11.1FACTORS THAT PROTECT AGAINST DIVORCE DURING THE FIRST 10 YEARS OF MARRIAGE

higher income having a baby seven months or more after marriage (as compared to before marriage) at least age 25 at marriage parents married (rather than divorced) religious affiliation higher education

Source: Bramlett and Mosher (2002). Nonetheless, most young adults say that they want to get married (Pew Research, 2007), although African

American adolescents have lower expectations than their White and Mexican American counterparts (Crissey, 2005). African Americans are less likely to marry than other groups in part due to socioeconomic factors (Bulanda & Brown, 2007). There are proportionally fewer African American men with stable jobs, and economic problems lead to family conflict. Although Hispanics share some of the same economic problems, Hispanic culture attaches greater value to marriage whereas African American culture emphasizes the importance of the extended family.

Evidence In 1957, Hannah Lees wrote the book Help Your Husband Stay Alive. She expressed concern over the fact that men die younger than women and the sex difference in longevity was widening. She suggested that women were not living up to their duty of helping