Formal report assignment About cultureal negotiation

PLANNING, RESEARCHING, AND DOCUMENTING REPORTS 10

LEARNING OUTCOMES

L01 Explain how to define L04 Discuss how to cr eate a survey a report problem and conduct interviews

L02 Distinguish primary and LOS List ways to analyze data secondary research effectively and ethically

L03 Explain how to evaluate L06 illustrate how to document sources r esearch sources

AN INSIDE PERSPECTIVE*

Strong research and powerful writing facilitate many a business o r organiza-t ional initiative. In problem solving, policy development, and strategic plan-ning, well-written proposa ls and reports are invaluable. At the age of 12, Craig Kielburger discovered t he power of research and writ ing

when he read a newspaper headli ne, " Battled Child Labour, Boy, 12, Murdered ." It was the story of Iqbal Masih, sold into debt s lavery at age four and " chained t o a carpet-weaving loom·· for six years before being freed, speaking out about chil- dren's rights, and being killed for his courage.

This story marked the beginning of Craig Kielburger' s j ourney into the world of research- and social change. He researched child labour before travelling to South Asia to interview children on the topic-"1 had a million questions." He wanted to know " how did they get up each morning knowing this was what they were going to do .. . I wanted to put myself in t heir life for a day." Like all good researchers, Kielburger wanted to understand; he wanted to learn about their t hought s, hopes, and fears-and bring that knowledge back to Canada .

Craig Kielburger and his brother Marc Kielburger return half the profits from their social enterprise Me to We to support WE initiatives and continue their research and writing to inspire change. Source: The Canadian Press/Geoff Robins.

Beginning with a letter-writing campaign and presentations to his c lass, 12-yea r-old Craig Kielburger founded Free the Children (now WE charity) in 1 q q 5. Five beliefs are at the heart of the WE movement:

• Me into WE • WE is everyone • WE are the change • WE are a global community • I am WE

Ninety percent of donations to WE d irect ly fund "youth-serving programs" based on a holistic, five-pillar development model (educat ion, water, hea lth, f ood, and opportunity) that addresses critical components in breaking poverty cycles. Kielburger and t he WE movement have empowered " more t han two million young leaders t o take act ion to better their local and global communities" and won several awards (e.g ., World' s Children's Prize for the Rights of the Child and Human Rights Award).

Sustain ing a charitable organization working in remote areas requires ongoing research, assessments, and proposals and reports. For Cra ig Kielburger and brother Marc, his co-founder, it also means engagement with socia l med ia, book writing, running a social enterprise (Me to We), and keeping up a strenuous sched· ule of public presentations and research and writing for weekly and biweekly newspaper columns. Craig Kielburger has received 15 honorary doctorat es and degrees for his contributions to educat ion and human rights .

*Based on WE Movement, "Our Beliefs; accessed March 6, 2017, https:jfwww.we.org/we-movement;our-beliefs/ ; "About WE Charity," accessed https:f fwww.we.org/ about·we-charity/; WE Movement, "Our Founders; accessed https:/ 1 www.we.orgjwe-movementjour-founders/ and https:f ;www.we.orgj we-movementjour-foundersj craig/; WE Villages, " Development Model," accessed https:f ;www.we.orgj we-villages; our-development-modelj; "Craig Kielburger: Chi l- dren's Rights Crusader; CBC News, April 18, 2006, accessed April 28, 2011, http:/ ;www.cbc.ca;newsj background/ kielburger;; Josh Wingrove, "The Right Brothers; The Globe and Mail, March 20, 2010, F1-7; National Speakers Bureau, "Craig Kielburger," accessed https:j fwww.nsb.comjspeakers; craig.kielburger/.

Many kinds of documents a re called reports. In some organi- zations, a report is a long document or a document that con- tains nume rical data. In others, one- and two-page memos a re called reports. A s hort report to a client may use Jetter for- mat; a report to your manager may use memo fonn at. Fonnal reports contain fonnal elements s uch as a title page, a trans- mittal, a nd a table of contents.ltifonnal reports may be letters and memos, fill -in-the-blank fonn s for regular routine reports

(progress, for instance), electronic documents, or even com- puter printouts of production or sales figures. But a ll reports, whatever their length or degree of formality, provide the infor- mation that people in organizations s uc h as WE charity ( An Inside Perspective) need to solve problems and mak e plans.

Pro p osals suggest a method for finding infonnation or solving a problem1 and help organizations make decisions. They are as informative as they are persuasive.

CHAPTER 10 PLANNING, RESEARCHING, AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS • 237

Proposals and reports depend on research. TI1e research may be as simple as pulling up data online or as complicated as call- ing many different people, conducting focus groups and surveys, or even planning and conducting experiments. Care in planning and researching reports is needed to produce reliable data.

In writing any report, there are five basic steps:

1. Define the problem. 2. Gather the necessary data and information. 3. Analyze the data and information. 4. Organize the infonn ation. 5. Write the report.

This chapter reviews report writing tin1elines a nd discusses the first four steps in writing any report. Chapter 11 discusses the last step, illustrating how to organize different kinds of reports and guiding you through the process of writing pro- posals and the progress and trip reports that often support proposal (and report) writing.

A TIMELI NE FOR WRITING REPORTS Writing reports-forma l or informal, individual or team-calls for good project management. It involves the careful planning and ma naging of resources to achieve project purposes and meet audience needs time, personnel, financial, legal, ethical, generic, or other constraints.

Once you define report purposes and assess your resources, you can defme the scope of the report (i.e., what it and will not consider) and therefore what information you need, where

World War II Britain's Prime Minister Wins ton Churchill's concern that too much time was being wasted with masses of •tar too long" reports s till re s onates in bus iness today. As concerned with cla rity and brevity as the Business Development Bank of Canada is today, Churchill asked for reports that jettis oned jar- gon and •set out the main points in a s eries of short, crisp para- graphs." Any "detailed analysis of some complicated factors" could be re legated to an appendix.

To meet the intense competition of marketing consumer products, Procter & Gamble depends on well-reasoned ideas presented in well-organized memos. Employees are expected to present their ideas in memos that summarize the ma in point in the first paragraph and then develop it in about one page of supporting information. New employees even complete a memo- writing course in P&G's training program.

and h ow you might access and analyze data, who is responsi- ble for what tasks, according to what tin1elines and what mon- itoring and controls. To ensure tin1ely, objective, q,uality, and cost-effective results, you may follow your work plan in order, bu t you may a lso find yourself reassessing and redefining in light of new information. Once your report is submitted, it is time to review what worked, what issues you faced, and what lessons you learned to guide future report writing projects.

When you are writing a report for a class project, your pro- fessor will likely help design the proj ect ma nagem ent, listing the steps and identifying progress reports (» Chapter 11) to keep the team on task. Plan to spend approximately half your tin1e analyzing your data, writing and revising the draft, and preparing visuals a nd slides. When you write a report for a class project, follow these guidelines:

• Plan to complete about one-q,uarter of your research before you write the proposal to solve the problem.

• Begin analyzing your data as you collect them. • Prepare your Jist of sources and drafts of visuals as you go

along. • Save at least one-q,uarter of your time to think and write

after all your data are collected. For a collaborative report, you will need even more tim e to write and revise.

Upfront planning helps you use your time efficiently. For example:

• Read the sample proposal and reports in Chapter 11 before you even write your proposal.

• Talk to your readers to understand how much detail and formality they want.

According to Marketing Director Ed Burghard, memo writing at P&G is •a means to an end ": the dewlopment of a clear idea. Putting the idea into a memo helps employee and manager ate the logic behind the idea. Burghard says , •writing is a more cost-effective medium !than an oral presentation! beca use it allows identification and correction of problems before we spend money to implement an idea in the form of a P&G product or service.•

When GE Plastics found it took too long to get updated reports on sales and operations, it developed a digital dashboard-the corr tinuously updated online display of a company's vital stats. GE's new "digital cockpits" give 300 managers access to the company's essential data--on desktop PCs and smartphones. Involving sev- eral senior managers, the project •wasn't just an IT feat," says the chief information officer. "It was about changing the culture so everyone has a common way to look at the business."

• Based on John Bowden, Wrifjng a Repon: How to Prepare, Write and Present Effective Reports (Oxford: How to Books. 2004}; Business Development Bank of Canada. · r en Tips for Effective Business accessed March 6, 2 017, https:; ;www.bdc.cajen;articles tools/entrepreneurial-skills/ become-better-communicator;pages/10 t ips effective business--writing.aspx: Monster.ca, "Four Tips to Writing Excellent Business accessed March 6, 2017, https:/ ;www.monster.cajcareer·actvicejarticle/business report·writing-tips: Kevin Ryan, Write Up the Corporare Ladder {New York: Amacom, 2003), 216-22 2 (interview with Ed Burghard}; Bob Tedeschi, "End of the Paper Business 2.0, March 2003, 64.

238 PART 4 REPORTS

• Review earlier company (or class) reports. • List all the parts of the report you will need to prepare. • Articulate the purposes, a u diences, and generic constraints

for each part. The fuller an idea you have of the final prod- uct when you start, the fewer drafts you will need to write and the better your final product will be.

L01

DEFINING PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED When you write a report as part of your j ob, the organization may defme the topic. To tltink of problems for class reports, tltink about problems that face your college or university; cam- pus housing units; social, religious, and professional groups; local businesses; and municipal, provincial, and federal govern- ments and tl1e ir agencies. Read print or online campus and local papers and newsmagazines, and watch the news on TV, listen to it on the CBC or a local radio station, or follow livestreanting.

A well-defmed report problem in business meets the follow- ing criteria:

1. Th e problem is • Real

• Important enoug h to be worth solving • Narrow but challenging

2. Th e audience for the report is • Real • Interested in the problem

• Able to inlplement the recommended action

3. The data, evidence, and facts are • Sufficient to document the severity of the problem • Sufficient to prove the recommendation will solve the

problem • Available to you • Compre hensible to you

Often you need to narrow the problem statement. For example, "improving the post-secondary experiences of international students study ing in Canada" is too broad. First, choose one college or university. Second, identify the specific problem. Do you want to increase the social interaction between Canadian and international students? Increase lan guage instruction? Help internation al students find housing? Third, identify the specific audience with the power to inlplement your recommendations. Depending on the topic, tl1e audience might be the Office of Internation al Studies, the residence counsellors, a service organization on campus or in town, a store , or a group of investors.

Define the problem in ternlS of the time available to solve it. Six montl1S of full-time (and overtin1e) work and a team of col- leagu es might a llow you to assess a ll the ways to make a store more profitable. If you a re doing a report in 6 to 12 weeks for a class that is only one of your responsibilities, limit the scope of the topic. You could choose to exantine the store's prices and product, its inventory procedures, its overhead costs, its layout and decor, or its advertising budget.

How you defme the problem s hapes the solutions you find. For example, suppose a manufacturer of frozen foods isn't making money. If you define the problem as a ma rketing

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------..... .... . . . . . _-- .· . . . . • • 1 ·· 1 I •

"Democracy cannot be maintained," the Supreme Court of Canada argues, "without its fo undation in free public opinion and free discussion throughout the nation of all matters affecting the state within the limits of the criminal code and the common law."

The Information Age has rais ed expectations of free access as a human right and of information a simple click away. But a study of freedom-of-access information in five parliamentary democ- racies, published in Government Information Quarterly, placed New Zealand first and Ca nada last! Canada, the report claims, "has continually suffered from a combination of low use, low political support, and a weak Information Commissioner since its inception."

Discouraging e lectronic req_uests and req_uiring paper cheq_ues, Canada has gone from being in the vanguard and advising other

countries on legislation to being · a laggard; say authors Robert Hazell and Ben Worthy.

The 2015 National Freedom of Information Audit reported stories ·not only of Newfoundland and Labrador's success and Ottawa's fail ure, but also of foot-<lragging by police forces, and widespread resistance at all levels of government to releasing computer data in formats useful in the digital age." Data req_uests "released in non-machine-readable formats were recorded in the audit as denied in part."

While Newfoundland and Labrador revised access laws, reduced fees , and strengthened the position of the infor- mation commissioner, the federal Access to Information Act "remains effectively crippled as a useful means of promoting accountability.•

•Based on Supreme Court of Canada. Reference re: Alberta Legislation (1 q38) SCR 100: Dean Beeby, ·canada Hits Bottom on Freedom·of Information Ranking, New Study Finds,- Canadian Press. January q_ 2011. accessed ht tp:/ jwww.cbc.cajcpjmedia/GT1103.html; Robert Hazell and Ben Worthy. ·Assessing the Performance of Freedom of Government Information Quanerly 27 {2010): 352 -Sq; Fred Vallance-Jones and Joy Kitagawa. National Freedom of Information Audit 2015. accesse<l March 6, 2017, http:/

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING , RESEARCHING , AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS 23q

problem, you may analyze the product's price, image, adver- tising, and position in the market. But perhaps the problem is really that poor inventory management makes overhead costs too high_ Defining the problem accurately is essential to defm- ing your report purpose and finding an effective solution.

Once you have defmed your problem, you are ready to write at least a tentative purpose statement. The purpose statement goes in your proposal and in your rmal report. A good purpose statement makes three things clear:

• The o rganizational problem (or challenge or opportunity) • The speci fie technical q,uestions to be answered to solve

the problem • The rhetorical purpose (to explain, to recommend, to

req,uest, to propose) in terms of audience benefits

The following purpose statement has all three e lements:

When banner ads on Web pages first appeared in 1qq4, the initial reponse , or "click-through " rate, was about 10%. However, as ads have proliferated on Web pages, the click-through rate has dropped sharply. Rather than assuming that any banner ad will be successful, we need to ask, What characteristics do successful banner ads share? Are ads tor certain kinds of products and services or for certain kinds of audiences more likely to be suc- cessful on the Web? The purpose of this report is to sum- marize the available research and anecdotal evidence and to recommend what Rethink Advertising Agency should tell tts clients about whether and how to use banner ads.

Alissa Kozuh analyzes !he words customers key In on the search feature at htrp:ffwww.nordsrrom.com. She has found five pa11erns: customers key In particular items {"shoes·), trends ("leopard prints•), departments from !he brld<-ancknortar stores ("Brass Plum, · !he junlots department), designer names, and special occasions ("prom·). The changes she suggested tor !he sire based on her research Increased Web sales 32%. Source: 0 Katen Mosk«h\'itz.

240 • PART 4 REPORTS

L02

RESEARCH STRATEGIES FOR REPORTS Research for a report may be as sinlple as getting a computer printout of sales for the last month, or it may involve find · ing published material or surveying or interviewing people as Craig Kielburger does An Inside Perspective). Having a research plan before gathering data and information will strengthen your findings. It also strengthen the reliability and cogency of the proposal or report, adding to your credibil· ity while testing your core idea and identifying where revision is req,uired to incorporate new information.

Knowing your topic, articulating your problen1 statement and report purpose, and identifying your information gaps and reliable resources will help you better target your search and keep it ethical. To avoid bias in your findings and to test your own assumptions, you will want to research with an open mind, ready to represent reliable and relevant research sources.

Nicholas Carr has famously asked if Google is makil1g us stupid. As a researcher and author, Carr acknowledges that Google has been a rich resource of "inm1ediate access, • but he worries that it is "chipping away my capacity for con- centration and contemplation." It encourages skimming before "bounc(ingl out to another site." We tend, he thinks, to become "decoders of information" rather than critical or deep thinkers.2

Others worry about the unevenness of Google search results. Demand Media and Answers.com, for example, are said to be exploiting freelancers to produce low-q,uallty con· tent that gets prominence by m anipulatin g keyword and search engine optirnizal.ion. Algorithm and ranking formulae changes to address these problems collide with "skyrocketing eJ.-pectations of Coogle. • Also, columnist Jeff Beer points to Coogle's "conflict of interest in any large campaign against content farms· and the ongoing challenge of social searches.3

Others complain about the high placing of Wikipedia entries and explain why professors don't like to see research results reduced to Coogle (which searches websites without the ability to evaluate content) and Wikipedia, whose entries can be informative but can also be changed by anyone. Some professors deduct marks or even fail assigrun ents based on Wikipedia, About.com, Answers.com, a nd other such sources.

While company and industry association websites can be useful sources on company and industry history, prod· ucts, and services, they are marketing tools and not credible research sources.

Also blurring the line between reliable research sources and marketing are advertorials or infomercials now known as "native advertising, • "branded content,· or "sponsored con· tent" made to look like editorial content. 4 While some in the news publishing industry see the growing phenomenon as a

dan gerous "Faustian pact," others are "confident that . .. r ead- ers will ap preciate w hat is sponsor-generated content and what is content f ro m our global staff." And social media users ad d to the mix with 10% claiming to h ave posted n ews v i deos they produced themselves and 11% having posted material to n ews sites and blogs, while 50% r epost news stories. 5

In the con text of widesp read distrust of media, with a his- torical low of 32% in a 2016 Gallup poll confident th at media "r epo rt the news fully, accuratel y, an d so-called "f a k e n ews" has added to ethical and other issu es (see ethics and l egal box " Fak e News"). So read carefully and c ritically- mindful that the digital world has " no cent r al a utJ10rity to pr e- vent peop le from making claims that are untrue. "7

Althoug h it can be a helpf ul p lace to start (esp ecially if y o u follow links to r eliable sources), Wikipedia i s not the best p lace to en d a search if r eliability and y our cr ed- ibility ma tt er . Tha t 's wher e the librar y 's d atabases of peer- r evi ewed resources can save the day . E ven Googl e Scholar, her al d ed as a f ree search en gine for peer -r evi ewed conten t, "exhibits limitations in accur acy and timeliness" compar ed to su ch f ree search engines as PubM ed, according to libr arian Marian Burright. 8

B eing op en to possibilities can h elp avoid w ha t Peter Nichol son, pr esident of the Council of Canadian Academi es, calls a "just-in-time approach" to research "nar rowing

One of President Trump's f avourite sources i s Alex Jones. who has gone from • a microphone in a spare room• to " multiple platforms, including the site lnfowars," arguing that "the Sandy Hook massacre of schoolchildren never happened• and •telling mill ions of people what they want to hear: The president, says CBC journalist Neil MacDonald, considers Jones •a real ist," unlike the • tying. dishonest purveyors of fake news" Trump denounces in the mainstream media .

The danger is that, in the absence of journalistic standards (as in the legal or accounting professions). the emergence of • so many fringe outlets• has • encouraged people to live in their own alternate realities, where they can wallow in confirmation bias" (a t erm popularized by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky). The added problem is that "those bubbles are rife with factual errors" and such • dubious stories are gaining more traction than ever," says Susan Krashinsky Robertson.

A Buzzt eed study found that • take news• stories were 20% more popular than real news, • generating a cumulative

periphera l intellec t u al vision" to the point of "r educin g t he ser endipity that has been the source of most r adical innovati on. ,g

Secondary r esearch retrieves information that someone else gathered. Librar y r esearch and online search es ar e the best-known kinds of secondar y r esearch. Primary r esearch gather s new information. Surveys, intervi ews, an d observa- tions are common methods f o r business reports.

L03

FINDING INFORMATION ONLINE AND IN PRINT You can save time and money by checking online an d pub- lished sources of data befor e you gather new infonnation.

Although t11e paper l ess society has been widel y heralded, pr int sources-book s, magazines, and journals- r emain val uabl e. Not all published research i s available online or is appr opriate for online delivery. When y ou wan t an in-d ep th treatment of a su bj ect, y ou may still want to read a book an d access other library resources (e.g., catalogues, directo ries, databases, indexes, newsp apers and peri odicals, government pub lications) , even if online.

1.3 million extra social interactions• that helped in • amplifying and nonnalizing misinformation" in social media.

Such •t ake news· purveyed on Facebook may even have influenced the US election and can undennine businesses that need a coordinated internal and ext ernal strategy to counter. In March 2017, Facebook launched its new flagging syst em for •take news,• using independent third parties to evaluate stories' factual accuracy.

In this Orwell ian world, • alternative facts• are replacing "truthiness• in the interests of "authoritarian leadership deeply opposed to differing points of view; according to Tim Conley who argues for the "skepticism· encouraged by reading fiction.

The answer. MacDonald argues, is for journalism to become ·a true prof ession, with standards, q_ualifications, accountabil- ity, and enforceable rules.• In late February 2017, The New York Times launched a campaign with the slogan: "The truth is more important now than ever" ; the washington Post has added a tag- line: • Democracy dies in darkness :

*Based on Neil MacDonald, "Trust in the Media is Sinking and It's Time to Act: When Anyone Can be a Journalist. Anything Can Be labelled News. That's a Problem." CBC News: Opinion. February 21. 2017. accessed http:/ jwww.cbc.cafnewsjopinionjnews.joumalism-standards regulatioooeil macdonald-1.3qq1443: Leah Mclaren. "Nerther True Nor False, But Clicking Makes tt So; The Globe and Mail, March 3. 2017. L3: Susan Krashinsky Robertson, MFretting over Fake News," Report on Business, February 21, 2017. 83; Paul lawton and cameron Summers, •for Brands. Fake News is an Existential Threat," Report on Business, December 1. 2016. 84; Barry Lee Cohen, "Fake News: tt Could Happen to You.H OJmmunication World, February 21. 2017. accessed http:j jcw.iabc.com/2017 /02/21/fake-news.happen/: Hudson Hongo. "Facebook Finally Rolls Out 'Disputed News· Tag Everyone Will Oispute.H Gizmodo. March 3, 2017, accessed http:/ jgizmodo.comjfacebook finally rolls out disputed-news tag everyone-w Tim Conley, MFact or Fiction: Are We Living in an Orwellian Era?" The Globe and Mail, February 18, 2017. F7: Susan Krashinsky Robertson. ·Media Have a Message: Our News Isn't 'Fake'," Report on Business, February 24, 2017, 82.

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING , AND DOCUMENTING REPORTS 2 4 1

To evaluate research, consider the following:

• Validity. Is the research accurate, in1portant, and original? Is it widely cited in the field? Indepen dently verified?

• Re liabilit y. Are the data consistent? Does research design test the hypothesis? Is the author credible? Are the sources unbiased?

• Curre n cy. Do findings remain accurate? Have they been overtaken by events? Some studies from the 1970s rema in relevant (for instance, studies by Henry Mintzberg cited in Chapter 1 ) , while others from four years ago may fail to ta k e into account t11e latest census results.

To use an online database efficiently, identify the concepts you are interested in and choose keywords that will help you find rele- vant sources. Keywonis or descripwrs are the temlS that t11e com· p uler searches for. If you are not sure what temlS to use, check t11e ABI/Infonn Thesaurus online for synonynlS and the hierar· chies in which infom1ation is arranged in various databases.

Specific commands allow you to narrow your search. For example, to study the effect of the mininnun wage o n employ· ment in the restaurant industry, you might use the Boolean search shown in Figure 10.1.

The descriptor shown in Figure 10.1 would give you the titles of articles that treat a ll three of the topics in parentheses. Without and, you would get articles t11at discuss t11e mininmm wage in general, a rticles a bout every aspect of restaurants, a n d every article that refers to unemployment, even though many of these would not be relevant to your topic. The or descriptor calls up articles tllat use the term fastfood but not the term restaurant. An article that used the phrase food ser· vice industry would be eliminated unless it a lso used the term restaurant. Google and some other Web search e ngines a llow you to specify words that cannot appear in a source.

Many words can appear in related fo nns. To catch a ll of them, use the database's wild card or t runcat e d code for shortened tenns a n d root words.

Figure 10.1 Example of a Boolean Search (minimum wage) and (restaurant or fast food) and (employment or unemployment).

2 4 2 • PART 4 REPORTS

Figures 10.2 and 10.3 lis t a few of the specialized sources available.

\fl uuz .

Michael Frank, former CEO of Toronto's Spry logics, developer of Cluuz. com, shows what its innovative search engine offers. Cluuz.com uses semantics to search for and get results that rely on the meanings of words and not only matched keywords. Source: Reprinted by permission of Ashley Hutcheson.

Figure 10.2 Sources for Electronic Research

Online databases are available in many college and university libraries. Check your library to find additional sources. ABijlnform Collection (indexes and abstracts over 3,000 publications in management and business) Cabell's Directory of Publ ishing Opportunities: Business Canadian Business & Current Affairs (CBCA) Conference Board of Canada e-Library CPA Canada Standards and Guidance Collection CRSP 1 q25 US Stock Database @ CHASS IBIS World Mint Global

Orbis Passport (GM ID) SimplyMap Canada Sustainalytics Global Platform: North American ESG Research TSX.CFM RC Summary Information Database: Common and Preferred Eq,uities Value Line Investment Su rvey World Bank e-Library

Figure 10.3 Sources for Web Research

Subject Matter Directories Canada Business Network: https:; ;canadabusiness.ca Canadiana Discovery Portal: http:/ / search.canadiana.ca; Education Index: http:// www.educationindex.com Financial Web: http://www.finweb.com; GlobaiEdge: http://globaledge.msu.edu/reference-<lesk Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (ISED): https:/ ; www.ic.gc.ca/eic/ stte/ icgc.nst; eng/home Knowlhis.com: http://www.knowthis.com/ Questia: Human Resource Management: http://www.ctuestia.com/ Research Guides at louisiana State University Libraries: http:/ /guides.lib.lsu.edu/ Resources for Economists on the Internet: http:;;www.aeaweb.org/rfe SmartPros Accounting: http:/ ;accounting.smartpros.com; News Sites Business Week: http:/ /www.businessweek.com/ Canadian Business: http://www.canadianbusiness.com/ CBC: http://www.cbc.ca/ CNN/CNNMoney: http://www.cnn.com/ (news); http:/ ;money.cnn.com/ (financial news) CTV: http://www.ctv.ca/ Global TV: http://www.globaltv.com/ The Globe and Mall: http://www.globeandmail.ca/ Maclean's: http://www.macleans.ca; National Post: http:/ /www.nattonalpost.com/ National Public Radio: http:/ ; www.npr.org/ Newslink (links to US. Canadian, and international newspapers, magazmes, and resources online): http://newshnk.org/ New York nmes: http:/ / www.nytimes.com/ The Wall sueet Journal: https://onhne.wsj.com; Washington Post.: http://www.washingtonpost.com/ Canadian Government Information Census of Population and Census of Agriculture: http://www12 .statcan.gc.ca/census- recensement/2016/ref/dict/geo006-eng.cfm Consumer Price Index: http:/ /www23.statcan.gc.ca; imdb/p2SV.pi?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=2301 Historical Statistics of Canada: http://www.statcan. gc.ca;pub/11-516·X/3000140-eng.htm Statistics Canada: http://www.statcan.gc.caeng;start The Dally: http:/ ;www.statcan.gc.ca/ dai-q_uofindex-eng.htm?HPA=1 Print Research Sources Accountants" Index Business Periodicals Index Canadian Business Index Personnel Management Abstracts Reader's Guide to Periodical literature

Evaluating Web Sources Some of the material on lhe Web is exceUent, but some of it is wholly unreliable (see lhe Ethics and Legal and Teclmology Tips boxes in this chapter). Wilh print sources, the editor or publisher serves as a gatekeeper, so you can lruSt the material in good jour- nals. To put up a Web page, all someone needs is access to a sen·er.

t:se the foUowing four criteria to decide whethe r a website is good enough to use for a research project:

1. Authors. What person or organization sponsors the site? What credentials do the authors ha\·e?

2. Objectivity. Does the site give evidence to support its claims? Does it give both sides of controversial issues? Is the tone professional?

3. Infonnation. How complete is the infonnation? What is it based on?

4. Revisio n da te . Wh en was the site last updated?

Answers to these q_ueslions may lead uou to discard some of the relevant s ites you find. For example, if uou find five dif- ferent Web pages about cell p hones and ca r accide nts that all cite the same Toronto sludy, you have on e source, not five. Choose the most complete for your proj ecL

See Figure 10.4 for furU1er resources for evaluating Web sources.

L04

DESIGNING QUESTIONS FOR SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS A surve g q_uestions a large group of people, called respon- dents or sul?jects. easiest wau lO ask manu q_uestions is to

Figure 10.4 Further Resources for Evaluating Web Sources

Purdue Online Writing lab, "Evaluating Sources: Overview," accessed September 11, 2017, https:// owl.english.purdue.edu/owlfresource/553/01/ Ryerson University Library & Archives. "Evaluating Internet Resources; accessed March 7, 2017, https:// library.ryerson.ca;guides;web_resources/ University of Albany Libraries, "Evaluating Web Content," accessed September 11, 2017, http:// library.albany.edu/infolit/evalweb University of Alberta Libraries, "Critically Evaluating Information,· accessed September 11, 2017, https:// www.library.ualberta.ca/tutorials/foundational/evaluating University of British Columbia Library, "Evaluating lnfonnation Sources,· accessed September 11, 2017, http://help. library. ubc.cafevaluating.and-citing·sources/ evaluating.infonnation-sources/

CHAPTER 1 0 PLANNING, RESEARCHING, AND DOCUMENTING REPORTS • 243

Technology Tip s More of the Same Information*

At a time of proliferating sources of information, we might pre- sume that we have access to more and better information. Right? Not necessarily.

In a study by Columbia University's Project for Excellence in Journal ism reporting on proliferating news websites and citizen news blogs, "The State of the News Media," the authors conclude that possibly even less news is being reported. The same news uncovered by "conventional media" is simpl y being "repackaged" and recirculated as news, "with . . . a mi llion sources reporting the same story.•

These trends help explain "why celebrity news and trivia" abound. Newer media tend to trivialize and polarize, with the 24-hour TV news channels "stretchling) out to fill an entire cycle."

A study by UBC Professor Alfred Hermida found that almost 60% of Canadians report visiting social network sites, with a major- ity claiming those sites give them better access to • a broader

range of news and information than traditional media." Although they still consider traditional media important and reliable, they are likely to get their news • personalized"; that is, • selected and filtered by family, friends, and acq_uaintances." While 25% cor>- sider social networks "reliable," qQ% trust traditional media.

By 2017 , the Edelman Trust Barometer recorded declining trust in all four institutions: media, as well as business, gov- ernment, and NGOs. Scams exposed by Scambusters.org and the RCMP contribute to such distrust, with criminals setting up legitimate-sounding websites that turn up in a standard Web search for a charity after disaster hits. Generous Canadians are vulnerable to such scams.

Former prime minister Kim Campbell challenges us to nize the importance of "scholarship and independent journalism • in "finding and defending truth· and in communicating academic research to the public in accessible ways.

•Based on Russell Smith. ·way More News Sites, Way Less The Globe and Mail. March 27. 2008, Rl- 2; "Social Media Transforming how Canadians Get the News, Study Finds.M accessed April 28, 2011. http:/ ;www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/2011/04/27 transforming· how canadians-get.the news study-finds/; 2017 Edelman Trust Barometer. January 17. 2017, accessed http:/ jwww.edelman.comjtrust2017 ;; Scambusters. org. accessed April 2q. 2011. http:j jwww.scambusters.org/: RCMP. "Identity Theft and Identity Fraud." accessed April 2q. 2011. http:j jwww.rcmp-grc. gc.cajscams·fraudesfid-theft·vol-.eng.htm: Darcy Keith, "Don't be Fooled by Fake CanWest, August 2q. 2008. accessed http:/ jwww.canada. comjtopics;technology/story.html?id=ec4bf8ce-2446-4e3Q.a6d6-e25b3dq3036b; Kim Campbell. ·How Journalism Will Protect Our Democracy from Fake News: The Globe and Mail. February 15. 2017. A11.

create a q u estionnaire, a written list of q_uestions that people fill out. An inter view is a structured conversation some- one able to give y ou usef ul infonn ation. Surveys and inter- views can be useful only if the q_uesti ons ar e well designed.

Good q_uestions ask only one thing, ar e phrased neutrally, avoid making assumptions about the r espondent, and mean essenti ally t11e sam e thing to differ ent peopl e. Learn f rom the experts on CB C, CTV, and Global.

Phrase q_uesti ons in a way that won't bias the response or lead the respondent. Wor ds lik e often and important mean dif- fer ent things to different peopl e. Whenever possible, use mor e objective measures.

x Vague: Do you study in the library freq_uentl y? ., Better: How many hours a week do you study in the

library?

In two decades of wri ting and using surveys, psychologist Palm er Morrel-Samuel s has seen that the wording of a survey q_uesti on can affect responses. For example, in a survey to learn about the l eadership s kills of a photo eq_uipment maker's managers, a q_uestion asked empl oyees whether their m anager "takes bold strides" and "has a str ong grasp" of complicated issues. Male managers tended to outscore f emale managers.

Morrel -Sarnuels notes t11at, in a liter al sense, males on average tak e l onger strides and have mor e muscle strength

244 PART 4 REPORTS

than f emales. The company changed the wording of the sur- vey. "Has a strong grasp of complex pr oblems" became "dis- cusses compl ex pr oblems with precision and clarity." After this change, t11e difference in r atings of female and mal e managers disappeared. 10

Another wor d-rel ated bi as is that r espon dents ten d to agree more than di sagree with statements. If a survey about managers asks employees whether their man ager is fair, eth- i cal, in telligent, knowledgeable, and so on, they ar e likel y to assign all of these q_ualiti es to t h e manager - and to agr ee m ore and more as the sur vey goes along. To correct f or thi s, som e q_uestions shoul d be wor ded to gener ate the opposi te r esponse. For example, a s tatem ent about ethics can be bal- an ced by a statem ent about corruption, and a statement about f airness can be balanced by a statement about bias or stereotypes. 11

Questions can be categorized in several ways. Closed q_uestio ns have a limi ted number of possible r esponses. Open q_uestions do not lock the subj ect into any sort of r esponse. See Figu re 10.5 for examples. Cl osed q_u esti ons ar e faster for su bjects to answer an d easier for research- ers to score. However , since all answer s must fit into p r e- chosen categories, they cannot pr obe the complexiti es of a subj ect.

Fig ure 10.5 Cl osed and Open Questions CL OS ED QUESTIONS

Are you satisfied with the city bus service? (yes; no) How good is the city bus service?

Excellent 5 4 3 2 1 Ternble Indicate whether you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about city bus service:

A D The schedule is convenient for me. A D The routes are convenient for me. A D The drivers are courteous. A D The buses are clean.

Rate each of the following improvements in the order of their importance to you (1 = most important. 6 - least important) __ Buy new buses. __ Increase non-rusiHlour service on weekdays. __ Increase service on weekdays. __ Provide earlier and later service on weekdays. __ Buy more buses with wheelchair access.

Provide unlimited free transfers.

O PEN QUESTIONS

How do you feel about the city bus service? Tell me about the city bus service. Why do you ride the bus? (or, Why don't you ride the bus?) What do you like and dislike about the city bus service? How could the city bus service be improved?

Use an "Other , Please Specify' category when you want the convenience of a closed q_uestion but cannel foresee all the possible responses:

What is the single most important reason that you ride the bus?

I don't have a car. __ I don't want to fight rush-hour traffic. __ Riding the bus is cheaper than driving my car. __ Riding the bus conserves fuel and reduces pollution. __ Other (Please specify) - ====:..._ __ ___.

When you use multiple-choice q_uestions, make sure that one answer fits only in one category. In the following exantple of overlapping categori es, a person who worked for a com- panu with exactly 25 employees could ch eck either a or b. The r csull ing data would be unreliable.

x OVERLAPPING CATEGORIES: Indicate the number of fuiJ.time employees In your company on May 16:

a.0-25 b.25-1 00

c. 100-500 d. over 500

.,... DISCRETE CATEGORIES: Indicate the number of full-time employees on your payroll on May 16:

a. 0-25 b . 26- 100 c. 101- 500 d. more than 500

Giving several options is mor e intportant tlte older uour respondents are. Psychologist Cynthia AdantS notes that older people are uncomfortable choosing between only two options. When asked "Are discounts intportant to you," more mature people often want to answer, "I t depends. " 12 A good survey will specify the context or allow tlte respondent to do so.

Bra nchi 11g llllCSI io11s direct different respondents to differ- ent parts of the q_uesljonnaire based on their answers to earlier q_uestions:

10. Have you talked to an academic adviser this year? __ Yes __ No (If "no: skip to q_uestion 14.)

Generally, put q_uestions tltat will be easy to answer early in tlte q_uestionnaire. Put q_uestions that are harder to answer or that people may be less willing to answer (e.g., age and income) near tlte end of tlte q_uestionnaire. f:\·en people who choose not to answer such q_uestions will fill out the rest of the survey.

If subjects will fill out the q_uestionnaire tltemselves, pay careful attention l o the physical design of tlte document. Pretest tlte q_uest ionnaire to make sure tlte directions are clear. One research er mailed a two-page q_uestionnaire without pre- testing it. Twenty-five respondents didn't answer tlte q,ueslions on the back of the first page. 13

Conducti ng Surveys and Int erviews Face-to-face Stt n:eys are converuent w hen you are survey- ing a fairly small number of people in a specific location. In a face-to-face sun•ey, the interviewer's gender , ethnicity, and nonverbal cues can bias results. Most people prefer nol to say tltings tltelJ think Uteir audience find llll8CCel>table. For tltat reason, women will be more likely to agree that sexual harassment is a p roblem if tlte interviewer is also a woman. Similarly, members of a min ority group ar e more 11 k ely to admit tltat they suffer discrintination if tlte interviewer is a member of the same minority .

Telepho11e surveys are popular because tltey can be closely supervised. Interviewers can read the q_uestions from a com- puter screen and k ey in answers as the respondent gives tltem. The results can then be available just a few minutes after the last call is completed.

CHAPTER 10 PLANNING , RESEARCH ING, AN D DOCUM ENTING REPORTS • 245

Technology Tip s Poll ing Then and Now*

In some of the first Gallup polls, 82% of Canadians in 1 G36 sup- ported capital punishment and 86% in 1G3G bel ieved in life after death. Since many had no phones, conducting thousands of inter- views with demographically diverse people was challenging. Still, in 1 G36, Gallup predicted the re-election of Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Today, pollsters face a technological •reality check.' They can no longer rely on phones if they want to reach young people (down from a response rate of 70% 20 years ago to 20% today). They have to spend time and money tracking cell phones. Online polling depending on market research databases is problematic because participants are ·self-selected" and omit the less connected.

Instead of getting at underlying social issues, the media are often content with "horse-race· online polls that are cheaper than random phone surveys. Wi ldly different calculations of the "unde- cided" further undermine polling rel iability.

When 60% of Canadians in the north and 52% in the south reported that the Arctic was under threat, a view not shared by

the Department of Defence that commissioned the poll, University of Calgary Professor Ron Huebert suggested that Conservative Party rhetoric and media reports were shaping public conclusions.

Others worry that polling increases voter apathy in the face of seemingly preordained outcomes. Yet others worry that polls prompt strategic voting.

Pollsters' claim "to know Canada's collective will" is bel ied by the variability of poll results by up to 15%. Polling fa ilures in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States in 2016 added to polling crises. To renew public trust, Gardner and Tetlock recommend "rigorous testing and independently calculated performance sta- tistics." John Allemang concludes that polling seems "as much like sorcery as like science; although he identifies a public good in giving "the entire body politic a collective voice."

•Based on Neil Reynolds, '"Life Then and Now: We're Polls The Globe and Mail, April6, 2007. 82; John Allemang. · ro Poll or Not to Poll, That Is the Question,M The Globe and Mail, April q, 2011. A4: Murray Brewster. '" Tories Play to Misconceptions on Arctic. Poll Suggests," The Globe and Mail, March 8, 2011, AS: Dan Gardner and Philip Tetlock, "The Polls and the The Globe and Mail, November 23. 2016. A13.

The major limitation of phone surveys is that they reach only people who have phones and thus underrepresent poor and yotmg people. To include people with tmlisted numbers, professional survey-takers use automatic random-digit dial- ling. Since women are more likely to answer the phone tl1an men are, 14 decide in advance to whom you want to speak, and ask for that person ratl1er than s urveying whoever answers the phone.

MaU surveys can reach anyone who has an address. Some people may be more willing to fill out an anonymous q,uestionnaire than to give sensitive infonnation to a stranger over tlle phone.

Online surveys deliver q,uestions over the Internet. The researcher can con tact respondents witl1 an email containing a link to a Web page witll tlle s urvey, or can ask people by ma il or in person to log on and visit tl1e website witll the survey. Keep in mind that a s urvey posted on a website inviting the s ite's visitors to complete the survey does not generate a ran- dom sample, so tlle results probably do not reflect tlle opinions of tlle entire population.

Interactive technology mak es it easy to use branching q,uestions; tlle survey can automatically send respondents to tlle next q,uestion on a branch. However, many people worry about tlle privacy of online surveys, so they may be relu ctant to participate. Researchers have found that a lower percen t- age of people are willing to complete online s urveys tl1an oilier kinds. To encourage participation, research ers should make online surveys as short as possible. 16

A major concern with any kind of survey is the r esp o nse r a t e , the percentage of people who respond. People who

246 PART 4 REPORTS

refuse to answer may differ from those who respond q,uickly, and you n eed information from botl1 groups to be able to gen eralize to the whole population. To get as high a response rate as possible, good researchers contact non- respondents a t least once to try to persuade tllem to partici- pate in the survey. Still, tlley face s ignificant survey fatigu e as people are receiving more and more req,uests for their opinion on everything from internal organizational ma tters to maj or public issues.

Selecting a Sample for Surveys and Interviews To keep research costs reasonable, only a sample of tlle total population is polled. How that sample is chosen and tlle attempts made to get responses from n on-respondents will detennine whetller you can infer that what is true of your sanl- ple is also true of tlle population as a whole. Th e population is tlle group you want to make statements about. Depending on tlle purpose of your research, your population might be all Top 1000 companies from the Report on Business annua l list- ing, all business students at your college or univers ity, or all constuners.

A convenience sample is a group of s ubj ects who are easy to get, s uch as students who walk tllrough tl1e students' tmion, people at a s hopping mall, or workers in your own tmit. Convenience san1ples are useful for a rough pretest of a q,uestionnaire and may be acceptable for some class research projects. However, you cannot generalize from a convenience sample to a larger group.

A judgment sample is a group of people whose views seem useful. Someone interested in surveying lhe kinds of writing done o n campus might ask each department for lhe name of a faculty member who cares about writing, and lhen send sur- veys to those people.

In a random sample, each person in lhe population theo- retically has an equal chance of being chosen. True random samples rely on random digit tables, published in statis- tics texts and books such as A Jl1illion Random Digits, or computer-generated random numbers.

nd •ct ng Research lnterv• Schedule interviews in advance; tell the interviewee about how long you expect the interview to take.

Interviews can be structured or unstructured. In a str u c tured interview, the interviewer uses a detailed list of q_uestions to guide the interview. Indeed, a structured interview may use a q_u estionnaire just as a survey does. In an u ns truc t ure d inte rvie w, the interviewer has three or four main q,uestions. Oth er q,uestions b uild on what lhe in ter· v iewee says. To prep are for a n unstructured in terview, learn as muc h as possible about the interviewee and the topic. Go into the interview with three or four main topics you want to cover.

Interviewers sometimes use closed questions to start the interview and set the interviewee at ease. The strength of an interview, however, is getting at a person's attitudes, feelings, and experiences. Situational q_uestions let you probe what someone would do in a specific circumstance. liypolhetical q,uestions that ask people to imagine w hat they would do generally yield less reliable answers than

Ethnographic research closely observes how people choose and use products. VIdeotapes showed rhal many customers bought only a few curs of meat because they didn'r know hOw ro cook orher curs. As a many grocers are now rearranging mear products b!J cooking methods and offering simple, lhree-srep lnstrucrtoos on packages. Source: Tyler OtsoofShunerstocl<.com.

q_uestions about critical incidents or key past events. For exan1ple:

HypothetJcal q_uestlon: What would you say 1f you had to tell an employee that his or her performance was unsatisfactory?

Critical incident q_uestion: You have probably been in a sit· uation where someone who was working with you wasn't carrying h is or her share of the work. What did you do the last time that happened?

A mirro r q,uestion paraphrases the content of the last answer: "So you confronted him directly?' "You think lhat Ulis product costs too much?" Mirror q_uestions check U1at lhe interviewer understands what the interviewee has said and prompt the interviewee to continue talking. Probes follow up an original q,uest ion to get at specific aspects of a topic:

Question: What do you think about the fees for campus parking? Probes: Would you be willing to pay more for a reserved space? How much more? Should the ftnes for vehicles parked illegally be increased? Do you thtnk fees should be based on income?

Observing Customers and Users Answers to surveys and interviews may differ from actual behaviour-sometimes greatly. To get mo re accurate con- s umer info rmal ion, ma n y marke ters observe users.

When she introduced Growing Healthy, a line of froze n baby foods, founder Julia Knight enlisted friends with kids to join her on research shopping trips. She q_uickly realized that the frozen food section wasn't a good location. Kids didn'tlike the cold, and parents sped through as q_uickly as possible. So she persuaded supermarket managers to place cutaway freez. ers in the baby food section, and her company succeeded. Her observations also showed Knight why survey and interview data can be so unreliable: "What mother, especially in front of other mot11ers, would really tell you that she spent more on cat food than on baby food?" 16

When a GO-ish woma n announced to her husband, "We beat the ... out of the front desk and got a terrific room! " lhey were taking part in marketin g research "to figure o ut what consum- ers really think" about Best Western International products. Tapes of 25 couples who had agreed to tape themselves on their travels proved to the hotel that "it didn't need to boost its standard 100(, senior citizen discount." The couples got more out of "the thrill or the deal." So the hotel concluded lhat bigger discow1ts would do "absolutely nothing for Best Westem."11

CHAPTER 10 PLANNING, RESEARCH ING, AN D DOCUM ENTI NG REPORTS • 247

If you a re trying to get sensitive informa tion, interviewees may give usefu l information when the interview is "over" and the tape recorder has been turned off. Is it ethical to use that information?

If you are interviewing a hostile or very reluctant interviewee, you rnay get more information if you agree with everything you can legitimately agree to, and keep sile nt on the rest. Is it ethical to imply acceptance even when you know you will criticize the interviewee·s ideas in your report?

LOS

ANALYZING DATA AND INFORMATION FOR REPORTS It is essential to analyze the data you have gathered to produce the tight logic needed for a good report. Analyzing and represent- ing data in meaningful ways (from 3-0 printing to infographics) has become key to decision making and planning in sectors from education and health to agriculture, transportation, tourism, and economic development Canadian universities and colleges are delivering courses and certificates to support data literacy.

Ensure t11at y ou analyze your data with healtlly s kepticism. Professor Raymond Panko found that 30% of spreadsheets had errors, such as misplaced decima l points, transposed digits, and wrong signs, built into t11eir rules. 18 Also check to be sure that your data come f rom a reliable source. Use tlle strategies outlined in this chap ter to evaluate Web sources. When tlle source has a vested inrerest 9) in t11e results, SCrtl- tinize it wiili special care. To analyze a company's financial prospects, use independent information as well as t11e compa- ny's annual report and press releases.

If your report is based on secon dary data from library and online research, look at tlle sample, tlle sample s ize, and the exact wording of q_uestions to see what the data actua lly measure. According to Web guru Jakob Nielsen's research, a sample of just five people is enough to test tlle usability of a website. That conclusion is surprising, because for many kinds of researcll, a large sample is in1portant for giving significant results. But ot11er tests have Jed to simila r conclusions. 19

Identify exactly what the data measure. For example, using a Dtm & Bradstreet database, many people claim that only 28% of small businesses s urvive for eight years. Bu t that database counts a s mall business as "surviving' only if it remains under the same ownership. Researcher Bruce Kirchoff found that another 26% survive ownership changes, for a total s ur- v ival rate of 54%.20

In 20 14, tlle federal government was widely criticized for its claims about j ob s kills s hortages based not on Statistics Canada data, bu t on Kijiji job listings found to be "overly

248 PART 4 REPORTS

Most people would say that whatever public figures say is fair game: they·re supposed to know enough to defend themselves. Many people would say that different rules apply when you cite someone by name than when you use the info rmation as background or use a pseudonym so that the interviewee cannot be identified.

As a practical matte r. if someone feels you have misrepre- sented them. that person will be less willing to talk to you in the futu re. But q_uite apart fro m practical considerations , interview s trategies raise ethical issues as well.

volatile" by the Conference Board of Canada.21 Even Statistics Canada data can be insufficiently specific on where exactly wiiliin provinces job vacancies a re a n issue22- witl1 profound implications for policy on temporary foreign worker and employment insurance programs.23

If your data include words, try to fmd out what t11e words mean to the people w ho said t11em. For example, respondents to appliance manufacturer Whirlpool's s urvey of 180,000 house- holds said tlley wanted "clean refrigerators." Mter asking more q_uestions, Whirlpool found that what people rea11y wanted were ref rigerators that looked clean, so the company developed mod- els with tell.1;ured f ronts and sides to hide fingerprints.2'1 Also try to measure words against nun1bers. When he researched possible investments, one analys t fow1d t11at people in mature industries were pessinlistic. People in inunature industries were optinlistic, even when the nwnbers weren't great.25

Look for patterns. If you have library sources, on which points do experts agree? Which disagreements can be explained by tlleories or nwnbers tllat have now changed? Which are the result of having rlifferent values and criteria? ln your interviews and surveys, what patterns do you see?

State accurately what your data show. Don't confuse causa- tion with correlation. Causotion means that one thing causes or produces anot11er. Correl.alion means that two things happen at the same time. Both might be caused by a third. For e.xan1ple, sup- pose you are considering whether to buy tablets instead of PCs for everyone in your company, and suppose your surveys show that the people who currently have tablets are, in general, more productive than people who don't Does having a tablet lead to higher productivity? Perhaps. But perhaps productive people are more likely to push to get tablets from company funds, while Jess productive people are more passive. Perhaps some other factor- experience in the company, education, or social background- leads both to increased productivity and to acq_uiring tablets.

Consciously search for at least three possible causes for each phenomenon you have observed and at least three possi- ble solutions for eacll problem. The more possibilities you brain- storm, the more likely you are to find good options. In your report, mention all of the possibilities; rliscuss in detail only those that you tllink are the real reasons and the best solutions.

Kraft Cana<la is among companies competing for the spending power of growing immigrant communities in Cana<la. Chef Smita Chandra has been sharing recipes that use Kraft products and fi t new lifestyles in canada without the help of home-while still appealing to South Asia n tastes. Kraft has now adde d chef Susur Lee to target Chinese cons umers .

Campbell's Canada is a mong othe rs positioning themselves to compete with s pecialty grocers and benefit fro m research on immigration the next 15 years, when 75% of the popula- tion is predicted to be visible minorities . Howeve r, Joel Gregoire, indus try a nalyst with NDP Group in Toronto, warns that South Asians, for example , represent very different cultures: "To target the ethnic consume r? Well, good luck."

Loblaws has already blundered by airing a n a d during Mus lim Ramadan in Punjabi during a Hindi movie. They a re

not alone in such language lapses; others have been guilty of predictable , token ads that took too little account of current research.

Politicia ns have also targete d the ethnic, even ·very ethnic" vote to try to s hift traditional patte rns of voting loyal to Liberal immigration pol icies of the past. Conservative Party leadership cand idate Kellie Leitch was widely criticized within a nd beyond he r part y for her immigration policy based on screening for · canadia n values • with no clear or credible definition of what those values might mean a nd little re gard for Charter protections of free speech.

Toronto lawyer Avvy Go resents bei ng treated as "homoge- neous groups ." He finds it "insulting" that people think they can understand others on the basis of "what we wear and what we eat:

*Based on Wency Leung, MWill Ethnic Mar1<et Follow Susur to Kratt?· The Globe and Mail, April13. 2011. L4: Marina Strauss, MA Worldly Ad The Globe and Mail. September 24, 2010, 61 ·7: Bernard Simon, ·canada's Parties Target Big Ethnic Vote.H FT.oom, April 1, 2011, accessed April 2q. 2011, http:j jwww.ft.comjcmsfs/O/f00c165a 5bd211eQ.b8e7 00144feab4qa.html#axzz1L3BZ4q,KE: Joe Friesen. "From 'Ethnic' Dress to Political Distress for the Tories; The Globe and Mail, April14. 2011. AS: Susan Lunn, ·Kellie Leitch's Immigration Policy Could Damage Conservative Party: Peter MacKay; CBC News. February 5, 2017, accessed http:/ ;www.cbc.cajnews;poHticsjoonservative-immigration policy-leitctwnackay 1.3q68085; Tasha Kheiriddin. "Commentary: Kellie Leitch Explained Her Values Test. It Makes Less Sense Now,'" Global News. March 7, 2017. accessed http:/ /globalnews. cajnewsf32CU448fcommentary kellie-lertch explained-her values test it makes less sense--now;.

When you have identified patterns tl1at seem to represent the causes of the problem or the best solutions, check these ideas against the evidence. Can you find s upport in the q,u ota - tions or in tl1e numbers? Can you answer c ounterarguments? If you can, you will be able to present evidence for your a rgu- ment in a convincing way.

Make the nature of your evidence clear to your reader. Do you have observations that you yourself have made? Or do you have inferences based on observations or data collected by otl1ers?

If you can't prove the claim you originally hoped to make, modify your conclusions to fit your data. Even when y our mar- ket test is a failure or your experiment disp roves your hypoth- esis, you can still write a usef ul- and ethical- report by following tl1ese guidelines:

• Identify changes that might yield a differen t result. For instance, selling product at a lower price might enable the company to sell enough units.

• Divide tl1e discussion to show what part of the test succeeded. • Discuss c ircumstances that may have affected the results. • Sununarize your n egative findings in progress reports to

let readers down gradually and to give them a c hance to modify the research design.

• Remember that negative results aren't a lways disappointing to tl1e audien ce. For exan1ple, the people who commissioned a feasibility report may be relieved to have a n in1partial out- sider confirm tl1eir suspicions tl1at a proj ect isn't feasible.26

ORGANIZING INFORMATION IN REPORTS Do n ot put in formatio n in r eports just bec a use you have it or j ust because it took you a long time to fin d it. Instead, choose the information that you r reader nee ds to ma k e a d ecision.

How much information you need to include depends on whether your a u dience is likely to be s upportive, neutral, or skeptical. You must also decide whether to put information in the body of the report or in appendixes. Put materia l in the body of the report if it is crucial to your proof or if it is s hort. (Something less than ha lf a page won't interrupt the reader.) Anything that a careful reader will want but that is not crucial to your p roof can go in an appe ndix.

Most sets of data can be organized in several logical ways. The following three guidelines will help you choose the arrangement that will be the most useful for y our readers:

1. Process your information b e fore y ou prese n t it to your readers. The order in which you fo und information usually is not tl1e best order to present it.

2. Whe n you have Jots of information, group it into three to seven cat e gories . The average person's shor t-tenn mem- ory can hold only seven chunks, though the chunks can be of any s ize.27 By grouping your infonn ation into seven catego- ries (or fewer), you ma ke your report easier to read.

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHI NG , AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS 2 4 q

3. Work with the re ade rs' e xpectations, not a g ainst the m. Use a direct pattern if your readers are likely to be supporti\·e, or use an indirect pattern ( .. Chapter 9) if they a re likely to be skeptical Introduce ideas in the o,·erview in the order in which you will discuss them.

Basic Patterns for Organizing Information Whe n IJOU a re o rganizing information, you are creating relation· s hips witil readers, ideas, outcomes, and a ctions, creating frame- works within which readers will a ccess infom1a tio n and use your document (see « Chapter 3). Yo u are clarifying o rder and emphasis, making clear the logical connections among ideas.

Seven basic patterns for organizing information are useful in whole reports or in parts.

n/Contrast Many reports use comparison/contrast sections within a larger report pattern. Comparison/contrast can also be tile purpose of the whole report. Feasibility studies usually use this pattern. Yo u can focus eil her on the alte rnatives y ou are evalua ting o r o n the cril e ria you use. See Figure 10.6 fo r exa mp les o f these two patterns in a report

Focus o n the a lternatives when:

• One alternative is clearly superior • The criteria a re hard to separate • Readers will intuitively grasp the alternative as a whole

ratiler than as tile sum of its parts

Focus on the criteria when:

• The superiority of one alternative to a notller depends on the relative weight assigned to various c riteria (e.g., pe r· haps Alte rna tive A is better if you are most con cerned about Criterion 1, cos t, but worse if you are most con· cemed about Criterio n 2, proximity to target market)

• The criteria a re easy to separate • Readers want to compare and contrast tile options indepen-

dently of your recommendation

A variation of tile divided pattern is tile p ro-and-con pattern. ln U1is pattern, under each specific heading, give the argun1ents for and against Ulat alternative. Whatever comes second will carry more psychological weight. This patt ern is least effective w hen you want to de-emphasize U1e disadvan- tages o f a proposed solution because it does not pe rmit you to bury tile disadvantages between neutral or positive material.

2. Pr •bl m ·Solution Identify tile problem, explain its background or history, discuss its extent and seriousness, and identify its causes. Discuss tile factors (criteria) that affect the decision. Analyze tile advan- tages and disadvantages of possible solutions. Conclusions and reconm1endations can go either first or last, depending on reader preferences. This pattern works weD when readers are neutral.

250 • PART 4 REPORTS

3. Eliminati •n o A•t• ·natives After discussing tile problem and its causes, discuss tile impractical solutions first, showing w hy they will not work. End witil tile most practical solution. This pattern works weU when the solutions readers are like ly to favour will not work, while the solution you recommend is likely to be perceived as expensive, intrusive, or radical.

4. General to Particular or Particular to General General to particular starts with tile problem as it affects tile o rganization o r as it manifests itself in general and Ulen moves to a discussion of tile pa.rts of the problem and solutions to each of these parts. Particular to general starts w;th tile problem as the a udience defmes it and moves to larger issues of which tile problen1 is a part. Bolli are good patterns wnen you need to rede- fme the reader's perception of the problen1 to solve it effectively.

5. Geographic 'r pa ial In a geogra phic or spatia l pattern, you discuss proble ms an d solutions in wtits by the ir phys ical arrangeme nt. For example,

Figure 10.6 Two Ways t o Organize a Comparison/ Contrast Report

FOCUS ON ALTERNATIVES

Alternative A Opening a N- Store on Campus

Criterion 1

Criterion 2

Criterion 3

Cost of Renting Space

Proximity to Target Ma rket

Competition from S imilar S to res

Altematlve B Opening a New Store In the Suburban Mall

Criterion 1

Criterion 2

Criterion 3

Cost of Renting Space

Proximity to Target Market

Competition from Similar Stores

FOCUS ON CRI TERIA

Criterion 1 Coat of Renting Space for the New Store

Alternative A Cost of Campus Locations

Alternative B Cost of Locations in the Suburban Mall

Criterion 2 Proximity to Target Market

Alternative A Proximity on Campus

Alternative B Proximity in the Suburban Mall

Criterion 3 Competition from Similar Stores

Alternative A Competing Stores on Campus

Alternative B Competing Stores in tile Suburban Mall

move from office to office, building to building, factory to fac- tory, province to province, region to region, and so on.

L06

6. Functional In functional patterns, discuss the problems and solutions of each functional tmit. For instance, a report on a new plant might divide data into sections on the costs of land and building, on the availability of personnel, on the convenience of raw materials, and so on. A government report might divide data into the dif- ferent functions an office performed, taking each in turn.

USING AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES

7. Chronological A chron ological report records events in the order in which they happened or a re planned to happen. Many progress reports (» Chapter 11) a re organized chronologically.

Good writing is the result of good research- and a maj or source of credibility. Consider the original (see Figure 10.7) and revised version (see Figure 10.8) of the introductory paragraph to a stu- dent proposal to write a report for a client business reconunend- ing ways to increase the business's visibility in a competitive market. Which do you find persuasive? Do you believe the elainlS in Figure 10.7? Would you be willing to risk investing in the teanl's work? Does the team persuade that they have the q,ualifications and resources to complete the task? Does the research add cred- ibility to Figure 10.8? Would citing Wildpedia work as well?

Figure 10.7 An Unacceptable Introduction t o a Student Proposal

Introduction X Direct orga- nlzatton 15 too -v Retail clothing outlets need public recognition. The main problem that we will address

abrupt is that the business is not getting its message across. Our team of communications consultant'i aims to increase your visibility by ten percent

X Tone is 1 unnecessarily

negative

X Positive emphasis is lost

in negatives

Communications are essentia1 to the effectivenes.s of any firm . In this day and age. you cannot afford not to improve your external communications. Research has enabled us to locate your probJem and to identify soJutions. Your lack of communications means that people don' t know they have the best retail clothing outlet righ t here in the heart of London. Our team can beat out any competitors. You can rely on us.

Figure 10.8 A Good Introducti on to a Student Proposal

Introduction Epigraph

frames the introduction -+- - - - - Communication yields a 235 percent return on inve.,unent ( !ABC. 20 10).

effectively

.r Indirect problem-solving

organization shows why

the reader will benefit

.r Tone Is positive

.r Credibility is strengthened

by use of com- munications

terms

In a competitive retail clothing sector dominated by multinational players (Smith. 2010), 1oca1 businesses are challenged to get their messages across and their profile.

on secondary research on the retail cJothing sector welJ as our of Main Street signage. store Jayout website, Facebook page, posters, yeJiow page and newspaper advertisements. this proposal focuses on to enhance externa1 communications and make them more cost .. effective. In particular. we propose expJoring options to visibility- and market share:

. Redesigning traffic flow and in store

. Matching print and online communications • Updating design feature.' . Highlighting Main Street strengths . Responding to target audience needs in the richest media and best

locations.

Making the most of your in externa1 communications and acting on recommendations in these wiJI ensure that your target audience knows it has the be." retail c lothing outlet righ t here in the heart of London.

ll X Claim to

visibil- ity unsupported by evidence

_ X Claim about 1-- research is

unsupported

X Cliched - - phrasing under·

mines credibility

.r Credibility is enhanced by twoAPA· documented research sources

.r Claim to increase visibility is supported by listed strategies

.r Positive emphasis is maintained in conclusion

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING, AN D DOCUMENTI NG REPORTS 251

Ethics of Secondary Source Use In a good report, sources are cited and documented smoothly and unobtrusively. Using a citation means attributing a n idea or fact to its source in the body of the report: "According to the 2016 Census ... "; "Jan e Bryant Quinn a rgues that. ... • Citing sources enhances your credibility and helps you avoid plagiarism charges. Including documentation means provid- ing the b ibliographic information readers would need to go back to the original source. Documenting your sources has these benefits:

• Gives credit for intellectual debts • Reinforces and supports your line of argument • Adds credibility of supporting authorities • Protects your reputation and reassures readers of your

honesty • Gives readers access to further sources on a particular

topic

Plagiarism While plagiarism, the unacknowledged use of another's ideas and/or expression, can be a deliberate act by desperate, cyni- cal, or lazy people (e.g., concealing sources, handing in a report written by someone else), it is also often an act of ontis- s ion. When students or professionals unintentionally recall and repeat exact wording from a source, forget to ensure q,uotation marks around exact q,uotations, use online material they though t was copyright free, or paraphrase or sununarize a source's ideas without acknowledgment, they a re guilty of plagiarism.

Plagiarism remains in t11e forefront due to ltigh-profile cases like the 2002 suspension of 44 students at Sin10n Fraser University, t11e results of a CBC survey of 42 univers ities showing that more than 7,000 students a re guilty of acadentic dishonesty (though many more go undetected), and a 2006 study (and 20 16 followup) reporting 50% of Canadian students cheat.28 ln response, many post-secondary institutions have developed programs and use Turnitin.com, a s ite designed to encourage originality and prevent plagiarism, which inclu des over 1 million previously subntitted papers in its database. University of Toronto is one of a number of Canadian univer- s ities using Turnitin.com services, though the majority of stu- dents remain honest and "recognize t11at plagiarism tlueatens the value of their hard work. "29

Journalistic plagiarism a nd firings have also made the news: reporter Jayson Blair adntitted he had fak ed or stolen material for 36 stories for 17>e Ne:w York Times; a Los Angeles Times photographer acknowledged he had combined two pic- tures in 2003 to ma k e "a more dran1atic in1age" of t11e war in Iraq; a Toronw Swr reporter conceded she had copied almost a third of a story about a US Army deserter from 17le Village

252 • PART 4 REPORTS

Facing accusations of plagiarism, columnist Margaret Wente teamed the value of •respect and trust• to the good name of writers. Source: The Canadian Press; Jeff Mdntosh.

Voice; National Post medical reporter Brad Evenson was fired for faking q,uotations in nine stories; a n d Jonah Lehrer had "two books pulped and his j ob at the New Yo'*er vacated" for plagiarism. 30

Altl1ough she faced disciplinary action but was not fired, Globe and Mail colunutist Margaret Wente similarly faced accusations of plagiarism of an Ottawa Citizen article by Dan Gardner in a J uly 2009 article that her editor found "unaccept- able.''31 Wente denied she was a "serial plagiarist" and clainled she was more often "a target for people who don't like what I write." Still, she apologized for being "extremely careless."32 ln a s ubseq,uent article responding to print and online outrage, she apologized to t110se she had "Jet down; conceding she had "learned t11at respect and tmst are the most inlportant currencies any writer l1as.,(J3

While poor training and in adeq,uate resources have caused many plagiaris m problems, the Internet has added to the challenges. At the Univers ity of Toron to, plagiarism related to the Internet increased from 50% to 99% of cases between 2000- 200 1 a n d 2001- 2002; official plagiaris m cases increased from 92 to 403 cases in 12 years up to 2005-2006. Managing Editor Kirk LaPointe of the Vancouver Sun warns of Internet enticements "to this exciting inforn1ation that a reporter can steal," while cautioning that the same source leaves "a record of it and anybody who steals can be caught."3.1

A 2006-2010 study of 14,000 undergraduates found that 40% confessed to copying from the Internet, and 29% did not regard s uch copying as "serious cheating." The majority of 196 plagiarism cases at the University of California, Davis, acted unetltically while "knowing it was wrong." The dis- ciplinary office concluded the students "were unwilling to engage the writing process. Writing is difficult, and doing it well tak es time and practice." Others agree that "students leave high school unprepared for the intellectual rigours of college writing."35

D ng The Copyright Act speUs out what constitutes fair dealing in Canada (fair use in the United States is more permissive); that is, what are exceptions to exclusive copyrights. For purposes of "research, private study, education, parody, satire, criticism or review, and news reporting, • there is no infringement of copyright so long as the source is acknowl- edged. In these cases, no payment to the copyright h older is required so long as there is no commercial purpose to the dealing.30

r .d Use Consistent with the philosophy of open source software (see .. Chapter 6) shared in the interests of coUaboration and innovation, Creative Commons re-established itself in Canada in 2012. A non-profit organization, Creative Commons is committed to the "legal and technical infra- structure that maximizes digital c reativity, sharing, and innovation." Its commitment is to grant a ccess outside the "all rights reserved" model of copyright laws in different jurisdictions. It acts out of a belief that free access to infor- mation, education, a n d science, as we ll as full participation in culture, is key to "a new era of development, growth, and productivity.·

Creative Conmtons does not abandon the duty to acknowl- edge sources, but it does limit the cost of doing so. The approach is that "some rights [are) reserved." Creative Conmtons licences permit creators to defme what users may and may not do "ithout express permission. It has now launched CCSearch, a tool to identify CC-Iicensed sources with a "one-click' feature that allows for correct crediting of sources.37

Quoting WheUter you are dealing with an online or print source, you wiU have to decide whether to quote the information direcUy or put it into your own words. You will choose to q,uote in the foll owing situations:

• The source's expression is especially effective , ,-ivid, or original

• The source depends on specialized or technical terms.

• You want to dispute the terms of the source's argument.

Be sure to integrate quotations into your own gram- mar/ developing argume nt, vary ing introductory words (e.g., Jennifer Barton argues, claims, responds, notes, suggests; from Jennifer Barton's point of view; accord- ing lo Jennifer Barton). Quote only those words necessary for document purposes and reader needs; mark omissions with ellipses (spaced dots) and changes with sq,uare brackets.

Long q,uotalions (four typed lines or more) are used spar- ingly in business reports. Since many reade rs skip q,uotations,

always summarize the main point of the q,uotation in a single sentence before the q,uotation itself. End the sentence with a colon, not a period, since it introduces the q_uotation. Indented q,uotations do not need q,uotation marks; the indentation shows Ute reader the passage is a q_uotation.

Summan n o Paraphrasing \Vhen ctuotation is not necessary, put the source ideas in y our own words (a summary or paraphrase) and follow regular documentation style (sh own in Figures 10.9, 10.10, 10.1 1, and 10.12) .

Summarizing (see •• Chapter 7) involves using your own words to condense the argumentrmformation in your source. You \vill suntmarize when you want to give the gist of the source without supplying details of the de ve loping argument.

Paraphrasing involves rephrasing in your own words and generally following the source's line of reasoning without any concern to reduce the number of words in the source. To avoid charges of p lagiarism, you n eed to be careful that you do not simply substitute synonyms while retaining the source's grammar. If words from the source are important in your paraphrase, be sure to put q,uotalion marks around those particular words.

WheUter sunrmarizing or paraphrasing, be care ful not to inadvertently repeat words or sentence structure from your source.

ORIGINAL: According to Kirk LaPointe, the Internet is a source of ·exciting Information that a reporter can steal, but on the other hand, there's a record of it and anybody who steals can be caught" (4).

x PLAGIARISM: The Internet Is a great gateway to information that a reporter can borrow. but the record means that anybody who borrows can be found.

_., ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASES: If it gives access to information that reporters may use without credit, the Internet also supplies the evidence that will prove their theft (LaPointe 4 ).

According to Kirk LaPointe, the Internet Is both a rich source of information for reporters and the source of evidence to catch them If they take without credit.

Note Utat c itation and documentation are used in addi- tion to q_uotation marks around the original source's words. If you use the source's exact words, use the name of the per- son you are c iting and use q,uotation marks in the body of the report; indicate the source in parentheses and a List of

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING, AND DOCUM ENTI NG REPORTS • 253

Figure 10.9

APA Format

.r Heading, 'f number help readers find

materia/In wetJsite without p age numbers

.r Ellipses (spaced dots) indicate some

material has been omitted.

An extra dot setVes as the period of the

sentence.

.r Use page nurn- oer for direct quo-

tation (oo need to repeat source

when named earlier in 'J)

.r List all works ( t>Ut only those works) cited In

text

.r List sources alphabetically.

Report Paragraphs with APA Documentati on

Modem oftice buildings contain a surprising number of pollutants. Printing and copying documents creates that can be harmfu l to health. Office and furniture emit chemical pollutanlS (Environmental Protection Agency. 2001 ... Management of poiJutant

section.IJ!s 4-5). Indeed. the dyes and used in many office chairs are consider hazardous waste. "Most people are sitting on chairs that are an amalgam of hundreds of chemicals that have never been [tested) ... . 1lle [moredeeplyl we look. (the more] •e find . cancer-causing chemkals:· .s.ays WilJ.iaffi""Nfc Donough. an architectural consuJlant who

.r Square brackets illdi· care a change from the origi- nal to make the

V quotation fit into the structure of your selltence

specializes in air-quality con s (Conlin. 2000. p. 128). .r All material

The problem is pounded by inadequate ventilation. 1'he American Society of Heating. .....- from citation to Refrige · . and Air.Conditioning Engineers recommends that a building"s heating. of 1ls from an ling system deliver 20 cubic feet per minute of outside air for each a smgle source 001. "Ventilation rates .. section. 1 5). But ConJin (2000) repons. son).e.buitdmgs provide only 5

cubic feet of fres.h air per person a minute. And that "fresh airJm-ayil(}t be pure. Some buildings have air vents over loading and parking garages:-Revolving doors pull in second· hand smoke ··m::e a chimney·· (p. 117) from smokers who stand by the door.

In the buildings .. often focused on tlle cost of solviJlSJ)u!.pr<>b l costs undenaken only after a lawsuit was severaJ

mpanies have found that improving air quality pays for Pennsylvania Power and Light's remodelling paid for itself in just 69 days by cutting absenteeism 25<.;,. increas ing productivity 13<.;,. mld reducing er.ergy costs 2001. "Why indoor air quality should be improved:· 114).

"' Place author, date in paren- theses (use page numbers only for a direct quotation)

.r Include retrieval date

_ only for sources __- that change

--- overtJme (2001). Overview of lAQ problems in Retrieved from hnp://www.aerias.org/

office_oven 1 iew.hun --- - --- - ------- --- - - --- - --.J "' No punctua· ,._ tion at the end

Conlin. M. (with Carey. J.). (2000. June 5). Is your office killing you? BusinessWeek. 114- 128 .

EnvironmentaJ Protection Agency. (200 1. July 19). An office building occupant's guide to indoor air qualiry. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/occupgd.html

of a URL

.__ "' Repeat hull- dreds

.r List source '-.. only once, even

when it's used more than once

references, or works cited, or in a footnote or en dnote. If you put the source's idea into your own words, or if you con- dense or synthesize infor mation, you don't need q,uotation marks, bu t you still n eed to tell whose idea it is a n d where you foun d it.

two-part system that uses internal doctunentation with a Jist of references; it does not use footnotes or endnotes to documen t sources. Internal d ocumen tation provides the author's name (if it isn't already in the sentence) and date of publication (Smith, 20 11, for instance) in parentheses in the text. APA includes the page n umber where the reference was found only in the case of q,uotation. Th e full bibliographical citation appears in a Jist of references at the end of the report.

Documenting Sources The three most widely used formats for footnotes, endnotes, in-text citations, and b ibliographies in reports are tl10se of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Modern Language Association (MLA), and the University of Chicago Manual of Style format, which this book uses. Each is used by particular conununities of scholars and writers to doctunent the sources with which their works a re in conversation. They s hould not be confused or conflated.

The APA fo nnat, conmton in behavioural and social sci- ences writing (based on the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association), is a

2 5 4 PART 4 REPORTS

MLA fonnat, common in th e humanities and fine arts (based on the revised standards of the eigh th edition of the MLA H andbook), similarly uses internal documentation in the text, in this case listin g the author's last name a n d page number (Smith 234, for instance). The full bibliographic citation appears in a Jist of works cited at th e end of the repor t.

Figures 10.9 a n d 10.10 s h ow a portion of a report in APA and MLA formats, respectively, with the Jist of referen ces (APA) or works cited (MLA). Figures 10.11 and 10.12 show the

Figure 10 .10 Report Paragraphs with MLA Documentation

MlA Format

.r An extra dot setVes as the period of the

sentence

.r Nocomma between author,

page number (req_uired for q,uotations);

no ·p. • before page number

.r Use only page number since

a uthor identified in sentence

.r Heading, paragraph

number helps reader find material in

website without page numbers

Modern office buj)dings contain a surprising number of pollutants. Printing and copying partk les that c-.an be harmful to health. Office carpets and furn iture emit

c emltat--pGilula.Jlls (Environme ntal Protection Agency). llldeed. the dyes and used in many o ffice people are sitting o n chairs that are an amaJgam of of chemicals . . . . The (more deeply) we look. (the more) we find . .. cancer-c-.ausing chemicals: · says an archit aJ consultant who specializes in air-quality concerns (Conlin 128).

The problem is compounded by inadequate ventilation. The American Society of Heating. Refrigeration. and Air-Conditioning Engineers recommends that a building's heating. ventilation. and cooling system deli ver 20 cubic feel per minute of oUlside air for each occupant ··ventilation Rates·· section. par. 5). But. Michelle Conlin some buildings provide only 5 cubic feet of fresh air per person a minute. And that "fresh air .. may not be pure. Some buildings have fresh air over loading docks and parking garages. Revol\ring doors puiJ in second·hand smoke ''like a chimney" ( 117) from smokers who stand by the door.

ln the 1990s. to "sid buildings·· often focused on the cost of solving the problem- a cost sometimes undertaken only after a lawsuit fi led (Nai B 1). But recentl y. several companies have fou nd that improving air quality pays for itself. ennsy vama Power and Lighfs re modell ing paid for itself in just 69 days by cutting absenteeis m 25%. increasing productivity 13%. and reducing energy 69% (Aerias. ··Why Indoor Air Quality Should Be Improved:· par. 4).

.r Include section and paragraph numbers if numbered in the original

.r Sctuare brackets indi- cate a change from the origi- n al to make the q,uotatlon fi t into the struc- ture of your sentence

.r Give page number for facts, not just q,uotatlons

.r CopyrighV update date

.r Date you

.r Author names presented as

in the original work

site Is Aerias. "Overview of IAQ Problems in Office.<.-· 2001. 24 Sept. 2005. optional

Conlin. Michelle with John Carey. "ls Your Office Killing You? .. Bu.siuess\Vuk 5 June 2000. .r If URLis too long to fit on one line, break after a punc- tuation mark V" If reader needs

or professor requires, list URL

pp. 114-2&.

Agency. ··An Office Building Occupant's Guide to Indoor A. uality." 19 July 200 I . www.epa.gov/iaq/pu bs/occupgd.honl.

.r Don't repeat hundreds

Nai. Amal Kumar. "Squabble.< Delay "" Use day month Oct. 1995. pp. B l +. year;

.r List sources a lphabetically

::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::;;;:;;=:::::::::::"Cl-- monthslonger than four letters

.r •+•Indicates article continues

APA and MLA fo nnats for sources used most often in reports. See » Figure 11.8 for an e xample of APA fomtat.

It is a lso in1portant to be clear when you do not need to c redit s ources. You do not need to cite your own original obser- v ations, although you need to explain the basis of your think- ing. Whereas there is no need to cite a s ource for familiar facts such as the dates of tenure of a particular prime minister, you do need to cite a source for statistics re lating to their increasing or waning support d uring that tenure or for a partic ular pe r- spec tive on the success or failure of the prime minister_ In gen- eral, you do not need to credit s ources for proverbial sayings (e.g., "People in glass houses s hould n ot throw stones"), fa mil- iar q,uotations (e-g., "We s hall ove rc ome"), or c ommon knowl- edge (e.g ., the dates of World War IT, the name of the fll'St prime minister of Canada ). Whe n in doubt, cite your source_

If you have used many sources that you have not cited, you may want to Jis t both works cited and works consulted. The tem1 b i bliography co vers a ll sources on a topic.

If you use a p rinted source that is not readily available, conside r including it as an appendix in your report. For e xam- ple, you could copy an ad or inclu de an organization's promo- tional brochure_

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING , AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS 2 55

Figure 10.11 APA Format fo r Sources Used Most Often in Reports

,- In rifles of articles

and oooks capitalize only (1} First word,

(2) First word of subUUe, and

(3 ) Proper nouns

,- Where source is signed

anonymous

,- Where there Is no author

APA Forma t

APA internaJ documentation the author's laQ name and thedateofthe work in_,.pate ntheses in the text. A comma separates the author's name from the date (Gilsdorf & Legottta. 2001). 1'he page number is given onJy for direct quotations 2001 . p. name is used in the sentence. only the date is given in parentheses. (See figure of gives the fuJJ bibliographic citation. arranging the entries alphabetical yi)y the first author's last name.

A no n ymous Authorship Anonymous. ( 1993). SociaJ learning theo oumal of Persoualio· and Soda/ P ·chology.

65(6). I 154- 11 66. doi: 10. 10 37/a00185811

. Article in a Periodical "' last name ftrst - Gilsdorf. J .• & Leonard. D. (200 1). Big stuff. little sruff: A of

___-executive:f and Journal of "' comma - Bu.<iness 111l1iiiCaiiou, 38. d oi: I 177/002 19436103645 I 0/

"' Yea r (period McCartney. 27). Why a haseball superstar's outside paren- tl >1-,reems. The Wall Street Journal. p. B I. 8 3.

theses)

,. Italicize volume

"' Editors before book rifle

"' Ampersands join names of

co-authors, CCH>ditors

,- Include URL if no dol available

Killingsworth. M. J .. & Jacobsen. M. ( 1999). The rhetorical construction of environmentaJ risk and activist websites: A critique. In J. M. Perkins-&1>"1N<t.--- - Biyler (EtJ,ir.'}.NarrtJiive and profe.u;onal communication (pp. 167- 177). Stamford. CT:

r!ICie from a Publication o n the Web Greengard. S. (200 1. May). Scoring web wins. Business FintuU:t! Magazint!. p. 37.

Retrieved from http://www.businessfinancemag..com/archive.Vappfiles/ 13750

________-sool< Cros.<. G A A C<>ntextualexplmwu>n of large-scale

,. No t:tuotafion marks around title of article

,. Capitalize all major words in title of journal, magazine, or newspaper

,. List digital object identifier {dol} if assigned

,- No •pp.' When joumalhasa volume number

"' Separate discontinuous pages with comma and space

,. Editors' names have lase names lase

,. Give scare or province when city is nor well known

,. Repeat ·r In 177

,. Indicates ,- No punctua-

tion after URL

wr tfg m mduftr) Creskill. NJ· Hampton Press.

n ph t w tth a Cor porate Au tho r organization CJU :n-k. ( 1994) An unewuem gwde LJakarta:) Author ___ _ - ----- !-'- auth oring docu-

,. Initials only ment also pul>-

m ail Message lished it [Identify email messages in the text as personal communkations (wi . l.Ql_entioning

,. Italicize rifle ofoook

,. No abbreviarions

,- Document number

"' APA uses periods for

·u.s. · ,- Copyright or

update date

,. Keep "http://"

email addresses). Give name of author (surname foJJowed by initials) . ific a date possible. Do not include references.

Government Docume nt Senate Special Committee on Aging. (2001 ). Long.ferm care: Swtes grapplt! wit It

increasing demand.f aud cosu. Hearing before the Special Committee on Aging. Senate. One Hundred Seventh Congress. first session. hearing held in Washington. DC. July 11. 2001 (Doc lD: 75-038). Washington. DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.

G overnmen t Document Available o n the Web from the G PO Access Database U.S. Ge1leral Accouming Office. (200 I. September 20.) Aviation security: Terrorist

demonstrate urgent need · ve security at the nation's alrpons. before the Committee merce. Science. and Tra.nsponation. U.S. Senate (GA04 0 1-11621').

from General Accounti ng Office Online via GPO hnp://www.gao.gov/new.items/dO 11162t.pdf

c rview Conducted by the Rc.warchc r (Identify interviews in the text as personal communications. Give name of interviewee and

spec.ific a dare possible. Do not list in References.]

PosLing to an eJectronic mailing Jist Dietrich. D. (20 17. January 12). Re: Course on report and proposal writing (electronic

mailing list Retrieved from flnclude subject line followed by tlle URL. Include dte name of dte list if not part of dte URL. I

Website Americ:a.n Express. (20 17}. Creating an effective plan. Rettieved from

256 PART 4 REPORTS

"' Put in st:tuare brackets infor- mation known to you but not printed in document

"' No punctuation

,. Break tong Web address at a stash or other punctuation mark

Figure 10.12 MLA Format f or Sources Used Most Often in Reports

.,.. capitalize all major words in

titles of articles, oooks, journals, magazines, and

newspapers "

.,.. Where there is no author; never list the

l'v!LA Forma t

MLA internal documentation gives the auth o r" s last name and page number in in the text for facts well for qu0€ations (Gilsdorf and Leonard 470). Unlike APA. the year is not given. no comma separates the name and page number. and the abbreviation .. p: · is nO€ used

74). lftbe autho r"s name is used in the sentence. onJy the page number is given in parentheses. (See Figure 10.10.) A list of Cited gives the fuiJ bibliographic citation. arranging the e ntries alphabetically by the first autho r"s name .

Anonymous A uthorship author as _.!-----

anonymous "Socia] Learning Theory: · l ou mal of Persmwliry aJUI Soci 1993. pp. 11 54-66.

.,.. Italicize title of oook,

Article in a Periodical Gilsdorf. Jeanene and Don Leonard.

journal, """'!::""----- magazine, or

newspaper McCarmey. Scott . .. Why a Baseball Superstar"s Tit< Wall Street Journal. 27 Dec. 2000.

.,.. Give authors', ..._ A . 1 1• Ed' d B k ecrtors' names ----- $ rue c rom an He oo 1 • • ----- Kimngswonh. M. Jimmie and Marlin Jacobsen. ·1'he Rheto ricaJ Cons truction of

as prmted m the E.nviron.mentaJ Ris k Narratives in Governme m mxl Activist A Critiq ·· source Narroti\·e and Profe.uh>nal Communicmion. Edi ted by Jane M. Pe rki1

Blyler. Ablex. 1999. pp. 167-77.

"" Include Web Article from a Public ation o n the Web address if Greengard. Samuel. .. Scoring Web Wins:· Bus iness Finance Magazine. May 2001.

.,.. Include vol . number and (issue) no., date

V" Put Q.UOta· !ion marks

( around title of article

.,.. Indicate arti·

r cle continues after first page .,.. Spell out editors' names. Join with •and. •

.,.. Omit ·r in . 177"

.,.. Don'tadd any extra hyphens when

professor - +------- req_uires. ls.<ueiD=348&ArticleiD= 13750.

End entry with a period. Book

you break a long Web address

Cross. Geoffrey A. Forming I he Collecii\'e Mind: A Comexwal Explorruhm of Large-Scale Col/aboraJi\•e Writing in Industry . Hampton 2001.

.,.. Put in sq,uare brackets infor·

Book or Pa mphlet with a Co rporate Autho r known Citibank. Jndottesia: Anlm-esm,em Guide. (Jakartr]-eill1xlJik-:l to you but

Email Mc.«sage Locker. Kitty 0 . .. Could We Get a New Photo? .. Message to Raj ani J.

17 Dec. 2001.

Government Document United Se n. Special Committee on Aging. Long· Term Care: States Grapple with

ltu:reasing Demands and Cosu. 107th Cong .. 1st sess. GPO. 200 1.

Government Document Available on the We b from the GPO Access Data;;;;--_ United General Accounting Office. A"·iation Securiry: Terrori.ft Acts Demonstrate

Urgeut Need 10 lmpmw! Security at tlte Nation's Airpons. Testimony before the Committee on Commerce. Science. and Transponation. U.S. Senate (GA0-01- 11621'). 20 Sept 2001. www.gao.gov/new.items/dOII 162t.pdf.

Interview Conducte d by the Researcher Drysdale. Andrew. Telephone interview. 12 Apr 20 17.

Posting to a n Electronic Mailing List Dietrich. Dan. "Re : Course on Repon and Proposal Writing: · 12 Jan. 20 17.

BizCom Discussion Group.

\\'ebsite American Express. Creating an Effecti\•e Bus iness Plan . 20 Dec. 20 17.

not printed in source

.,.. Date after publisher

.,.. Abbreviate "Government Printing Office•

.,.. If discussion group has a Web archive, give the Web address. If it doesn't have a Web page, give the email address of the list.

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING, AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS 2 57

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

• For a well-defined report problem, check that it meets these tlu·ee critetia: (1) the problem is real, important enough to be worth solving, and narrow but challenging; (2) the report audience is real, interested in the problem, and able to implement the recommended action; and (3) the data, evidence, and facts are sufficient to document the problem, sufficient to prove that the recommendation will solve the problem, and available and comprehensible to you.

• Limit the scope of the problem depending on time and resources. • Having a research plan will strengthen your fmdings. Knowing your topic,

articulating your problem statement and report purpose, and identifying your information gaps and reliable resources will help you better target your search and keep it ethical. Research with an open mind and represent reliable and relevant research.

• Secondary research rettieves information that someone else gathered. Library research and online searches are the best-known kinds of secondary research.

• Primary research gathers new information. Surveys, interviews, and observations are common methods for business reports.

• To evaluate research, consider validity, reliability, and currency. • To decide whether to use a website as a source in a research project, evaluate

the site's authors, objectivity, information, and revision date. • A survey q_uestions a large group of people, called respondents or subj ects. A

q_uestimmaire is a written list of q_uestions that people fill out. An interview is a structured conversation with someone who will be able to give you useful information.

• Good q_uestions ask just one thing, are phrased neutrally , avoid making assumptions about the respondent, and mean essentially the same thing to different people.

• Analyze data with healthy skepticism. Check for data accuracy, source reliability , sample size, and wording bias. Search for patterns, distinguish causation and correlation, and make the nature of your evidence clear.

• Using a citation means attlibuting an idea or fact to its source in the body of the report. Including documentation means providing the bibliographic information readers would need to go back to the original source. Plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another's ideas and/or expression.

• The APA format uses intemal documentation \vith a list of references giving full bibliographic citation at the end of the report. Intemal documentation provides the author's name (if it isn't already in the sentence) and date of publication in parentheses in the text; the page number is only included when in the case of q_uotation.

• MLA format uses internal documentation in the text, listing the author's last nan1e (if it isn't already in the sentence) and page number. The full bibliographic citation appears in a list of works cited at the end of the report.

258 • PART 4 REPORTS

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

GETTING START ED

10.1 IDENTIFYING THE WEAKNESSES IN PROBLEM STATEMENTS

Identify the weaknesses in the following problem statements. Discuss in your group and present your group fmdings to the class. Use these criteria: • Is the problem narrow enough?

• Can a solution be fotmd in a tem1?

• What organization could implement any recommendations to solve the problem?

• Could the topic be limited or refocused to yield an acceptable problem statement?

1. One possible report topic I would like to investigate would be the differen ces in women's intercollegiate sports in our athle tic conference.

2. How to market products effectively to university/college students.

3. Should Web banners be part of a company's advertising?

4. How can Canadian students get jobs in Europe?

5. We want to explore ways our company can help raise funds for the Open Shelter. We will investigate whether collecting and recycling glass, alurninwn , and paper products will raise enough money to he lp.

6. How can XYZ university/college better serve s tudents from traditionally Wlderrepresented groups?

7. What are the best investments for the next year?

10.2 WRITING A PRELIMINARY PURPOSE STATEMENT

Answer the following q,uestions about a topic on which you could write a formal report. (Refer to Problems 11.4, 11.11, 11.12, 11.13, and 11.14 in the next chapter.)

As Your Professor Directs:

a. Be prepared to answer the q,uestions orally in a conference.

b. Bring written answers to a conference.

c. Submit written answers in class.

d. Submit a copy of your s tatement to your professor after it is approved.

1. What problem will you investigate or solve?

a. What is the name of the organization facing the problem?

b. What is the technical problem or difficulty?

c. Why is it important to the organization that this problem be solved?

d. What solution or action might you recommend to solve the problem?

e. List the name and title of the person in the organization who would have the power to accept or reject your recomme ndation.

2. Will this report use information from other classes or from work experiences? If so, give the name and topic of the class and/or briefly describe the job. If you will need additional information (other than from other classes or from a job), how do you expect to fmd it?

3. List the name, title, and business phone nwnber of a professor who can testify to your ability to ha ndle the expertise needed for this report.

4. List the name, title, and business phone nwnber of someone in the organization who can testify that you have access to enough information about that organization to write this report.

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING, RESEARCHING, AN D DOCUMENTING REPORTS • 25q

COMMUNICATING AT WORK

10.3 CHOOSING RESEARCH STRATEGI ES

For each of the following reports, indicate the kinds of research that might be useful. If a survey is called for, indicate the most efficient kind of sample to use. As your professor directs, peer grade answers. a. How can xyz store increase sales? b. What is it like to Jive and work in [name of country]?

c. Should your organization have a dress code?

d. Is it feasible to start a monthly newsletter for students in your major?

e. How can you best market to mature adults?

f. Can compensation progranlS increase productivity?

g. What skills are in demand in your area? Of these, which could the local college or university offer courses in?

10.4 IDENTIFYING KEYWORDS FOR COMPUTER SEARCHES

Identify the keyword combinations that you could use in researching one or more of the following topics, as your professor directs: a. Ways to evaluate whether recycling is working

b. Safety of pension ftmds

c. Ethical issues in accounting

d. Effects of advertising on sales of automobiles

e. What can be done to increase the privacy of personal data

f. Accounting for intellectual capital

g. Advantages and problems of Web advertising

10.5 COMPARING WEB SEARCH ENGINES

Using at least three different search engines, search for sources on a topic on which you could write a forma l report. (Refer to Problems 11.4, 11.11, 11.12, 11.13, and 11 .14 in the next chapter.) Compare the top 30 sources. Which sites turn up on a ll three search engines? Which search engine appears to be most useful for your project?

As Your Professor Directs:

a. Share your results orally with a small group of students.

b. Present your results to the class docwnenting your sources.

c. Write a memo to your professor sununarizing your results and docwnenting sources.

d. With a s mall group of students, write a report recommending guidelines for using search engines and docuntenting your sources.

10.6 EVALUATING WEBS ITES

Evaluate sbt websites related to the topic of your report. For each, consider the following: • Authors

• Objectivity

• Information

• Revision date Based on these criteria , which s ites are best for your report? Which are unacceptable? \Vhy?

As Your Professor Directs:

a. Share your results a small group of students.

260 • PART 4 REPORTS

b. Present your results in a memo to your professor, documenting sources carefully.

c. Present your results to the class in an oral presentation or class blog posting that documents your sources.

10.7 EXPLAINING PLAGIARISM AND HOW TO AVOID IT

In the face of some high-profile cases of plagiarism resulting in firings and scandal, your manager asks you to give advice to your staff on plagiarism, explaining why it has become a major business concern and giving specific advice on how the orga- nization can protect itself by documenting its sources accurately. Be sure to include examples of MLA or APA documentation.

As Your Professor Directs:

a. Share your results in a blog posting.

b. Present your results in a two-page memo-report.

c. Present your results in a Web page with links to relevant and reliable resources.

MINI CASE STUDY

10.8 FROM ME INTO WE : RESEARCHING A WE CHARITY PRIORITY

The example of Craig Kielburger and WE Charity ( •• An Inside Perspective) has brought home to you the power of research and the ability of individual actions to effect social and other change. You are especially struck by the charity's holistic, five- pillar development water, health, food , and opportunity (to create the fmancial means to invest in education and health)-that addresses critical factors in ending poverty cycles (see https://www.we.org/we-villages/our-development- model/). This model can work as well at home as abroad in targeting the complex and interrelated roots of poverty.

Choose one of the pillars of the development model to do some research in the context of your local community. Your first step might be to partner with a local poverty, food, or other group that can identify personnel and resources to help you under- stand what has been or is being done, what capacities are in the conm1unity, and what needs to be done to make a difference in the lives of conmmnity members. Consider the following: • What online or library resources are available?

• What primary resources are available? Who might you interview and/or survey? People with lived experience? Municipal or other governntent representatives? Key players in the nonprofit sector? Advocacy organizations?

• What q,uestions might you ask?

As Your Professor Directs:

a. Share your findings in a class blog posting.

b. Present your findings in a group presentation to the class.

c. Present your findings in a short video.

CHAPTER 10 PLANN ING , RESEARCHING , AND DOCUMENTING REPORTS • 261

WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 11

/

LEARNING OUTCOMES

L01 List different kinds of reports

L02 Explain how to organize different kinds of reports

L03 Identify seven q,uestions a proposal must answer

L04 Discuss report style

LOS Explain the functions of the different parts of formal reports

AN INSIDE PERSPECTIVE*

Tends in business Chapter 1) have impacted not only how workplaces are organized, but also how organizat ions communicate everything from routine messages to reports, including annual reports. In the early days of corpo- rate reporting, annual reports were as short as one page of facts and f igures tar- geted almost exclusively to analysts and regulators. In addressing the needs and knowledge of a much broader aud ience today, annual reports are much longer, packed with stories, and visuall y dramatic. In short, they have taken on a much more human face (refer to Figure 3. 7).

At a time when employee satisfaction is as important as client and investor satisfaction, and accountabil ity and transparency are expected, new forms of reporting-triple bottom line, corporate social responsibility (CSR), and sustainabil- ity reports-are addressing new audiences and needs. (See the corporate social responsibil ity and reputation management sections Chapter 1.)

For Vancity President and CEO Tamara Vrooman, the triple bottom line is an important measure of success. CSR is more than donating and volunteering: " It's about operating in a way that is respectful of the environment and that is supportive of the communit ies in which we live and work ." Vrooman's leadersh ip is focused

Tamara Vrooman relishes opportunities for creativity, leadership, and innovation in her position as president and CEO of Vancity, the largest community credit union in canada and one of the largest Canadian organizations to be certified as a Living Wage Employer. In 2011 she was named to canada's Most Powerful Women: Top 100 Hall of Fame. Source: Courtesy of Vancity.

on using Vancity's $25.6 billion in assets plus assets under administration " to help improve the financial well-being of its members while at the same time helping to develop healthy communit ies that are socially, econom ically, and environmentally sustainable ."

In 2016, "Vancity's comm itment to values-based banking and the econom ic, social, and environmental susta inabil ity of our communities met with considerable success. Our assets continued to grow and we demonstrated yet again that being firmly rooted in loca l communities can deliver strong financial returns. •

Vancity was the first carbon-neutral f inancial inst itution in North America and the f irst Canadian f inancial institution invited to join the Global All iance for Banking on Va lues. In 2014, Vrooman spoke with the Dalai Lama at the Heart- Mind Summ it and, at the invitation of Pope Francis, she spoke at The Global Common Good Summit.

If consumer and employee interests are better served by new reporting measures, they are also bringing companies new rewards . The first financial institution in North America to win t he Ceres-ACCA North American Award for Sustainabi lity Reporting in 2006, Vancity now has 2,627 employees in 5q branches serving more than 523,000 members. In 2016, Vancity was recogn ized as one of Canada's Greenest Employers for the ninth year in a row, one of Canada' s Top 100 Employers for the sixth year in a row, one of Brit ish Columbia's Top 100 Employees for the eleventh year, and Canada's Top Family-Friendly Em ployers for the sixth year in a row. In 2016, Vancity was ranked number one in Corporate Knights· Best 50 Corporate Citizens in Canada and recognized for the Best Integrated Report in The Responsible Business Awards; in 201 7 it was recog- nized as one of Canada's Best Employers by Forbes.

*Based on "Tamara Vrooman,·· accessed March 10, 2017, https:/ /www.vancity.com/ AboutVancity/GovernanceAndleadership/ LeadershipTeamfCEOBiography/ ; Vancity, At a Glance, accessed March 10, 2017, https:ff www.vancity.com/ AboutVancity/ VisionAndValuesf Giance/?xcid=hp_about_pod_vancityataglance; Rob Carrick, "Finally a CEO is Speaking Up for Millennials, " Report on Business, June 17, 2016, B10; SK Staff, "Looking to Leadership from Corporate Canada, " Corporate Knights, Summer 2016, p. 30; Bernard Simon, " Top Company Profile: Vancity." Corporate Knights, Summer 2016, p. 34; Q&A, Canadian Business, November 1 q, 2007. p. q; David Jordan, "Tamara Vrooman,· Crossroads, October 1, 2007, accessed August 30, 2008, http:/ ;www.bcbusinessonline.ca/ bcb/people/ 2007/10/ 01/tamara- vrooman; Bruce Constantineau, "Shakeup at Vancity ." Vancouver Sun, November 6, 2007, accessed August 30, 2008, http:/ /www.canada.com; vancouversun; newsfbusiness/story.html?id=81 q86eflk:q83-4q86-8aaa-3276b4q27886.

Car eful r esearch and analysis, smoot11 writing, and effective docum ent Chapter 4) work togetller to mak e effec- tive r eports, whetller you ar e writing a 2.5-page m emo or a 250-page formal r eport complete witl1 all the report components.

10 covered tlle first four steps in wri ting a report

1. Define t11e problem.

2. Gat11er tlle necessary data and infonn ation.

3. Analyze tlle data and infonn ation.

4. Organize tlle information.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS • 2 63

This chapter covers the last step: 5. Write the report.

It guides you through the process of writing proposals a n d defines a nd explains how to organize diffe rent kinds of reports.

Other chap ters t11at are especially useful fo r reports a re Chapters 4, 6, 9, and •• 12.

L01

VARIETIES OF REPORTS Reports can provide information, provide information and a n a lyze it, or provide info rmation and analys is to sup- p ort a recommendation (see Figure 11.1). Reports can be called information reports if they collect data for the reader (see Figure 11.2), analytical reports if they inter- p ret data b ut do not recommend action, or recommenda- tion reports(» see Figure 11.8) if th ey recommend action o r a solu tion.

The following can be information, analytical, or recommen- dation reports, depending on what t11ey provide:

• Progress and interim reports record the work done so fa r a n d the work rema ining on a project. These reports can also recommend that a proj ect be stopped, con tinued, or restructured.

Since its one-page beginnings in 1823, the annual report has changed dramatically . In response to increasing expectations of corporate social responsibility (CSR). more and more businesses are reporting in a variety of ways, including the following: • Social reports

• Green reports • Environmental and social report s

• Sustainability reports • Corporate citizenship reports • People, planet, profit

• Triple-bottom-l ine reports (measures corporate or organiza- tional performance in terms of social, environmental, and economic impacts)

Figure 11.1 Three Levels of Reports REPORTS CAN PROVIDE:

lnfonnatlon only • Sales reports (sales figures for the week or month) • Quarterly reports (figures showing a plant 's

productivity and profits for the q_uarter) lnfonnatlon plus analysis • Annual reports (financial data and an organization's

accomplishments during the past year) • Audit reports (interpretations of the

facts revealed during an audit) • Make-good or payback reports (calculations of the point

at which a new capital investment will pay for itself) lnfonnatlon plus analysis plus a recommendation • Feasibility reports evaluate two or more

alternatives and recommend which alternat ive the organization should choose.

• Justification reports justify the need for a purchase, an investment, a new personnel line, or a change in procedure.

• Problem-solving reports identify the causes of an organizational problem and recommend a solution.

• Trip reports share what the author learned at a conference or during a visit to a customer or supplier. These reports can also reconm1end action based on that information.

Whil e some comment ators are skeptical about business motivation-detecti ng public relations rather than commitment to sustainabil ity- a 2015 PricewaterhouseCoopers Global Corporate Responsibil ity Reporting Survey of 4,500 companies in 45 countries is itself a measure of how the reporting has become · a mainstream business practice" since 1qq3, when only 12% report ed. The 2015 survey found that 73% overall reported: 7q% i n Asia Pacific. 75% in Europe, 53% in the Middle East, and 77% in the Americas now publish CR reports . In addi- t ion . 82% of the G250 companies report on carbon emissions, although KPMG found the lack of consistency in what and how they report made comparability difficult.

The triple bottom line i s integrated into the design of Victoria's Dockside Green, developed by Vancity and Windmill Developments. as a key element of its sustainability initiative.

•Based on The KPMG Survey of Corporate Responsibility Reporting 2015, November 24, 2015, accessed March 10, 2017, https:j /home.kpmg.com/ corporate responsibility reporting.2015.html; Robert Colapinto, MWorth CA

Magazjne, January,! february 2005. 30...34; Alison Arnot, "The Triple Bottom Une.H CGA Magazjne, January/February 2004. accessed http:/ jwww.cga- canada.org/eng/magazinejjan·feb04ftriple_line_e.htm: Paul Hawt<en. "McDonald's and Corporate Social ResponsibilityT April 25. 2002. accessed January 25, 2005. http:/ fwww.foodfirst.org/media; Dockside Green. "'Triple Bottom Une.H accessed September 1, 2008, http:j /docksidegreen.conv sustainability/tripfe-bottom line/triple bottom-line.html; Cement Association, "Dockside Green Development -Victoria, BC.H accessed March 10, 2017, http:j ;www.cement_cafen/Solidification-Stabilization/Dockside-Green Oevelopment·Victoria-S.C.html.

264 PART 4 REPORTS

Figure 11.2 An Informati on Report Describing How a Compan y Solved a Problem

Informal short Th: Jane Williamson reports use - ,_- From:

letter or memo Sara A. Ratterman ""'

format Marc h 14 . 2017

Subject: Recycling at Bike Nashbar

Two months ago. Bike Nashbar began recycli ng it.;;; cardboard boxes. The program was easy to irnplement and actually saves money oompared to the company's previous garbage pickup.

First paragraph r- summarizes

main points Thi.;;; report explain.o; how. why. and by whom Bike Na'lhbar's program wa.;;; initi<kted: how the program - ------- works and w hat it cost.;;: and why other businesses should consider sinlilar programs.

I Bold headings _ ------- T h e Problem of Too M any Boxes and Not Enough Space ln Bike Nashbar E\·ery week. Bike Nashbar receive. .. about40 large cardboard boxes containing bicycles and other rnerc:handise. As many boxes as possible wou ld be stuffed into the garbage bin behind the buildi ng. which also had to accommoda te all the o ther solid wa.'ae the shop produces. Boxes that didn' t fit in the gal'bage bin ended up lying around the shop. blocking a nd taking up needed for customer.o'bikes. The gat'bage bin wa.o; emptied only once a week. and by that time. even more

would have anived.

---+-,r-1 Gause of problem

Triple space ------ I before heading The Importance of Recyding Cardboard Rathe r Than Throwing It Away

Further serious- - ----- ness of proi:Jiem

capitalize ----- first letter of -

major words in heading

L02

Arrangi ng for more or n1ore freque nt p ickups wou ld have solved the im mediate pn)bfem at Bike Nashbar but would have do ne nothing to soh·e the proble m created by throwing away so muc h cardboard in the first p lac;.

r------------------------------ 1 According to David Crogen. st le.o; representative for Ma ritime Waste Management. Inc .. 75% o f all solid wa.o;te in Saint John goes to The amount of tra..o;h the city increased 150-k. in the fi ve years. Saint John's landfi ll is al most full . In an effort to encourage people and to recycle. the cost of dumping garbage in the landfi ll is doubling from $4.90 a cubic metre to $9.90 a cubic metre next week and $1 2.9 5 a cubic metre next January. Crogen believes that the amount of gal'bage can be reduced by between the landfill and the pow a- p lant. a nd by recycling.

How Bike Nash bar Start ed Recycling Cardboan1

Double space I:Jetween para- graphs within heading

An a rticle abo ut how committed Mari tinle Wa.o; te Manage ment. Inc .. is to waste reductio n and recycl ing suggested Maritime could recycle Bike Nashbar's boxes. Corrugated card board is almost I 00% recyclable. so Bike Nashbar seems to be a good candi da te for recycling . -!- Solution

with Dav id Crogen at Maritime got the service Two late r. Bike was recycling cardboard.

(continued)

I

reconunendation. Information re ports often include the fol - lowing eleme nts:

HOW TO ORGANIZE DIFFERENT KINDS OF REPORTS

• Introductory paragraph sununarizing the proble ms or s u c- cesses of the proj ect

• Purpose and s cope section(s ) giving the purpose of the report and indicating what aspects of the topic it c overs

Information, feasibility, and justification reports will be more successful whe n you work witl1 the readers' needs (see "Writing or Speaking to Multiple Audiences with Differe nt Needs" in

Chapte r 2) and expectations for that kind of report.

Information and Closure Reports Infor mation and clos ure r eports sununarize completed work or research that does not typically result in a ction or

• Chronological a ccotmt of how th e problem was discove red, what was done, and what the results were

• Concluding paragraph with s uggestions for later a ction- in a reconunendation report, the recommendations would be based on proof; in contrast, the suggestions in a closure report are n ot proved in de tail

Figure 11.2 presents an example of this kind of information or clos ure re por t. Although the example is an inte rnal report,

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 2 65

Figure 11.2 An Informati on Repo rt Describing How a Company Solved a Problem (concluded)

Reader's name, page number,

and date Jane Williamson March 14. 2017

Uow t he St-r vice Wor ks and What it II Talking heads

tell reader what to expect in each section Details of

solution -1------ Maritime rep Jac:.ed the existing Bike Nash bar b in with two 4-metre b ins picked up once a week: the contents of the white one marked "cardboard only" go to the recyc-ling plant: tho..:;e of the brown one for all other solid waste go to the landfill or pOwer plant.

Since Bike Nashbar wa..:; alreooy paying more than $60 a week for garbage piekup. the company's basic cost s1ayed the same. (Maritime can ab..:;orb the extra overhe.ad only if the eum::nt t -harg:e is at Jea..:;t $60 a week). The cost isdjvided 80!20 between the two bin..::: 801# for landfill and pc>werplant bin: 20% for the cardboard pickup. Bike Nashbar actually receie\•es $5.00 for each ton of canfboard it recycles.

Double space between

paragraphs

E mployees mu..:;t follow the.oOC rules when pulling boxes in Lhe recycl ing bin:

- • The cardboard must have the word "corru gated" printed on it. along with the uni\•e rsal recyd ing symbol. ft Indented lists

V provide visual • Tile boxes must be broken down to their flattest fom1. More boxes mean..:; more money and space. / II variety • Only oorrugated c-Ardboard can be put in the recycling bin. Other materials c.ould lxeak the /

recycling maehinery or contaminate the new cardboard . • The recycl ing b in is to be kept loc-ked with a padlock prO\'ided by Maritime so that theft

does not Jose money for Mari time and Bike Na...:;hba.r.

Minor Problems "1th Runnlng tht Recycling Program Disadvantages _ The only problems have been m inor violatio ns of the rules. Sometimes e mployees a t the shop forget

of solution .------ to flatten boxes: sometimes people forget to Jock the recycling bin. Cardboard has been stolen. and plastic c ups and other solid wa.:;te dumped in the cardboanl bin. Posted now rem ind employees to e mpty and fold boxes a nd re loc k the b in.

Adva ntages or tht Recycling Program The program is a great success.. The company depends o n a dean. safe em1ironment for people to ride Advantages of their bikes in. Now the oompany has. beoome part of the solutjon. By c hoosing to recyC-le and reduce __ _,.,

11 r-- soluu·on

the amount of solid waste the company generates. it can ean also s.ave money while gaining a reputation - as a socially res.pons.ible bus iness..

\Vhy Other Compan ies Should Adopl Similar Programs BlL.:; iness.es and ins;tj tution..:; in the regio n currentl y recycle le..:;s than 4% o f their solid waste. David Crogen ha..:; over 8.000 C-Lients. in Saint John alone. and he acquires new ones e\'CI)' day. Many o f these

Argues that I ----- bus.jnes.ses can recycle a large pOrtion of the ir solid was.te at no additional c.ost. Depending on what her company's they recyc-le. they may even get mo ney back.

experience is .- releVant to other The environmental and economic benefits o f recycling as part of a c.omprehe nsive was.te red uc tion

program are numerous.. Recycling helps preser\'e the environme nL 1be same materials can be used over companies and over again. saving natural resources such as. treeS. fuel. and metals. a nd decreasing the amo unt of

solid wa..:;te in landfills. Crogen predicL.:; that Sajnt John wi ll be o n a 100% recycling s.yste m by the year 2020. Bike Na..:;hbar's. in vestment may just prove th at he is. right.

it uses third-p erson fonn al writing to stre ngthen its c redibility (see "Presenting Wonn ation Effective ly in Reports" later in this chapter).

Feasibilit y Reports F e asibility r eports evaluate two or more a lternatives and reconunend one of tltem. (Doing nothing or d elaying a ction can be one of the a lternatives.)

Feasibility reports n ormally ope n by e xplaining tlt e d eci- s ion to be made, listing the alternatives, a nd the cri- teria. In the body of the report, ea ch alternative is eva lua ted a ccording to the criteria using o ne of the two comparison/con- trast patterns. Discussing ea c h a lternative separately is be t- te r whe n one alternative is clearly s upe rior, when the c riteria

266 PART 4 REPORTS

inte rac t, and when each alternative is indivisible. If the choice depe nds on the we ight give n to e ach c rite rion, you may want to discuss ea c h a lte rnative under ea c h c riterion.

Whe ther your reconmtenda tion sh ould come a t the begin- ning or the e nd of tlte report d epends on your readers a n d the c ulture of your organization. Most readers want the "bottom line" upfront Howe ver, if readers will find your recommenda- tion hard to a ccept, you may want to de lay it tmtil the e nd of the report after you have given all your evid en ce.

Justifi cation Reports

Jus tification r e po rts recommend or justify a purc hase, inv estment, hiring, or ch ange in polic y. If your organization has a stand ard fo nnat for justification reports, follow that

fomtallf you can c hoose your headings and organization, use this direct pattern when your reconm1endation will be easy for your reade r to accept:

I. Indicate w hat g o o are asking for and wh y it is neede d. Since readers have not asked for the report, you must link your req_uesl to the organization's goals.

2. Brie fly give the back ground of the pro blem or need. 3. Explain e a ch or the p ossib le solutio ns. For each, give

the cost and the advantages and disadvantages. 4. S um marize the action n eed e d t o imple me nt your

r ecomnten datio n. If se, ·eral people will be invoh·ed, indi- cate who will do what and how long each step -..ill take.

5. Ask for the action y ou want.

If readers will be re luctant to grant your request, use this variation of the indirect problem-solving pattern described in

I. Descr ibe the o r ganizational proble m ( which your req_uest wUI s olve). Use specific examples to prove the seriousness of the proble m.

2. Sh ow wh y easie r or less e xpe nsive solutions will not s olve th e proble m.

3. Pr esen t your solutio n Impe rsonally. 4. S h ow that t h e d isad van tages of y o ur s olution are out;..

weigh e d b y the a dv antages. 5. S ummarize the action need e d t o imple me nt your r ec-

ommenda tion . If several people will be involved, indicate who will do what and how long each step will take.

6. Ask fo r t h e a ction y o u want .

How much detail you give in a justification report depends on the corporate culture and on your reader's knowledge of and attitude toward your reconrmendation.

Progress Reports

When you are assigned to a single project that -..ill take a month or more, you will probably be asked to flle one or more progress reports. A progress report (see Figure 11.3) reassures that you are making progress and allows for prob- lems to be resolved as they arise. Different readers may have different concerns. For instance, a professor may want to know whether IJOU will meet your deadline, while a cli- ent may be more interested in what you a re learning a bout the problem. Adapt your progress report and its headin gs to tJ1e audience.

A study of llle progress reports in a large research and development organization fow1d that poor writers tended to focus on what I hey had done and said very little about the value of their work. Good writers, in contrast, spent less space on details and much more space eJo..-plaining the value of their work for the organization. 1

Subject lines for progress reports are straightforward Specify the project on whicllyou are reporting your progress.

For example:

S ubject: Progress on Group Survey on Campus Parking

You may need to include a heading "Background" if read- ers need to be reminded of or educated on the background to the report

Make your progress report as positive as you honestly can. You will build a better inmge of yourself if you show you can take minor problems in stride and you are confident of your own abilities.

x Negative: I have not deviated markedly from my schedule, and I feel that I will have very little trouble completing this report by the due date.

,. Positive: I am back on schedule and expect to complete my report by the due date.

Progress reports can be organized in three ways: by cllro- nology, by task, and in support of a recommendation.

The chronological pattern of organization focuses on what you have done and what work remains.

I. Summarize you r progress in ter ms of your goals and your original s che d ule. Use measurable statements.

x Poor: My progress has been s low. ,. Better: The research for my report Is about one-third

complete.

2. Unde r the heading " Work Comple t e d ," d escr ibe what y o n have done. Be specific, both to support your claims in the first paragraph and 10 allow readers to appreciate your hard work. Acknowledge tlle people who ha,·e helped you. Describe any serious obstacles you have encountered and tell how you ha\'C dealt with t.hern.

x Poor: I have found many articles about Procter & Gamble on the Web. I have had a few problems find ing how the company keeps employees safe from chemical fumes.

,. Better: On the Web, I found Procter & Gamble's home page, Its annual report, and mission statement. No one whom I interviewed could tell me about safety programs specifically at P&G. I have found seven articles about ways to protect workers against pollution in factories. but none mentions P&G.

3. