psychology

Bella edwards

Chapter10PowerPointSlidesforNoteTakingExploringPsychology10e.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >psychology

8/11/2016

Josef F. Steufer/Getty Images

Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 10

• Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation and Achievement

• Hunger

• Theories and Physiology of Emotion

• Expressing and Experiencing Emotion

Chapter Overview

10-1: HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS DEFINE MOTIVATION? FROM WHAT PERSPECTIVES DO THEY VIEW MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR? • Motivation: A need or desire that energizes and directs

behavior • Four perspectives for understanding motivated behaviors:

– Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective): Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors

– Drive-reduction theory: Focuses on how we respond to our inner pushes

– Arousal theory: Focuses on finding the right levels of stimulation

– Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Focuses on the priority of some needs over others

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts

8/11/2016

Instinct

– A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

– Although instincts cannot explain most human motives, genes do predispose some species-typical behavior

– Classification of many behaviors as instincts; named but did not explain behaviors

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology

The more complex the nervous system, the more adaptable the organism. Both humans and weaverbirds satisfy their need for shelter in ways that reflect their inherited capacities, but the bird’s behavior is fixed.

Same Motive, Different Wiring

• Drive-reduction theory: The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

• Homeostasis: The tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry (such as blood glucose) around a particular level.

• Incentive: A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts Drives and Incentives

8/11/2016

Drive- reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)

Drive (hunger,

thirst)

Drive (hunger,

thirst)

Need (food, water)

Drive-reduction theory assumptions – We have physiological needs.

– Unmet needs create a drive.

– That drive pushes us to reduce the need.

Drive-Reduction Theory

DRIVEN BY CURIOSITY Young monkeys and children are fascinated by the unfamiliar. Their drive to explore maintains an optimum level of arousal and is one of several motives that do not fill any immediate physiological need.

• Humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels.

• High arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels.

• Low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal—often through curiosity.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts Optimum Arousal

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts Optimum Arousal • Yerkes-Dodson law: The principle that performance

increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

– When taking an exam, for example, it pays to be moderately aroused—alert but not trembling with nervousness.

– But optimal arousal depends upon the task, with more difficult tasks requiring lower arousal, and less difficult requiring higher arousal for best performance.

8/11/2016

Abraham Maslow

• Described human motives as a pyramid of priorities.

• At the base are basic physiological needs; at the peak are the highest human needs.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Motivational Concepts A Hierarchy of Motives

10-2: WHAT EVIDENCE POINTS TO OUR HUMAN AFFILIATION NEED—OUR NEED TO BELONG?

• Greek philosopher Aristotle labeled humans the social animal.

• Affiliation need: The need to build relationships and to feel part of a group.

• This need to belong seems to be a central human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong

– Social bonds and cooperation enhanced early ancestors’ survivability

– Combat, hunting, and food gathering more successful in groups; survival and reproduction strengthened

– Innate need to belong drives us to befriend those who cooperate and avoid our foes (favoring “us” versus “them”)

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong The Benefits of Belonging

8/11/2016

– Humans remain innately social beings. – Need to belong affects thoughts, emotions, and

behaviors – Feelings of love activate brain reward and safety

systems – Social isolation increases risk for mental decline and

poor health • Children put through a series of foster homes or

repeated family locations may have difficulty forming deep attachments

• U.S. immigration policies encourage chain migration – Ostracism is the deliberate social exclusion of

individuals or groups

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong: The Benefits of Belonging

Social exclusion may interfere with empathy for others, increase aggression, or raise the risk for self-defeating

behavior or underperformance

Social exclusion may interfere with empathy for others, increase aggression, or raise the risk for self-defeating

behavior or underperformance

Across cultures, social pain is described with the same words as physical pain

Acetaminophen lessens social as well as physical painAcetaminophen lessens social as well as physical pain

Increased activity in brain areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex (pain response area)

Real pain is experienced in social isolationReal pain is experienced in social isolation

Being socially excluded (ostracism) threatens our deep need to belong

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong: The Pain of Being Shut Out

SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION Successful participants on the reality TV show Survivor form alliances and gain acceptance among their peers. The rest receive the ultimate social punishment as they are “voted off the island.”

– Worldwide, many forms of ostracism are used (for example, exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement).

– For children, even a brief time- out in isolation can be punishing.

– Social isolation and rejection foster depressed moods or emotional numbness and can trigger aggression.

