Observation

Chapter 10: Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood

10-1

Brain Development

The brain continues to grow in volume in middle childhood, but the glucose rate does not continue to grow (Giedd et al., 2009). The glucose rate (an indication of energy use) tends to plateau at twice the rate of adults until 9 to 10 years of age. After this, it gradually declines. There is a second wave of synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex at the start of puberty, and then it plateaus until after puberty (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Some neuroscientists believe that the first 10 years may be a sensitive period in brain development because of this intense activity. Sensitive period means the effect of experience is strongest during a relatively brief period in the lifespan. This may explain why, as you learned in Chapter 6, brain plasticity begins to be lost at about 10 years of age. Although it is true that early experience shapes the architecture of the brain, it is important to remember that critical brain development continues beyond middle childhood (Fox, Levitt, & Nelson, 2010). As a teacher, you can promote optimal brain development by doing the same things you learned in Chapters 2 and 6; that is, keep children’s brains well nourished, reduce stress, and provide optimal experiences with repetitive practice of important skills to strengthen synaptic connections. 10-2 Growth and Motor Development Growth in middle childhood continues to be steady. Both boys and girls grow an average of 2 to 3 inches in height and 5 to 6 pounds in weight per year until puberty (Rogol et al., 2002). The rate of growth slows just before puberty. Quality of fine motor skills increases dramatically in middle childhood. This is why the writing of a 1st-grader is clearly distinguishable from that of older children (see Figure 10.1). There is also improvement, although less dramatic, in speed, agility, and control of gross motor skills like jumping, throwing, balancing, and hanging (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). One of the amusing and endearing aspects of teaching 1st-graders is how often they fall out of their seats. They have trouble raising their hand while maintaining balance in their seat. During middle childhood, they become better at coordinating movement with perception so they can maintain balance, catch a ball, and write their name (Thelen, 1995). They also become coordinated enough to play sports like baseball and games with rules, like hopscotch and tag (see Table 10.1). Figure 10.1 Writing Samples These writing samples are from the same boy, at ages 6 and 10. The first note says, “Dear Grandma, Thank you for the shark shorts and sandals and the hat.” What attributes in his writing have changed over the 4 years? Table 10.1 Motor Milestones in Middle Childhood (5 Years to 10 Years) A g e Fine motor skill Gross motor skill 5 – 7 y e a r s ● Zip zippers and lace shoes. ● Able to learn to play piano or violin. ● Control pencil with the finger and thumb. Movement comes from the elbow. ● Write and draw with more control, but writing looks choppy and uneven. Letters are getting smaller. Uppercase letters are somewhat mastered, but lowercase letters continue to be challenging ● Hop. ● Skip on alternating feet. ● Jump rope. ● Walk on a balance beam. ● Throwing, catching, and kicking become smoother. ● Begin to participate in organized games (e.g., hopscotch) and sports (e.g., soccer or baseball). through 3rd grade, especially letters with slants or curves. ● Skate, ski, bike, and other specialized skills with training. 1 0 y e a r s ● Pencils are controlled by rotating the forearm and bending the index finger less when writing. Properly spacing letters is mastered around 4th grade. ● Fully participate in sports; can do same activities as adults but have less strength and somewhat less coordination. Note: These are approximate age trends. Do not use this table for diagnosis of delays. Source: Adapted from Payne and Isaacs (1994) and Johnson and Blasco (1997). Many people believe preschoolers are the most active of any age. Actually, physical activity peaks in middle childhood. Motion recorders (actometers) strapped to arms and legs have been used to record round-the-clock movement in people from toddler age to young adults. Results indicate that movement increases from infancy, peaks at age 7 to 9 years, and then decreases (see Figure 10.2). Figure 10.2 Activity Level by Age Dots represent children, showing wide individual differences. The line represents the average for each age. What age is the most active on average? 10-2a Individual Diversity in Growth and Motor Development Exercise Think about This Children’s movement peaks at the same age when there is a peak in diagnosis of ADHD—around 7 to 9 years. What might this mean for whether you view hyperactivity as normal or pathological? What might this imply for the structure of school at this age? In Chapter 2, you learned how exercise and nutrition influence differences in growth and motor development. You learned about Myrtle McGraw’s famous experiment with the twins Jimmy and Johnny, in which she found you can speed young children’s motor development with exercise, but only to a limited extent. Older children will acquire motor skills at a faster rate, and some skills will not be mastered until there is biologically based maturation, regardless of training. Exercise does more than promote motor skills. It also improves strength and endurance, builds healthy bones and muscles, increases positive emotions, and reduces anxiety and stress. It can promote socializing with other children, as well as self-esteem and attractiveness. However, it is possible to overdo exercise. The intense training of elite, national-caliber child athletes can be stressful and disrupt peer relationships. It can also delay growth, delay puberty in girls, (Georgopoulos et al., 2010), and lead to overuse injuries (DiFiori et al., 2014). Rather than overdoing it, most children do not exercise enough. Almost two decades ago, the US Surgeon General called physical inactivity a major epidemic, and the situation is growing worse (Morrow, Jackson, & Payne, 1999). A new term has even been coined: exercise deficit disorder (Faigenbaum, Best, MacDonald, Myer, & Stracciolini, 2014). Sedentary behavior of more than 2 hours per day in school-age children predicts overweight, poor fitness, low self-esteem, and low academic achievement (Tremblay et al., 2011). More than 70% of 6- to 17-year-olds do not meet national guidelines for physical activity. The guidelines are 60 minutes of aerobic activity intense enough to make you sweat or breathe hard every day (DHHS, 2008). On the other hand, some youth do get plenty of exercise through play and team sports. Nutrition Undernutrition affects growth. It delays puberty, whereas obesity accelerates it. (Overweight youth develop secondary sex characteristics earlier than other youth.) Undernutrition is also associated with low intelligence, poor academic achievement, irritability, and apathy (Wachs, 2000). What should older children eat to be healthy? In 2015, the US government released new dietary guidelines to support their MyPlate campaign (DHHS, 2015). See Photo 10.1. The basic message is that children should eat more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, augmented with low-fat meats and dairy products, and drink water rather than sugary drinks. (Sorry, but French fries, ketchup, and chips do not count as vegetables.) Ideally, less than 30% of calories would come from fat. Based on these guidelines, most US children eat too much fat and sugar and not enough fruits and vegetables (DHHS, 2015). See Figure 10.4. As children get older, their diet quality gets worse. About 27% of 2- to 5-year-olds, and fewer than 10% of 6- to 9-year-olds, have a good diet (FIFCFS, 2009). Photo 10.1 The US Department of Agriculture’s MyPlate, showing a healthy, balanced meal. Basheera Designs/ Shutterstock.com Brain Research Exercise Builds Better Brains Exercise promotes brain functioning and growth (Figure 10.3). Studies find that active, physically fit children control their attention better, have better memory, and have higher test scores than nonfit children, beyond the effects of IQ and SES (Castelli et al., 2014; Hillman & Drobes, 2012). Most of these studies are correlational, but randomized experiments (see Chapter 1) with adults and children show that exercise causes better brain functioning. For example, in one study sedentary, overweight 7- to 11-year-olds exercised in an after-school program for 40 minutes per day for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, they had better cognitive functioning, higher math test scores, and more activity in the prefrontal cortex than a comparison group (Davis et al., 2011). How might this happen? One possibility found in animal studies is that brains form more new neurons after exercise (Bryck & Fisher, 2012). Figure 10.3 Exercise Promotes Brain Functioning This figure depicts typical differences in electric activity in the brain of 9- to 10-year-olds after sitting quietly (such as in a classroom) compared with walking for 20 minutes. They had better attention control and test scores after walking. How does this fit with research on the relationship between learning and exercise? What does it suggest for learners in your classroom? Source: Hillman, Pontifex, Raine, Castelli, Hall, and Kramer (2009). It is a common myth that sugar makes children “hyper.” Research shows that sugary treats do not affect the behavior of typical children (Sciutto, Terjesen, & Frank, 2000). This is an opportunity for a lesson on research. Early correlational studies found a link between sugar and overly active behavior. However, later research using well-controlled experiments, in which the control group received a placebo instead of sugar, found no connection. The simplest explanation is that when children act wild during a class party, it is more likely due to having a party than to sugar. However, some children may react to other chemicals in a sugary treat, such as caffeine or dyes. 10-2b Group Diversity in Growth and Motor Development Gender Boys exercise and participate in team sports more than girls, although the rate of girls participating in high school sports has increased since the 1970s and is now about 35% compared to about 50% for boys (Bassett, John, Conger, Fitzhugh, & Coe, 2015). Is this because boys need an outlet for their higher activity level? Perhaps. In the studies using actometers discussed earlier, no gender differences in activity level were found, but some studies do find that boys are somewhat more active than girls (Saudino & Zapfe, 2008). Is this because boys are better athletes? Not initially. Girls are as strong as boys of similar body size until puberty, except that in middle childhood boys throw farther and girls are more flexible. Both boys and girls steadily increase in strength and athletic skill from ages 4 to 14. However, gender differences emerge with puberty, which we discuss in Chapter 14. Figure 10.4 Dietary Guidelines for Vegetables Bars indicate recommended ranges for eating vegetables; circles indicate average consumption. On average, children do not consume as many healthy foods, such as vegetables, as federal dietary guidelines suggest they should. Which age group has the largest gap? Is it the same for boys and girls? Why are recommendations different for boys and girls at some ages? Source: DHHS (2015). Socioeconomic Status There is no relationship between motor development and SES in school-aged children in the United States (Malina et al., 2004). However, there is a relationship between nutrition and SES. Low-SES children eat more high-fat, high-sugar foods. This may be because they live in neighborhoods with convenience carryout stores instead of supermarkets, making healthy food less accessible (Morland, Wing, Diez Roux, & Poole, 2002). As many as one-third of children in developing countries are undernourished, making it one of the most common risks of childhood worldwide. However, in the United States, children go hungry in less than 1% of households. What is more common is food insecurity, or periodic lack of adequate-quality food; this occurs for 21% of children (FIFCFS, 2015). What happens when children lack food security? They are more likely to be anxious, aggressive, friendless, suspended from school, and quarrelsome than well-fed, low-income children. They are also more likely to be in special education, have low math scores, and be retained a grade. They have more colds, stomachaches, and headaches, but are not absent from school more often (Alaimo, Olson, Frongillo, & Briefel, 2001; Council on Community Pediatrics, 2015). Hunger may cause these problems, or both the problems and the food insecurity may be the result of some other underlying problem such as a mentally ill parent. Ethnicity There are a few ethnic differences in motor development. African American school-age children, especially boys, tend to run faster and jump farther than white children, but there are no differences in other motor skills like throwing, balance, or sit-ups. There are not much data comparing motor development of other ethnic groups within the United States (Malina et al., 2004). African American and Latino children, particularly girls, get less exercise than white and Asian children and participate less in school sports (Grunbaum et al., 2002). However, one of our Latina neighbors was the junior high soccer star. There are many such exceptions to these group trends. In fact, ethnic differences are small compared to SES differences (Malina et al., 2004). Some ethnic differences may be the result of SES. Children in high-crime neighborhoods are less likely to exercise vigorously (Gordon-Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000). In contrast, children with highly educated mothers are more likely to get vigorous exercise, regardless of ethnicity. 10-2c Classroom Implications of Growth and Motor Development Physical Activity at School A study of hundreds of 3rd-graders across the country found that they averaged only two PE classes per week. PE and recess have been reduced in many schools for at least two reasons: (1) Budget crunches reduce money for PE teachers, facilities, and playground supervisors; and (2) the importance of passing proficiency tests creates a need for more time on academics. This is misguided. In fact, physical play and recess enhance learning from preschool through high school. When schools double or triple PE time, test scores do not go down, and they often rise (Basch, 2011a; CDC, 2010). Physically active children have higher test scores, better attendance, and fewer discipline problems. What can you do to help children get active? Try the following: 1. Provide school time for unstructured physical activity such as jumping rope or running around the play yard. 2. Advocate for daily physical education. Make sure that during PE classes each child is active for most of the class period. For example, in dodge ball most participants do not participate most of the time because they are “out.” In the study discussed above, during PE classes 3rd-graders spent only 5 minutes in vigorous exercise and 12 minutes in moderate exercise. Most of the time, they did things like wait for a turn or listen to instructions (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003). 3. Discourage withholding of physical activity as a punishment. Withholding vigorous physical play from an active child is not only unkind—it is counterproductive. 4. Provide diverse extracurricular activities appropriate for different abilities that involve physical activity. For example, an Earth Club could take hikes to study nature. 5. Where appropriate, suggest walking and biking instead of busing students to school. In-School Nutrition Children consume a surprising amount of their daily calories at school, about 40% (AAP Committee on Nutrition, 2015). Doing the following may help your learners have a higher quality diet: 1. Help them reduce calorie intake and get more exercise, as discussed earlier. 2. Teach them about appropriate quantities and types of food. Emphasize nutrient-rich foods. Unfortunately, schools may offer unhealthy foods through vending machines, snacks, and fund-raising sales. 3. Advocate for longer lunch periods in a socially pleasant environment where learners are presented with choices among healthy foods. Nutritional foods take longer to eat. 4. Focus attention on becoming healthy, not on dieting or losing weight. Communicate to overweight learners that they are valued regardless of their weight. Three federal agencies (USDA, CDC, and Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS]) have combined to identify success stories from schools that have become healthier. These schools make healthy foods more accessible. Some offer healthy rewards such as a walk with the principal instead of a pizza party. Some adopt a “fruits and veggies only” policy for snacks. Some have removed all soda and candy from vending machines, replacing them with yogurt, string cheese, fruit, or beef jerky. Contrary to many people’s beliefs, schools can make money selling healthy options. Promoting your students’ physical well-being is particularly important today because children are experiencing an epidemic of inadequate exercise and poor quality diet that converge to create the health challenge we discuss next. 10-3 Contemporary Health Challenge—Obesity The Donovan family has four children. Both parents are obese. Their refrigerator is stocked with soda pop and hot dogs. The oldest child, Jacob, is tall and fit. He is on the football and basketball teams in high school. His dream is a Division 1 college athletic scholarship, which he attains. His 8thand 5th-grade siblings are both obese and not involved in sports. His 1st-grade brother is very thin—nicknamed “skinny boy.” If the children are good all week, they are rewarded on Friday night with a trip to a fast-food restaurant and a double-feature video at home. The real motive for the reward is that the parents are too tired to cook after they get home from work. Families with weight problems, like the Donovans, are becoming common. The World Health Organization has declared obesity one of the top health problems in developed nations. In the United States, the number of overweight children has quadrupled since 1970 (see Figure 10.5). Roughly 8% of infants and toddlers are obese. Among 2- to 19-year-olds 20% are obese and 33% are overweight (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). Figure 10.5 Sharp Rise in US Childhood Obesity How would you describe the change in obesity across these four decades? Obesity is defined as BMI ≥95th percentile on age-specific CDC growth charts from 2000. Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Obesity or overweight is defined by body-mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters . For adults, overweight is a BMI ≥25, and obesity is a BMI ≥30. For an adult, this means being at least 30 pounds over ideal weight (Grunbaum et al., 2002). In children, the BMI indicators of obesity are similar, but vary by gender and age. (They can be found on the CDC’s growth charts.) 10-3a Development of Obesity Fat level, or adiposity, naturally changes across the lifespan. There is an increase in adiposity from birth to about 1 year of age, then a decrease. A rebound in adiposity sets in between 4 and 8 years of age, then decreases again. The body peaks in leanness around age 25; after that age, adiposity increases again. Although obesity can develop at any age, the primary grades are a risk period because of the adiposity rebound. The Donovans are typical. “Skinny boy” is not likely to deserve his nickname once the adipose rebound sets in, just as it did for his older, inactive siblings. 10-3b Individual Diversity in Obesity What Does Obesity Predict? Obesity can cause serious health problems in both children and adults. In children, being overweight may cause type 2 (non–insulin-dependent) diabetes. There has been a dramatic increase in diabetes, which puts children at risk for hardening of the arteries, kidney problems, eye disease, and death. Obesity is also linked to early onset of puberty in girls, sleep apnea (see Chapter 14), asthma, and problems with joints and bones (Davison, Susman, & Birch, 2003; Krishnamoorthy, Hart, & Jelalian, 2006). Obesity is linked to achievement problems in school. It is linked to poor working memory and lower reading, math, and intelligence scores. Obese learners may score a full grade lower on achievement tests than fit children. Does this mean that obesity causes impaired mental abilities, or vice versa? There is evidence for both directions of effect (Khan, Raine, Donovan, & Hillman, 2014; Pontifex et al., 2014). Obesity can also cause social and emotional problems. Obese children are more lonely, depressed, and anxious and have less self-control in the classroom (Gable, Krull, & Chang, 2009; Harrist et al., 2016). They are seen as less likable by their peers, even as young as age 3 (Bell & Morgan, 2000). Perhaps because of this, obesity is linked to lower self-esteem in school-age children (but not in preschoolers), particularly if peers tease and parents criticize the child’s weight (BeLue, Francis, & Colaco, 2009). See Figure 10.6. By early adolescence, not all obese teens have low self-esteem, but those who do are at risk for other problems such as smoking and drinking (Strauss, 2000). The link between obesity and these problems is stronger for girls than for boys, and stronger for Latino and white children than for African American children (Khan et al., 2014; Pontifex et al., 2014). Figure 10.6 Children’s Popularity Status by Weight Overweight, obese, and severely obese 6- to 7-year-olds are more likely to be rejected and less likely to be popular compared with non-overweight children. See Chapter 13 regarding types of peer status, especially Figure 13.5. Source: Harrist et al. (2016). Data are from rural Oklahoma. What Predicts Obesity? Many factors are linked to obesity. A few that help explain the rapid rise of the epidemic over the past few decades are listed here: ● Exercise. BMI is a direct function of calorie intake (diet) relative to calorie output (exercise)—known as the energy equation. It only takes a small imbalance in the equation to become overweight. You learned earlier that many children today do not get enough exercise. ● Diet. Many families, like the Donovans, eat out often and eat too much. In the United States, portion sizes have increased, particularly for soft drinks and salty snacks like crackers and chips (Nielsen & Popkin, 2003). Portion sizes are especially large at fast-food restaurants. Coke was originally served in 6-ounce glasses in the early 1900s; now it is served in 48-ounce cups. One additional serving of sugary drinks per day can increase obesity by 60% in 6thand 7th-graders (Ludwig, Peterson, & Gortmaker, 2001). ● Sleep deprivation. Children who sleep fewer hours and go to bed later tend to have higher BMI than other children (Snell et al., 2007). Less than 10 hours of sleep per night is linked to obesity in children in countries around the world, such as the United States, China, Tunisia, and Brazil (Cappuccio et al., 2008). Sleep deprivation begins early and can have lasting effects. Toddlers who do not get enough sleep tend to become young adults who are overweight (Al Mamun et al., 2007). You will learn more about sleep in Chapter 14. ● Television viewing. Television viewing reduces activity level and promotes calorie intake. Many children watch TV during meals; this habit is linked to eating fewer fruits and vegetables and eating more pizza, salty snacks, and soda pop (Coon, Goldberg, Rogers, & Tucker, 2001). Children who watch more than 2 hours daily tend to be more obese than their peers (Tremblay et al., 2011). ● Parent behavior. Parents influence their children’s obesity in many ways, such as being obese themselves, skipping family mealtime, being negative during mealtime, or being highly controlling about eating (e.g., “No soda at any time”) so that their children overeat the wrong foods when the controls are lifted (Harrison et al., 2011). See Photo 10.2. Parents who do not cook meals at home tend to purchase less-nutritious, higher-calorie food for their children (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2006). Photo 10.2 Can you think of more than one reason why mothers’ obesity is a powerful predictor of children’s obesity? Tim Boyle/Getty Images News/Getty Images 10-3c Group Diversity in Obesity Obesity rates vary by ethnicity and SES in the United States, although ethnic differences in excessive BMI are small. Asian children have the lowest rate and Latino and African American children have the highest rates (Ogden et al., 2014). In most countries, higher-SES children are taller and heavier than low-SES children. However, in developed countries, low-SES children with single parents or a mother who did not finish high school are more likely to be obese (Strauss & Knight, 1999). Mrs. Donovan did not finish high school. It may seem ironic that low-SES children who are more likely to have food insecurity would be obese, but in the United States, high-calorie food is plentiful and cheap. For example, a box of cookies provides more calories per dollar than fresh fruit. Children living in poverty are more likely than high-SES children to eat cookies rather than fruit, although most nonpoor children do not have stellar diets either (DHHS, 2015). At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be aware that physical well-being affects children’s behavior and achievement at school. Many schools acknowledge this by having a nurse on staff. There is a movement in the United States to go a step further and create school-based health centers. (Other countries already have such centers.) The idea is to bring medical care to children where they are usually found—at school. This reduces costs and promotes better outcomes for ill children (Lear, 2003). For example, children with asthma had fewer costly hospitalizations and missed school less if their school had a health center (Webber et al., 2003). Asthma is the leading medical cause of school absence. Even in schools without health centers, you can promote the physical development of your students through the suggestions discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 6: Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood

6-1 Brain Development

in Early Childhood All of Mrs. Z’s kindergarten students receive a free breakfast, which they eat at 8:45 in the morning. Their assigned lunchtime is 12:40. Even if you assume they actually ate their breakfast, 4 hours is a long time without food or drink. Mrs. Z decided to provide a 10:30 snack. She reports, “I have seen a big difference in the children’s ability to stay on task, greater desire to complete their work to the best of their abilities, and there seems to be less conflict in the centers or during free time just before lunch. I cannot believe the difference it has made.” Your students are biological beings. This may seem obvious, but it is easy for teachers to overlook physical needs, as Mrs. Z initially did. Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, argued that children cannot attend to classroom tasks unless their basic physical needs are met first (see Box 6.1). Meeting the needs of one part of the body—the brain—is especially important because the brain regulates learning, behavior, and other physical functions. Box 6.1 Theories & Theorists: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was the oldest of seven children of uneducated Russian Jews who immigrated to the United States. He was encouraged by his parents to excel in school. He did not; his grades were mediocre. Yet he read voraciously, which may explain why he got into the University of Wisconsin to study psychology. He became a professor at Brooklyn College in his home state of New York in 1937. Maslow was a leader of humanistic psychology, which was quite different from two prevailing theories of his time: Freudian psychology and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology emphasizes growth and fulfillment. Maslow wanted to know what makes people mentally healthy rather than mentally ill. He studied exceptional people such as Abraham Lincoln, Jane Addams, and Albert Einstein. His studies led him to develop the concept of a hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is usually portrayed like a pyramid (see Figure 6.1). The most basic human needs are at the bottom of the pyramid. These are physical needs like air, water, food, and sleep. At the next level are safety needs. These include psychological safety (e.g., stability, security, and order) as well as physical safety. Then come social needs, such as love and acceptance. At the next level are esteem needs, such as admiration from others and self-respect. The highest level is self-actualization. Figure 6.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Can you identify where you currently are in this pyramid? Which of your needs are mostly met, and which are pressing issues for you now? Do the same for a child in your class. Source: Based on Maslow (1970). Self-actualization is the process of fulfilling one’s potential. This is not a self-centered state. Rather, self-actualizing people are concerned with issues that affect humanity. Self-actualizing people are unpretentious, ethical, compassionate, and creative. However, they are not perfect, nor do they display these attributes at all times. Most people do not become self-actualized; perhaps less than 5% of people truly achieve it. Self-actualization is a very long process. Maslow believed college students are too young to reach this level (Maslow, 1970, p. 150). According to Maslow, your students’ first concern is to fulfill the lowest level of unsatisfied need. When a need is met, it becomes unimportant, and the next level of need becomes pressing. After physiological needs are met, safety needs become pressing. When these needs are met, belonging becomes pressing, and so on. In contrast, when basic needs are not met, children will not go on to higher steps. Needs are not “all or nothing,” but rather they emerge gradually. That is, a child does not have to have 100% of each lower need met before the next level of need becomes relevant. Motivation to satisfy needs produces growth as the child comes to pursue higher needs. According to Maslow, unmet needs are the root of misbehavior and most mental illnesses. For example, hungry learners may become distractible, selfish, and aggressive, as Mrs. Z’s students did. Older youth with unmet belongingness needs may join violent gangs. There are many criticisms of Maslow’s work. It was not scientific because he decided who were self-actualizers and studied their life stories in retrospect. In addition, people can behave as self-actualizers even when lower needs are not met. For example, there were individuals in World War II concentration camps who were deprived of food but were still creative, compassionate, and ethical. Despite these criticisms, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is useful for teachers. In Maslow’s view, children are inherently good. If a student misbehaves in your classroom, it may mean that the student’s needs are not being met. In Maslow’s view, you do not need to control negative impulses as much as to help satisfy basic needs so that your students are free to become all that they can be. Children must be well fed, rested, and feel cared for if they are to achieve in school. This is why understanding children’s physical and socioemotional needs will help you become a more effective teacher. In Chapter 2, you learned about the structure and function of the brain. You also learned that the brain develops in an orderly way and that areas mature by increasing myelination, specializing, building connections, and pruning synapses as the brain grows in volume (Johnson, Grossmann, & Kadosh, 2009). A key lesson is that brain architecture is dictated by experience. One important development in the brain during early childhood involves change in glucose consumption. At birth, the brain’s glucose consumption is relatively low, but it increases so that by 4 years of age, both glucose rate and blood flow to the cortex are twice that of adults (Chugani, 1998). This is a dramatic increase in energy demand in the cortex. In contrast, the brainstem remains fairly stable in glucose use throughout childhood. A second important development is that some areas of the prefrontal cortex become more interconnected, which is linked to young children’s increasing ability to follow rules, sit still, and raise their hands during group time (Bunge & Zelazo, 2006). This is related to the synaptogenesis you learned about in Chapter 2. When children enter kindergarten, they have more synapses than when they were born, and more than you have now, thanks to synaptogenesis. Why would young children have more synapses than you do? Your neurons have been “pruned” of their branches. Recall from Chapter 2 that pruning is not random, but is based on experience. 6-1a Individual Diversity and Brain Plasticity In Chapter 2, you learned that although there is general similarity in size, shape, and location of specific brain structures from one child to another, there are individual differences in synaptic pruning, myelination, and other factors. These individual differences explain intelligence and social and emotional abilities such as stress reactivity and behavioral inhibition. You also learned that the brain adapts to experience so that experience becomes biology. There is a subtle, gradual diminishment in brain plasticity (see Figure 6.2). Plasticity means that something is easily changed or molded. Plasticity begins to be lost at about 10 years of age. For example, if there is damage to the language areas of the brain before age 10, there is better recovery of language skills than if damage occurs after age 10. The ability to acquire language is not completely lost after age 10, but the potential is diminished. The plasticity of children’s brains may help them learn subjects like algebra or second languages more efficiently than adults (Luna, 2004). However, keep in mind that the brain remains plastic across the life span to some extent, or you could not be learning about child development right now. Figure 6.2 Brain Plasticity One of the most important lessons for teachers about the brain is that it is changed through use. Good instruction builds better brains. Experiences that shape the brain can include biological factors, such as exercise, nutrition, sleep, and drug exposure. Experiences can also include social factors (Fox et al., 2010). In other chapters, you learn how experiences like attachment and stress affect the brain. Another social factor that is relevant to you as a teacher is whether the environment is stimulating. Stimulating environments promote brain development. For example, people with a college education have more dendrites in the language area of the cortex than other people (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). Such effects have been studied most with music. Children with music training have more connections between sensory and motor areas of their brain, have more efficient brain systems for hearing, and tend to be better at reading, language, memory, and paying attention (White, Hutka, Williams, & Moreno, 2013). In one experiment, 4- to 6-year-olds were given music training for just 4 weeks. Changes in brain functioning were detected at the end of the brief training, and again a year later (Moreno, Lee, Janus, & Bialystok, 2015). Timing matters. Musicians who begin learning an instrument before age 7 have different brain architecture from those who learn at a later age. The effect of childhood music training on brain architecture can be lifelong, even when adults have not played the instrument for many years (White et al., 2013). 6-1b Classroom Implications of Brain Development In Chapter 2, you were introduced to broad implications, resulting from brain research, for your role as a teacher: ● Provide optimal experiences for your students because experience alters the brain. Give children repetitive practice of important skills in order to strengthen synaptic connections. ● Keep the brain well nourished. In the opening vignette, Mrs. Z found that providing a snack improved her students’ ability to stay on task. ● Reduce stress at school by creating nurturing and predictable environments. Toxic levels of stress interfere with learning and may lead to aggression and negative emotions. Children with chronically high levels of cortisol have more cognitive, motor, and social delays than other children (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1999). In addition, you may want to advocate for high-quality early childhood education. The first 10 years of life are a sensitive period in brain development. Sensitive period refers to a biologically determined time period, typically early in life, in which a child readily develops specific abilities. Change is less likely before or after the sensitive period. By the time children enter elementary schools, half of that period is over. This period when children are avid learners could be more fully exploited for many children whose first 5 years are spent in unstimulating environments. Preschoolers are capable of learning skills in language, mathematics, music, and art when taught in developmentally appropriate ways. The importance of early childhood for brain development is not a myth, but it is sometimes exaggerated. Early childhood education has rightfully benefited from media attention on early brain development and the push to provide quality programs for young children. However, remediation is possible, and quality programs are needed for struggling students at older ages as well. 6-2 Growth and Motor Development in Early Childhood At age 4, Ben said to his mother, “I’m all growed up now.” A little surprised, his mother asked how he knew this. He replied, “Cause I can cross the street all by myself; I can turn on the light all by myself; and I have hair on my arm just like Daddy—so I’m growed up.” The rate of growth changes with age. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes growth charts indicating average height and weight at each age. Figure 6.3 illustrates this growth. Growth refers to changes in height, weight, and body composition. Compared to infants, preschoolers grow more slowly. Their rate of growth slows to about 2 to 3 inches in height and 5 pounds per year (Figure 6.4). Most children double their birth height by age 3 to 4 (Rogol et al., 2002). Unlike birth size, children’s size at age 4 strongly correlates (r = 0.80) with adult size (Tanner, 1985); that is, tall 4-year-olds will likely become tall adults. Figure 6.3 Growth in Boys and Girls What do you notice about change in proportion and shape, as well as size? 6 months 1 5 10 12 15 6 months 1 5 10 14 17 Growth spurt Adult size Source: Adapted from Tanner (1973). Figure 6.4 Rate of Growth for Boys and Girls by Age What conclusions would you draw about how the rate of growth changes across childhood? At what age do girls and boys diverge in growth patterns? At what age do girls and boys have their adolescent growth spurts? Source: Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/growthcharts. Motor development refers to changes in control and proficiency in movement. Fine motor skills involve small muscle movements, like picking up a bean. Gross motor skills involve large muscle movements, like walking or throwing. Both gross and fine motor skills continue to be refined in early childhood; by age 5, children can throw a ball and stack cubes. However, the most dramatic motor development may be in the quality of walking. The toddler’s teetering walk becomes a stable, smooth movement by 4 years of age, similar to the quality of adults’ walk (see Table 6.1). Table 6.1 Motor Milestones in Early Childhood Age Fine motor skill Gross motor skill 2–3 years ● Build tower of three, then four blocks ● Eat with spoon ● Put puzzle pieces together ● Roll clay into shapes ● Imitate horizontal and vertical lines, then a circle ● Draw people with a head and one other body part ● Squat in play ● Walk up stairs with support, alternating feet ● Walk down stairs awkwardly or with assistance ● Run forward ● Jump with both feet ● Begin to stand on one foot ● Ride toys without pedals 3–4 years ● Unscrew lids ● Grasp toward the tip of the pencil ● Print recognizable letters. Letters are large, uppercase, uneven, and get larger toward the end of a word. ● Draw “tadpole” people with 6 parts or a simple cross ● Walk down stairs smoothly ● Hop on one foot ● Ride toys with pedals ● Climb on and off furniture ● Begin to catch a bouncing ball ● Paint ● Cut with scissors ● Button medium-sized buttons ● Walk up stairs without support Note: These are approximate age trends. Do not use this table for diagnosis of delays. Adapted from Payne and Isaacs (1994) and Johnson and Blasco (1997). 6-2a Individual Diversity in Growth and Motor Skills In Chapter 2, you learned that early motor development does not portend greater intelligence within normal ranges, but delayed development or unusual patterns of movement may portend cognitive and social problems because they may share an underlying neurological cause. In addition, motor skills make it possible for children to connect with other people and make possible other abilities—like talking, reading, and writing—that are critical for school success. In Chapter 2, you also learned how genes, exercise, and nutrition influence differences in growth and motor development. This probably does not surprise you. However, you may be surprised to learn that parent–child relationships also affect physical development. A few decades ago, physicians at Johns Hopkins Medical School had 13 children between 3 and 11 years referred for growth failure. Their height was 30 to 66% of normal, which is a huge deficit. They had delayed speech and delayed walking. They had protruding stomachs. Yet, they were not malnourished. The children almost all stole food, gorged themselves (like eating a whole loaf of bread), and ate from garbage cans. The physicians suspected pituitary problems at first, but later realized the problem was the parents (Powell, Brasel, & Blizzard, 1967). Most of the children’s parents abused alcohol, were promiscuous, and quarreled. When the children were placed in a convalescent hospital, they grew rapidly. Their average growth in the hospital was 0.65 inch per month; the typical rate is 0.20 (see Figure 6.5). They also quit stealing food; their speech developed; and they appeared happier and less withdrawn. When the children were returned to their homes, growth slowed again. Similar growth failure occurs for children in bleak orphanages. Many children surge in growth when caregivers develop warmer relationships with children or when the children are adopted out of the orphanage (St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008). Figure 6.5 Growth of a Boy from a Negative Home This boy was delayed in growth when brought to a medical center. At age 7, he looked like a substantially younger child. He grew dramatically after he was removed from his negative home. Growth failure can also occur in less-extreme environments, such as those of children who are raised by their mother but have an insecure attachment to her (Valenzuela, 1990). Low-quality parenting is a key cause of nonorganic failure to thrive. This is a medical label for children who fail to grow adequately without any apparent medical reason. Children who have this condition may catch up to peers mentally once they begin school, but usually remain physically small (Boddy, Skuse, & Andrews, 2000). 6-2b Classroom Implications of Growth and Motor Development There are several ways you can help your students be physically healthy. One is to prevent the school climate from becoming stressful to children. A famous experiment occurred after World War II in Germany when food was rationed. British researchers gave children in orphanage A additional bread and juice for 6 months. Children in orphanage B were not given supplements, yet the children in orphanage B grew larger (Widdowson, 1951). Why these surprising results? At the time of the experiment, orphanage A just happened to get a new headmistress, Fraulein Schwarz, who was mean and used mealtime to berate children. The children’s growth slowed. Yet, she had eight favorite children in the orphanage who escaped her wrath and grew robustly. The moral of the story is to maintain low stress by keeping Fraulein Schwarz out of your school. We discuss classroom climate in more depth in Chapters 8 and 12. Two other ways to help your students be physically healthy are to promote (1) good nutrition and (2) physical activity at school. You should also become aware of the role of motor development in your classroom. Let’s discuss these next. In-School Nutrition Since 1946, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has provided cash subsidies to schools and childcare centers to feed low-income children. In 2012, the National School Lunch program provided free or low-cost breakfast to 12 million and low-cost lunch to 31 million children. This is because research suggests that school nutrition affects learning for low-income children, such as increasing their test scores (Weaver-Hightower, 2011). If you are concerned about whether your learners are getting adequate nutrition, the USDA publishes “Nutrition and Wellness Tips for Young Children” that are intended to help you create a healthy classroom. In addition, the USDA has a program called Team Nutrition that supports children’s healthy eating and physical activity through training and education for teachers and students. Your school can sign up to become part of Team Nutrition on the USDA website. Physical Activity at School In a Head Start classroom, 3-year-old Markeet is fidgety, boisterous, and agitating other children during group time. As punishment, his teacher says, “It’s time to go outside and play, but Markeet you’ll have to stay inside with Ms. Terry until you are ready to join us.” Once they are alone in the room, Ms. Terry (the aide) tells Markeet, “You need to sit still, crisscross your legs, and be quiet for 2 minutes. If you talk, I’ll have to start your timer all over.” Markeet is successfully mute and still for 30 seconds, but then asks, “Can I have a book?” Ms. Terry says, “No. You know the rules. Now I have to start the timer again.” Again Markeet is quiet, but 10 seconds later he asks, “Can I go now?” Again Ms. Terry starts the timer over. This pattern is repeated until Markeet misses 12 minutes of the 30-minute outside play period. Notice that Ms. Terry did not allow Markeet to exercise or play (in Chapter 8, we discuss the disciplinary implications of this interaction). A U.S. national goal of Healthy People 2020 is that children have daily physical education (PE) at school, in which at least 50% of the time is spent in vigorous exercise. This goal will be challenging to meet. In preschools, children tend to be sedentary (sitting, lying down, or standing); even outdoors they may be vigorously active only a small percentage of the time (Brown et al., 2009). Thus, many preschoolers are remarkably sedentary at school. What can you do to help children get active? During preschool give children balls and plenty of space for vigorous physical activity. Children tend to be more active in games they have initiated, but if they are not active, you may need to initiate games that involve running, jumping, or climbing (W. H. Brown et al., 2009). Motor Skills in the Classroom Movement can support learning. For example, preschoolers learn their letters better when they physically write them as compared with when they type them on a keyboard (James & Engelhardt, 2012). (The same may be true for you when learning a new alphabet, such as Armenian.) In addition, good motor skills help learners be more successful in school. For example, children who enter kindergarten with better fine motor skills—like stacking blocks and imitating line drawings—have higher achievement in elementary school (Gissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010). About 30 to 60% of classroom activities require motor skills. These are mostly fine motor skills using paper and pencil, and also some less obvious skills like posture control. Furthermore, most classroom learning is measured with motor output, such as writing, playing an instrument, making an art project, or using a keyboard (Pape & Ryba, 2004). Imagine how difficult school would be if you struggled with these skills. Young children do struggle with these skills. Before age 6, they have difficulty moving their eyes deliberately across lines of small print and controlling hand movements, which makes reading and writing challenging. Even some older children have motor problems. They may have difficulty writing letters, fastening clothing, using scissors, folding papers, opening containers at lunch, or finding a folder in a messy desk. They may appear clumsy and disorganized and may be the last ones chosen for a team. When writing, they cannot stay on a line and may mush words together. Tasks that require them to listen and write at the same time (such as taking notes) are especially difficult. Motor problems can lead to further language and social problems. You are likely to have children with motor problems in your classroom. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (or PL 101-476), children with physical difficulties are to be educated in the least restrictive environment. This is often interpreted to mean a regular classroom. Your school may have access to an occupational or physical therapist whose job is to help children who have motor problems adapt to your classroom. The occupational therapist will help you make classroom accommodations, as well as provide exercises to help increase motor skills in targeted children.