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Organizational Behavior

Eighteenth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 11

Power and Politics

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Welcome to this Organizational Behavior course that uses the 18th edition of the textbook, Organizational Behavior by Robbins and Judge. This is considered among the most widely used OB textbooks in the world. Robbins and Judge are recognized as definitive aggregators of OB concepts, applications, and practices. The course and this book will provide you with a resource that will benefit you throughout your degree program and your professional life.

Chapter 13: Power and Politics

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

11.1 Contrast leadership and power.

11.2 Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.

11.3 Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.

11.4 Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Contrast leadership and power.

Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.

Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.

Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

11.5 Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.

11.6 Describe how politics work in organizations.

11.7 Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political behavior.

Additional objectives for this chapter.

Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.

Describe how politics work in organizations.

Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political behavior.

Define Power and Contrast Leadership and Power (1 of 2)

Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

Power may exist but not be used.

Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence.

A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Define Power and Contrast Leadership and Power (2 of 2)

Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals.

Goal compatibility

Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence.

The direction of influence.

Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers.

Leadership research emphasizes style.

What is the difference between leadership and power? Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Power doesn’t require goal compatibility, just dependence. In contrast, leadership requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. The direction of influence for leaders is downward.

Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. The research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. It goes beyond the individual as the exercise of power, because groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups.

Explain Formal Power and Personal Power (1 of 2)

Formal Power

Coercive Power

Reward Power

Legitimate Power

Personal Power

Expert Power

Referent Power

We can divide power into two general groupings: formal and personal.

Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. There are three types of formal power: coercive, reward, and legitimate. Coercive power depends on fear of negative results. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.

Reward power is the opposite of coercive power. People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.

Legitimate power is shown in formal groups and organizations through one’s structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy. Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

The second group of power—personal power—comes from an individual’s unique characteristics, and includes expert power and referent power. Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals. Referent power’s source is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a lot like charisma. It also explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional effects on us.

Explain Formal Power and Personal Power (2 of 2)

Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?

Personal sources are most effective.

Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes.

Coercive power can be damaging.

Which bases of power are most effective? Personal sources are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. Coercive power can be damaging.

Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships (1 of 3)

The General Dependency Postulate

When you possess anything others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them.

Dependence, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.

The general dependency postulate says the greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than using just one. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.

Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships (2 of 3)

What Creates Dependence?

Importance

Scarcity

Nonsubstitutability

What creates dependence? To create dependence, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience.

A resource also needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependence. The scarcity–dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates.

Nonsubstitutability means the fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power control that resource provides.

Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships (3 of 3)

Exhibit 11-1 An Organizational Sociogram

One tool to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an organization is social network analysis. This method examines patterns of communication among organizational members to identify how information flows between them.

Within a social network, or connections between people who share professional interests, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties. When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they are said to have very strong ties.

Exhibit 13-1 shows a graphical illustration of the associations among individuals in a social network, called a sociogram. It functions like an informal version of an organization chart. The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization.

Networks can create substantial power dynamics such as enforcing norms or creating change within an organization. So, employees who have many connections to an organizational social network are less likely to engage in corruption. Those in the position of brokers tend to have more power because they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups. In other words, many people are dependent upon brokers, which gives the brokers more power.

There are many ways to implement a social network analysis in an organization. Some organizations keep track of the flow of e-mail communications or document sharing across departments. Other organizations look at data from human resources information systems, analyzing how supervisors and subordinates interact with one another.

Identify Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies

Influence tactics:

Legitimacy

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Consultation

Exchange

Personal appeals

Ingratiating

Pressure

Coalitions

Research has identified nine distinct influence or power tactics.

First is legitimacy: relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules.

Second is rational persuasion: presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.

Third is inspirational appeals: developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

Fourth is consultation: increasing the target’s support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan.

Fifth is exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.

Sixth is personal appeals: asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.

Seventh is ingratiation: using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.

Eighth is pressure: using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.

Nine is coalitions: enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies (1 of 4)

Some tactics are more effective than others.

Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation are most effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes.

Pressure tends to backfire.

Both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to “dictate” outcomes.

Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. Pressure tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics.

You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. Using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to “dictate” outcomes, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcomes of a decision process or the policy is routine.

Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies (2 of 4)

Exhibit 11-2 Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction

Upward Influence	Downward Influence	Lateral Influence
Rational persuasion	Rational persuasion	Rational persuasion
Blank	Inspirational appeals	Consultation
Blank	Pressure	Ingratiation
Blank	Consultation	Exchange
Blank	Ingratiation	Legitimacy
Blank	Exchange	Personal appeals
Blank	Legitimacy	Coalitions

As Exhibit 13-2 shows, rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it’s generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person’s skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture.

You’re more likely to be effective if you begin with “softer” tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to “harder” tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. Interestingly, a single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics.

The effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience. People especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflective, are intrinsically motivated, have high self-esteem, and have greater desire for control. In contrast, people especially likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action-oriented and extrinsically motivated, and are more focused on getting along with others than with getting their own way.

Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies (3 of 4)

People in different countries prefer different power tactics.

Individualistic countries see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends.

Collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others.

People in different countries prefer different power tactics. Those from individualistic countries tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others.

A study comparing managers in the United States and China found that U.S. managers prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers prefer coalition tactics. These differences tend to be consistent with the values in these two countries. The reason is consistent with the U.S. preference for direct confrontation and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indirect approaches.

Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies (4 of 4)

Applying Power Tactics

People differ in terms of their political skill: their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives.

The politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics.

Cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative.

People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence.

People differ in terms of their political skill – their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all influence tactics, leading to many positive outcomes in the workplace. People who are politically skilled have higher self-efficacy, job satisfaction, work productivity, and career success. They are less likely to be victims of workplace aggression. Political skill also appears more effective when the stakes are high.

Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element in effectiveness.

Also, we know that cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. Some cultures encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence. Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks. Part of the reason people who fit the culture are influential is that they are able to perform especially well in the domains deemed most important for success. In other words, they are influential because they are competent. So the organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use.

Causes and Consequences of Abuse of Power (1 of 4)

Does power corrupt?

Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others.

Powerful people react, especially negatively, to any threats to their competence.

Power leads to overconfident decision making.

Power doesn’t affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power.

Does power corrupt? Evidence suggests that power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others. Powerful people react—especially negatively—to any threats to their competence. Power also leads to overconfident decision making. Power doesn’t affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power. Let’s consider each of these in turn.

First, the toxic effects of power depend on one’s personality. Research suggests that if we have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt us because we are less likely to think that using power benefits us. Second, the corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. One study found, for example, that while power made people behave in a self-serving manner, when accountability of this behavior was initiated, the self-serving behavior stopped. Third, we have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. One study showed that simply expressing gratitude toward powerful others makes them less likely to act aggressively against us.

Finally, remember the aphorism that those with little power grab and abuse what little they have? There appears to be some truth to this in that the people most likely to abuse power are those who are low in status and gain power. Why is this the case? It appears that having low status is threatening, and this fear is used in negative ways if power is given.

As you can see, there are factors that can ameliorate the negative effects of power. But there also appear to be generally positive effects. Power can energize people and motivate them to achieve goals (i.e., approach motivation). It also can enhance people’s motivation to help others, at least for certain people. It is not so much that power corrupts as it reveals. For those with strong moral identities, power actually enhanced their moral awareness. And willingness to act.

Causes and Consequences of Abuse of Power (2 of 4)

Sexual harassment: any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment.

Organizations have generally made progress in the past decade toward limiting overt forms of sexual harassment.

Managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment, but they also need to protect themselves.

Sexual harassment is defined as any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment.

Organizations have generally made progress in the past decade toward limiting overt forms of sexual harassment. Generally, sexual harassment is more prevalent in male-dominated societies. Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual harassment.

The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment, but they also need to protect themselves.

Causes and Consequences of Abuse of Power (3 of 4)

Mangers should:

Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual harassment, informs employees they can be fired for sexually harassing another employee, and establishes procedures for how complaints can be made.

Reassure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint.

The following are some ways managers can protect themselves and their employees from sexual harassment:

Reassure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint.

Causes and Consequences of Abuse of Power (4 of 4)

In addition, managers should:

Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human resource departments.

Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated.

Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the issues surrounding sexual harassment.

Managers also need to:

Investigate every complaint and include the legal and human resource departments.

Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated.

Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of the issues surrounding sexual harassment.

Describe How Politics Work in Organizations (1 of 2)

Political behavior: activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the organization.

Outside of one’s specified job requirements.

Encompasses efforts to influence decision- making goals, criteria, or processes.

Includes such behaviors as withholding information, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information.

Political behavior is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. This definition encompasses key elements. Political behavior is outside one’s specified job requirements. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from decision makers, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking confidential information.

Describe How Politics Work in Organizations (2 of 2)

OB POLL Importance of Organizatoinal Politics from

Source: Based on D. Crampton, “Is How Americans Feel about Their Jobs Changing?” (September 28, 2012), http://corevalues.com/employee-motivation/is-how-americans-feel-about-their-jobs-changing.

As the OB Poll shows, politics are not only inevitable, they might be essential too. People want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (1 of 7)

Exhibit 11-3 Factors That Influence Political Behavior

Factors contributing to political behavior, as shown here in Exhibit 13-3, include individual factors. Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest. An individual’s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will also influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action.

The organizational factors that influence politics are many. Political activity is probably more a function of the organization’s characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to surface. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (2 of 7)

Exhibit 11-4 Employee Responses to Organizational Politics from

For most people, those who have modest political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative. Exhibit 13-4 summarizes the extensive research on the relationship between organizational politics and individual outcomes. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it gets to be too much to handle, employees quit.

When employees of two agencies in a recent study in Nigeria viewed their work environments as political, they reported higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their coworkers. Thus, although developing countries such as Nigeria are perhaps more ambiguous and more political environments in which to work, the negative consequences of politics appear to be the same as in the United States.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (3 of 7)

Exhibit 11-5 Defensive Behaviors

Avoiding Action

Overconforming. Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like “The rules clearly state...”or “This is the way we’ve always done it.” Buck passing. Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else. Playing dumb. Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability. Stretching. Prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a 4-month job. Stalling. Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.

Avoiding Blame

Bluffing. Rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness, known as “covering your rear.” Playing safe. Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts. Justifying. Developing explanations that lessen one’s responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both.

The politics–performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual’s understanding of the “hows” and “whys” of organizational politics. Political behavior and work moderates the effects of ethical leadership.

When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples of these behaviors. Defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (4 of 7)

[Exhibit 11-5 Continued]

Scapegoating. Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. Misrepresenting. Manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.

Avoiding Change

Prevention. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring. Self-protection. Acting in ways to protect one’s self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.

The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual’s understanding of the “hows” and “whys” of organizational politics. Political behavior and work moderates the effects of ethical leadership.

When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors — reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples of these behaviors. Defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (5 of 7)

Impression management (IM): the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them.

Mostly high self-monitors.

Impressions people convey are not necessarily false – they might truly believe them.

Intentional misrepresentation may have a high cost.

The effectiveness of IM depends on the situation.

We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression management (IM). Who engages in IM—mostly the high self-monitors. Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation.

IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false. Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region, or that you are the key to the tripling of your division’s sales. However, misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited.

Research shows that the particular situation also appears to influence the effectiveness of IM. For example, self-promotion tactics may be more important to interviewing success. Applicants who work to create an appearance of competence by enhancing their accomplishments, taking credit for successes, and explaining away failures do better in interviews. In terms of performance ratings, however, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance ratings, meaning those who ingratiate with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. However, self-promotion appears to backfire in this situation.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (6 of 7)

The Ethics of Behaving Politically

Questions to consider:

What is the utility of engaging in politicking?

How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others?

Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?

Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should consider.

For example, what is the utility of engaging in politicking? Sometimes we engage in political behavior for little good reason. Major league baseball player Al Martin claimed he played football at USC when in fact he never did. As a baseball player, he had little to gain by pretending to have played football. Outright lies like this may be a rather extreme example of impression management, but many of us have distorted information to make a favorable impression. One thing to keep in mind is whether it’s really worth the risk.

When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, one question to ask is, “How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others?” Complimenting a supervisor on his or her appearance in order to curry favor is probably much less harmful than grabbing credit for a project that others deserve.

Also, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but its ethicality is clear. The department head who inflates the performance evaluation of a favored employee and deflates the evaluation of a disfavored employee—and then uses these evaluations to justify giving the former a big raise and nothing to the latter—has treated the disfavored employee unfairly.

Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in terms of the organization’s best interests. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Our point is that immoral people can justify almost any behavior. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are likely to be able to get away with unethical practices successfully. If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember that it’s a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior (7 of 7)

Exhibit 11-7 Drawing Your Political Map

Mapping your political career. One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career.

Think about your career in your organization of choice. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you get there? What is your relationship with these people? The best way to answer these questions is with a political map, like the one shown in Exhibit 13-7, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people upon whom your career depends.

Power and politics are a part of organizational life. To decide not to play is deciding not to be effective. Better to be explicit about it with a political map than to proceed as if power and politics didn’t matter.

Implications for Managers (1 of 2)

To maximize your power, increase others’ dependence on you. For instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by developing a needed knowledge or skill for which there is no ready substitute.

You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases. Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to minimize it and increase their dependence on you.

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

Few employees relish being powerless in their job and organization. People respond differently to the various power bases. Expert and referent power are derived from an individual’s personal qualities. In contrast, coercion, reward, and legitimate power are essentially organizationally derived. Competence especially appears to offer wide appeal, and its use as a power base results in high performance by group members.

An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Some people are significantly more politically astute than others, meaning that they are aware of the underlying politics and can manage impressions. Those who are good at playing politics can be expected to get higher performance evaluations and, hence, larger salary increases and more promotions than the politically naïve or inept. The politically astute are also likely to exhibit higher job satisfaction and be better able to neutralize job stressors.

How should managers deal with power and politics in their organization?

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

Implications for Managers (2 of 2)

By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit.

Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore, if you are adept at organizational politics, help your employees understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

11.1 Contrast leadership and power.

11.2 Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.

11.3 Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.

11.4 Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Contrast leadership and power.

Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.

Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.

Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

11.5 Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.

11.6 Describe how politics work in organizations.

11.7 Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political behavior.

Additional objectives for this chapter.

Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.

Describe how politics work in organizations.

Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political behavior.

Questions?

Organizational Behavior

Eighteenth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 12

Communication

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Welcome to this Organizational Behavior course that uses the 17th edition of the textbook, Organizational Behavior by Robbins and Judge. This is considered among the most widely used OB textbooks in the world. Robbins and Judge are recognized as definitive aggregators of OB concepts, applications, and practices. The course and this book will provide you with a resource that will benefit you throughout your degree program and your professional life.

Chapter 11: Communication

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

12.1 Describe the functions and process of communication.

12.2 Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine.

12.3 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

12.4 Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.

12.5 Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the functions and process of communication.

Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine.

Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.

Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

12.6 Identify common barriers to effective communication.

12.7 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

Additional objectives for this chapter.

Identify common barriers to effective communication.

Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (1 of 7)

Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization:

Management

Feedback

Emotional sharing

Persuasion

Information exchange

Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: management, feedback, emotional sharing, persuasion, and information exchange.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (2 of 7)

Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways.

Authority hierarchies and formal guidelines.

Job descriptions and company policies.

Workgroup teasing or harassing.

Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways.

Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines employees are required to follow. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies, communication performs a management function. Informal communication controls behavior too. When workgroups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they are informally communicating, and managing the member’s behavior.

Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance.

Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (3 of 7)

Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance.

Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (4 of 7)

Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration.

Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs.

Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs. For example, after a white police officer shot an unarmed black man in Ferguson, Missouri in 2015, software engineer Carl Jones wanted to process his feelings through talking with his coworkers at his corporation. As a second example, Starbucks had baristas write “Race Together” on coffee cups to start conversations about race relations. In both cases, the initial communications were awkward—so awkward that Starbucks pulled the campaign—but Jones and others have forged solid relationships from their emotional sharing.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (5 of 7)

Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is trying to persuade a workgroup to believe in the organization’s commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to meet an organizational goal.

Persuasion can benefit or harm an organization.

It’s important to remember that persuasion can benefit or harm an organization.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (6 of 7)

The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making.

Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

Almost every communication interaction that takes place in a group or organization performs one or more of these functions, and none of the five is more important than the others. To perform effectively, groups need to maintain some control over members, provide feedback to stimulate members to perform, allow emotional expression, monitor the persuasive efforts of individuals, and encourage information exchange.

Describe the Functions and Process of Communication (7 of 7)

Exhibit 12-1 The Communication Process

As shown here in Exhibit 11-1, the communication process is made up of eight parts: the sender, encoding, the message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise, and feedback.

The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product from the source. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it, determining whether to use a formal or informal channel.

Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. They traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices

The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (1 of 7)

Downward communication: flows from one level to a lower level.

Assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and procedures, and provide feedback.

Downward communication must explain the reasons why a decision was made.

One problem is the one-way nature of downward communication.

Downward communication occurs when communication flows from one level of a group organization to a lower level. Its purpose is to assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and procedures, provide feedback, etc.

When engaging in downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Explanations increase employee commitment and support of decisions. One problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (2 of 7)

Upward communication: flows to a higher level in the group or organization.

Provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay current problems.

Communicate in headlines, not paragraphs.

Support your headlines with actionable items.

Prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well.

Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay current problems.

Managers rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved. To engage in effective upward communication, communicate in headlines, not paragraphs. Your goal is to get your boss’s attention, not to engage in a meandering discussion. Support your headlines with actionable items. That is, what you believe should happen. Prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (3 of 7)

Lateral communication: takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel.

Often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination.

May be formally sanctioned.

Can create dysfunctional conflicts.

Lateral communication takes place among members of the same work-group, among members of work-groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel.

Lateral communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination. In some cases, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. They can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, or when bosses find out that actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (4 of 7)

Exhibit 12-2 Three Common Small-Group Networks

Formal organizational networks can be complicated, including hundreds of people and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels. To simplify, we’ve condensed these networks into three common small-group networks of five people each: chain, wheel, and all channel, as shown here in Exhibit 11-2.

The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization. The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you would find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it’s most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (5 of 7)

Exhibit 12-3 Small-Group Networks and Effective Criteria

Criteria	Chain	Networks Wheel	All-Channel
Speed	Moderate	Fast	Fast
Accuracy	High	High	Moderate
Emergence of a leader	Moderate	High	None
Member satisfaction	Moderate	Low	High

As Exhibit 11-3 demonstrates, the effectiveness of each network depends on the dependent variable that concerns you. The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important. This exhibit leads us to the conclusion that no single network will be best for all occasions.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (6 of 7)

The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine.

It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important, and helps tap into employee anxieties.

The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication network.

It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employees consider important, and helps tap into employee anxieties.

The grapevine also serves employees’ needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the “out” group.

There is also evidence that gossip is driven largely by employee social networks that managers can study to learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through their organization.

Contrast Downward, Upward, and Lateral Communication (7 of 7)

Exhibit 12-4 Dealing with Gossip and Rumors

Share the information you have, and the information you don’t—where there is good formal communication with much information, there is no need for rumors. When you don’t know information that others are seeking, discuss when you will know and follow up.

Explain, explain, explain. As a manager, discuss what decisions are made and why they were made, as well as the plan going forward.

Respond to rumors noncommittally, and then verify for yourself the truths you can. Make certain to gather all sides of the story.

Invite employees to discuss their concerns, ideas, suggestions, thoughts, and feelings about organizational matters. Help them frame their thoughts into more objective viewpoints.

As shown here in Exhibit 11-4, managers should minimize the negative consequences of rumors by limiting their range and impact.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (1 of 7)

Oral Communication

The primary means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and informal rumor mills or grapevines are popular forms of oral communication.

Meetings

Videoconferencing and conference calling

Telephone

Oral communication is the chief means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and informal rumor mills or grapevines are popular forms of oral communication. Advantages or oral communication are speed and feedback. A major disadvantage arises when the message must be passed through a number of people. This increases the potential for distortion.

Four popular forms of oral communication used in organizations are:

Meetings – can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue.

Videoconferencing – permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations.

Conference calling – generally limited to telephone exchanges where some people may gather around one speaker-phone, and others call in through a secure line.

Telephone – offers many of the benefits of meetings (formal and informal), and can prompt immediate response.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (2 of 7)

Written Communication

Letters

PowerPoint

E-mail

Instant Messaging

Text Messaging

Social Media

Aps

Blogs

Written communications include:

Letters – the oldest and most enduring form of written communication.

PowerPoint – can be an excellent mode of communication because it combines words with visual elements to help engage the reader and explain complex ideas; however, detractors argue that it is too impersonal, disengaging, and frequently misused.

E-mail – has become so pervasive it’s hard to imagine life without it.

Instant Messaging – a-synchronous technology, meaning that you need to be there to receive the message.

Text Messaging – usually done via cell phone and often as a real-time alternative to phone calls.

Social Media – has transformed communication. According to research advisory firm Gartner Inc., companies that use social media as more than a marketing tool may lead their industries in growth by 2015.

Blogs (short for web-log) – a website about a single person or company. Many organizations and organizational leaders have blogs that speak for the organization.

Others – Flickr, Pinterest, and Google+ are just a few of the many public and industry-specific social platforms.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (3 of 7)

Exhibit 12-5 Allocation of Time at Work for Managers and Professionals

Source: Based on M. Chui et al., “The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies,” McKinsey & Company, July 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/the_social_economy.

Many managers report that they spend too much time on e-mail. Exhibit 11-5 shows that managers spend nearly one-third of their day reading and answering e-mail.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (4 of 7)

OB POLL Do You Use Social-Networking Sites to Research Job Candidates

Social media has become a tool for prospective employees, hiring managers, and human resource divisions.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (5 of 7)

Nonverbal Communication

Includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.

Body language can convey status, level of engagement, and emotional state.

Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart a nonverbal message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone. No discussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of nonverbal communication, which includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (6 of 7)

Exhibit 12-6 Intonations: It’s the Way You Say It!

Change your tone and you change your meaning:	Blank
Placement of the Emphasis	What It Means
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	I was going to take someone else.
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	Instead of the guy you were going with.
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	I’m trying to find a reason why I shouldn’t take you.
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	Do you have a problem with me?
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	Instead of going on your own.
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	Instead of lunch tomorrow.
Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight?	Not tomorrow night.

Source: Reproduced in A. Huczynski and D. Buchanan, Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (Essex, UK: Pearson Education, 2001), 194.

If you read the verbatim minutes of a meeting, you wouldn’t grasp the impact of what was said the same way as if you had been there or could see the meeting on video, because there is no record of nonverbal communication. The emphasis given to words or phrases is missing.

Exhibit 11-6 illustrates how intonations can change the meaning of a message.

Contrast Oral, Written, and Nonverbal Communication (7 of 7)

Physical distance also has meaning.

What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms.

A businesslike distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North America.

Distance may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest, or it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.

Physical distance also has meaning. What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. A business-like distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if farther away, it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.

Channel Richness and Choice of Communication Channel (1 of 4)

Exhibit 12-7 Information Richness and Communication Channels

Source: Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), 311.

Exhibit 11-7 shows that channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they have the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously, facilitate rapid feedback, and be very personal. As the exhibit illustrates, face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode, using multiple information cues such as words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations, immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present.

Others are lean in that they score low on these factors. Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness.

Channel Richness and Choice of Communication Channel (2 of 4)

The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine.

Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity.

Choose oral communication when you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity.

Written communication is more reliable for complex and lengthy communications.

The choice of one channel over another depends on whether the message is routine.

Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity. Nonroutine messages tend to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Routine messages can efficiently be communicated through channels that are lower in richness. However, nonroutine messages can effectively be communicated only by selecting rich channels.

Channel Richness and Choice of Communication Channel (3 of 4)

Know you audience and use good grammar.

Letters

Text messaging

Social media

Blogging

Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when signatures need to be authentic.

In general, respond to instant messages only when they are professional, and initiate them only when you know they will be welcome.

There are significant gains and challenges from the introduction of text messaging in business settings. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business. However, some users view text messaging as intrusive and distracting. Many organizations are also concerned about the security of texting. It is best to severely limit personal text messages during work hours and be cautious about using texting for business purposes.

On the corporate level, the returns on using social media are mixed. If you want to use social media for business purposes as a manager, make certain you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort. Use discretion about which social media platforms are acceptable for business communications. Make sure you know your company’s social media policies about corporate confidentiality and your company’s view on your privacy.

As an individual, you may choose to post a blog to your own blog page, or you may choose to comment on another person’s blog. If someone in the company happens to read a critical or negative blog entry or post, there is nothing to keep him or her from sharing that information with others.

It’s important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication and look for nonverbal cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words.

Channel Richness and Choice of Communication Channel (4 of 4)

Information Security

Electronic information

Physical information

Information that employees know

Most companies monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some use video surveillance and record phone conversations

Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or proprietary information about clients, customers, and employees. Organizations worry about the security of the electronic information they seek to protect, such as hospital patient data, the physical information they still keep in file cabinets, and the security of the information they entrust their employees with knowing, such as Apple’s need-to-know-only information sharing.

Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some even use video surveillance and record phone conversations. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal information is used.

Persuasive Communication (1 of 2)

Automatic processing: a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information.

It takes little time and low effort, but it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo.

Controlled processing: a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic.

Requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone who engages in it.

To understand the process of communication, it is useful to consider two relatively different ways that we process information. First, we’ll discuss automatic processing.

We often rely on automatic processing, a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics like those we discussed in Chapter 6. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don’t care much about. The disadvantage is that it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo.

So what is controlled processing? Suppose you’re looking for a place to live. You do independent research among experts who know something about the subject, gather information about prices from a variety of sources, and consider the costs and benefits of renting versus buying. This is called controlled processing: a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic. Controlled processing requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone who has taken the time and effort to engage in it.

Persuasive Communication (2 of 2)

Rules of thumb for determining the choice of processing:

Interest level

Prior knowledge

Personality

Need for cognition

Message characteristics

Match your message to your audience

There are a few rules of thumb for determining what types of processing an audience will use.

One of the best predictors of whether people will use an automatic or controlled process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they’re more likely to process information carefully.

People who are very well informed about a subject area are also more likely to use controlled processing strategies. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence.

People who require many facts before making a decision have a high need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts.

Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, tend to encourage automatic processing. Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels, like a long magazine article, tend to encourage more deliberative processing.

The most important implication of all this research is to match your persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. For example, when the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they’ll be more likely to use automatic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case.

Identify Common Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering

Selective perception

Information overload

Emotions

Language

Silence

Communication apprehension

Lying

There are many barriers to effective communication.

Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so it will be seen as more favorable by the receiver. For example, telling the boss what she wants to hear. The more levels in an organization’s structure, the more opportunities there are for filtering.

Selective perception describes how receivers selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them.

Information overload occurs when the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity. The result is the tendency to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information. Or put it aside until the overload situation is over. The result is lost information and less effective communication.

Emotions also influence how people receive messages. People in negative moods are more likely to scrutinize messages in greater detail, whereas those in positive moods tend to accept communications at face value. Extreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely to hinder effective communication.

Message senders tend to incorrectly assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the receiver as to them, but even when we’re communicating in the same language, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences.

It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication because it is defined by the absence of information. However, research suggests using silence and withholding communication are common and problematic. Silence is less likely where minority opinions are treated with respect, work-group identification is high, and high procedural justice prevails.

An estimated 5 to 20% of the population suffers from communication apprehension. They experience undue tension or anxiety in oral and/or written communication. They may find it difficult to talk with others face-to-face or on the telephone. Studies show those who are oral-communication apprehensive avoid situations for which oral communication is a dominant requirement. Managers should be aware of the impact of communication apprehension on job performance.

The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, or lying. The problem is, there are no nonverbal or verbal cues unique to lying—averting your gaze, pausing, and shifting your posture can also be signals of nervousness, shyness, or doubt. In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong barrier to effective communication in organizations.

Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication (1 of 3)

Cultural Barriers

Caused by semantics – words mean different things to different people.

Caused by word connotations – words imply different things in different languages.

Caused by tone differences.

Caused by differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts.

Cross-cultural barriers increases the potential for communications problems.

First, there are barriers caused by semantics: words mean different things to different people. Some words do not translate between cultures. For example, English terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulation are not directly translatable into Russian.

Second, there are barriers caused by word connotations: words imply different things in different languages. For example, the Japanese word ok. means “yes,” but may mean “yes, I’m listening,” not “yes, I agree.”

Third, there are barriers caused by tone differences. In some cultures, language is formal; in others, it is informal. The tone changes depending on the context.

Fourth, there are cultural differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts. Individuals from individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflicts and will make the source of their disagreements overt. Collectivists are more likely to acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emotionally charged disputes. They may attribute conflicts to the situation more than to the individuals and therefore may not require explicit apologies to repair relationships, whereas individualists prefer explicit statements accepting responsibility for conflicts and public apologies to restore relationships.

Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication (2 of 3)

Exhibit 12-8 High- versus Low-Context Cultures from

Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences meaning, which is illustrated here in Exhibit 11-8.

Countries such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, are high-context cultures. They rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. A person’s official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight and public apologies to restore relationships.

People from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words.

Overcoming Problems in Cross-Cultural Communication (3 of 3)

A Cultural Guide

Know yourself.

Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy.

State facts, not your interpretation.

Consider the other person’s viewpoint.

Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

When communicating with people from a different culture, what can you do to reduce misinterpretations? Fred Casmir, a leading expert in intercultural communication research, and other experts offer the following suggestions:

Know yourself.

Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy.

State facts, not your interpretation.

Consider the other person’s viewpoint.

Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

Implications for Managers (1 of 2)

Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness.

Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages—however they are communicated—are understood.

Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible.

You’ve probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction.

Specific implications for managers are:

Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness.

Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages—however they are communicated—are understood.

Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible.

Implications for Managers (2 of 2)

Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending.

Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture.

Finally, managers should:

Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending.

Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture.

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

12.1 Describe the functions and process of communication.

12.2 Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine.

12.3 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

12.4 Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.

12.5 Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the functions and process of communication.

Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine.

Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.

Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

12.6 Identify common barriers to effective communication.

12.7 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

Additional objectives for this chapter.

Identify common barriers to effective communication.

Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

Questions?