– Isolation can put us at risk for mental decline and ill health.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong The Pain of Being Shut Out

8/11/2016

10-3: HOW DOES SOCIAL NETWORKING INFLUENCE US?

Mobile Networks and Social Media

– At the end of 2014, there were 6.9 billion mobile cell- phone subscriptions

– Texting, social media sites, and other messaging technology are replacing e-mailing

– Three in four U.S. teens text; half (mostly female) send 60+ texts daily

– 94 percent of U.S. students entering college used social networking sites in 2014

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong Connecting and Social Networking

The Net Result: Social Effects of Social Networking

Modern changes in how we connect are vast and they prompt these questions:

• Are we more, or less, socially isolated?

• Does electronic communication stimulate healthy self- disclosure?

• Do social networks reflect actual personalities?

• Does social networking promote narcissism?

What do you think? Let’s compare your response to the information in your text.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong Connecting and Social Networking

Maintaining Balance and Focus • Excessive online socializing and gaming are associated with

lower grades • Experts offer practical suggestions:

– Monitor your time – Monitor your feelings – “Hide” your most distracting online friends when

necessary – When studying, get in the practice of checking your

phone only once per hour – Try a social networking fast or a time-controlled social

media diet – Refocus by taking a nature walk

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement The Need to Belong: Connecting and Social Networking

8/11/2016

10-4: WHAT IS ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION?

• Some human motives seem to have little obvious survival value, and not to diminish when they are fed. The more we achieve, the more we may need to achieve.

• Psychologist Henry Murray (1938) first defined achievement motivation.

• Achievement motivation: A desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard.

Basic Motivational Concepts, Affiliation, and Achievement Achievement Motivation

• Self-discipline surpasses intelligence test scores to produce school performance, attendance, and graduation honors.

• Discipline also refines talent.

• Grit matters. In psychology, it involves passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

• Achievements are not distributed like a bell curve (unlike intelligence, for example) and involve much more than raw ability.

• Superstar achievers seem to have both exceptional daily discipline and natural talent.

10-5: WHAT PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS PRODUCE HUNGER?

Monitoring stomach contractions

Hunger The Physiology of Hunger

8/11/2016

Glucose

– Is form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.

– Triggers feeling of hunger when at low levels.

Set Point

– Is the point at which the body’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set.

– When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight.

• Basal Metabolic Rate

– The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Hunger The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain

The hypothalamus (colored orange) performs various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger. Blood vessels supply the hypothalamus, enabling it to respond to our current blood chemistry as well as to incoming neural information about the body’s state.

– Arcuate nucleus: Neural arc in the hypothalamus that secretes appetite- suppressing hormones.

– Ghrelin: A hunger- arousing hormone secreted by the empty stomach.

Hunger The Physiology of Hunger: Body Chemistry and the Brain

The appetite hormones, in addition to ghrelin:

• Insulin: Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose

• Leptin: Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

• Orexin: Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

• PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

Hunger The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain

8/11/2016

10-6: WHAT CULTURAL AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE HUNGER?

• Body cues and environmental factors influence taste preferences

– Genetic and universal preferences for sweet and salty tastes, but conditioning can intensify or alter those preferences

– Calming effects of serotonin boost from carbohydrates; when stressed, carbohydrates are extra rewarding

Hunger The Psychology of Hunger Taste Preferences: Biology and Culture

Our cultures teaches us that some foods are acceptable but others are not

– Among many Japanese: Nattó, a strong-smelling fermented soybean dish

– Among many Westerners: “Rotted bodily fluid of ungulate,” a.k.a. cheese

– Taste preferences can be adaptive

• Spicier food preference in hotter climates; spices that inhibit bacteria growth

• Pregnancy-related nausea and food aversion peak at 10 weeks in utero, when the developing embryo is most vulnerable to toxins

Hunger The Psychology of Hunger Taste Preferences: Biology and Culture

People everywhere learn to enjoy the fatty, bitter, or spicy foods common in their culture. For these Alaska Natives (left), but not for most other North Americans, whale blubber is a tasty treat. For many Peruvians (right), roasted guinea pig is similarly delicious.

An Acquired Taste

8/11/2016

Five situational influences you may have noticed but underestimated:

– Arousing appetite: Study showed doubled snacking when watching an intense action movie

– Friends and food: Presence of others amplifies natural behavior tendencies (social facilitation)

– Serving size is significant: Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving, dinnerware

– Selections stimulate: Food variety promotes eating

– Nudging nutrition: New practices, such as a school lunch tray making fruits and vegetables more prominent, may improve eating habits

Hunger The Psychology of Hunger Situational Influences on Eating

10-7: WHAT FACTORS PREDISPOSE SOME PEOPLE TO BECOME AND REMAIN OBESE?

Obesity has been associated with:

– Lower psychological well-being, especially among women

– Increased depression

– 60 percent more bullying suffered by obese 6- to 9- year-olds

– Physical health risks

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control

A worldwide study of 188 countries revealed:

– Proportion of overweight adults increased from 29 to 37 percent among men, and 30 to 38 percent among women

– No reduced obesity rate in ANY country in over 33 years

– Wide variations by nation

• In 2010, no U.S. state had obesity rate less than 20 percent

• Extreme obesity carries wide range of health risks

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity

8/11/2016

Set Point and Metabolism

– Point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.

– Basal metabolic rate, the body’s resting rate of energy output, differs among individuals, meaning that two people of the same height, age, and activity level can maintain the same weight, even if one eats much less than the other.

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity

The Genetic Factor – People’s weights resemble those of their biological

parents – Identical twins have closely similar weights, even

when raised apart The Food and Activity Factors

– Sleep loss contributes to fall in leptin levels and rise in ghrelin

– Social influence seen in correlation among friends’ weights

– Increased food consumption and lower activity levels are seen worldwide

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity

Past and projected overweight rates, by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity

8/11/2016

Waist management tips for those wishing to lose weight: • Begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined. • Exercise and get enough sleep. • Minimize exposure to tempting food cues. • Limit variety and eat healthy foods. • Reduce portion sizes. • Don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night. • Beware of the binge. • Before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat. • Remember, most people occasionally lapse. • Connect to a support group.

Hunger Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity

10-8: HOW DO AROUSAL, EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOR, AND COGNITION INTERACT IN EMOTION?

• Emotion a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

• Emotions are adaptive responses that support survival

• Emotions are a mix of:

– Bodily arousal (heart pounding)

– Expressive behaviors (quickened pace)

– Conscious experience (both thoughts and feelings)

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

Theories of emotion generally address two major questions:

– Does physiological arousal come before or after the emotional feelings?

– How do thinking (cognition) and feeling interact?

Historical emotion theories, as well as current theories, have sought to answer these questions.

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition

8/11/2016

James-Lange Theory:

– Arousal comes before emotion

– Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard Theory:

– Arousal and emotion happen at the same time

– Emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

– Human body responses run parallel to the cognitive responses rather than causing them

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Historical Emotion Theories

10-9: TO EXPERIENCE EMOTIONS, MUST WE CONSCIOUSLY INTERPRET AND LABEL THEM?

– Two-factor theory: The Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

– Emotions have two ingredients: Physical arousal and cognitive appraisal.

– Arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it. – Emotional experience requires a conscious

interpretation of arousal. – Spillover effect: Spillover arousal from one event to

the next—influencing a response.

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factors: Arousal + Label = Emotion

Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other violent confrontations.

The Spillover Effect

8/11/2016

Zajonc and LeDoux

• Sometimes emotional response takes neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex and goes directly to amygdala.

• Some emotional responses involve no deliberate thinking.

Lazarus

• Brain processes much information without conscious awareness, but mental functioning still takes place.

• Emotions arise when an event is appraised as harmless or dangerous.

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede Emotion?

The two-track brain processes sensory input on two different pathways. (a) Some input travels to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis and is then sent to the amygdala. (b) Other input travels directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction.

The Brain’s Pathways for Emotions

Two Pathways for Emotions

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede Emotion?

8/11/2016

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Does Cognition Always Precede Emotion?

10-10: WHAT ARE SOME OF THE BASIC EMOTIONS?

Carroll Izard (1977) isolated 10 basic emotions that include physiology and expressive behavior.

– These basic emotions are joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt.

– These emotions are mostly present in infancy.

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Embodied Emotion The Basic Emotions

Some Naturally Occurring Infant Emotions

8/11/2016

10-11: WHAT IS THE LINK BETWEEN EMOTIONAL AROUSAL AND THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM?

• The arousal component of emotion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions.

• In a crisis, the fight-or-flight response automatically mobilizes the body for action.

• The ANS mobilizes body for action with stress hormones from adrenal glands, sugar from liver into bloodstream, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and slowed digestion.

• When crisis passes, the parasympathetic division of your ANS calms your body and hormones gradually leave bloodstream.

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Embodied Emotion Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System

Like a crisis control center, the autonomic nervous system arouses the body in a crisis and calms it when danger passes.

Emotional Arousal

10-12: DO DIFFERENT EMOTIONS ACTIVATE DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BRAIN-PATTERN RESPONSES? Different emotions have subtle indicators.

– Brain scans and EEGs reveal different brain circuits for some different emotions

– Depression and general negativity: Right frontal lobe activity

– Happiness, enthusiastic, and energized: Left frontal lobe activity

– But it can be difficult to discern physiological differences among fear, anger, and sexual arousal; different emotions can share common biological signatures

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Embodied Emotion The Physiology of Emotions

8/11/2016

10-13: HOW EFFECTIVE ARE POLYGRAPHS IN USING BODY STATES TO DETECT LIES?

Polygraph

– A machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies

– Measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

– Physiological responses include perspiration and cardiovascular breathing changes

Theories and Physiology of Emotion Embodied Emotion Lie Detection

In one study, polygraph experts interpreted the polygraph data of 100 people who had been suspects in theft crimes (Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984).

Half the suspects were guilty and had confessed; the other half turned out to be not guilty.

Had the polygraph experts been the judges, more than one-third of the innocent would have been declared guilty, and one- fourth of the guilty would have been declared not guilty.

Can a Lie Detector Reveal Lies?

10-14: HOW DO WE COMMUNICATE NONVERBALLY?

People can often detect nonverbal cues and threats, and signs of status.

• Nonthreatening cues more easily detected than deceiving expressions.

• Nonverbal communication common to Westerners:

– Firm handshake: Outgoing, expressive personality

– Gaze: Intimacy

– Darting eyes: Anxiety

• Hindu classic dance uses the face and body to effectively convey 10 different emotions (Hejmadi et al., 2000).

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Detecting Emotion in Others

8/11/2016

Gestures, facial expressions, and voice tones are not present in written communication. With this absence of expressive emotion (which often contains important information), ambiguity may occur.

How might this affect our electronic communications?

How might we take steps to avoid ambiguity in electronic and other written communications?

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Detecting Emotion in Others

10-15: DO THE GENDERS DIFFER IN THEIR ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE NONVERBALLY?

• People tend to believe women have greater sensitivity to men to nonverbal cues, and studies have shown that there is some basis in fact for this belief.

Women

– Tend to read emotional cues more easily and to be more empathic

– Express more emotion with their faces

• People think emotionality is “more true of women,” but when imagining an angry face, are more likely to imagine a man.

• People tend to attribute female emotionality to disposition and male emotionality to circumstance.

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Gender and Emotion

Male or Female?

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Gender and Emotion

8/11/2016

• Male and female film viewers did not differ dramatically in self- reported emotions or physiological responses.

• But the women’s faces showed much more emotion. (From Kring & Gordon, 1998.)

Gender and Expressiveness

10-16: DO GESTURES AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS MEAN THE SAME THING IN ALL CULTURES?

• Gesture meanings vary among cultures, but outward signs of emotion are generally the same.

• Musical expression of emotion crosses culture; happy and sad music feel happy and sad around the world.

• Shared emotional categories do not simply reflect shared cultural experiences (from internationally viewed movies and TV broadcasts, for example), as they are seen even in very isolated communities.

• Facial muscles speak a universal language for some basic emotions; interpreting faces in context is adaptive.

• Cultures differ in how much emotion they express, and cultural differences also exist within nations.

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Culture and Emotion

As people of differing cultures, do our faces speak the same language or different languages? Which face expresses disgust? Anger? Fear? Happiness? Sadness? Surprise? (From Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989.)

Culture-Specific or Culturally Universal Expressions?

8/11/2016

10-17: HOW DO OUR FACIAL EXPRESSIONS INFLUENCE OUR FEELINGS?

Facial feedback effect

– The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

– Facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal our body to respond accordingly

– People also mimic others’ expressions, which help them empathize

A similar behavior feedback effect

– Tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion The Effects of Facial Expressions

How to Make People Smile Without Telling Them to Smile

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion The Effects of Facial Expressions

Facial and behavior feedback effects

– Our natural mimicry of others’ emotions helps explain why emotions are contagious.

– An inability to mimic others, as occurs with individuals with the facial paralysis disorder of Moebius syndrome, can leave us struggling to make emotional connections.

Expressing and Experiencing Emotion The Effects of Facial Expressions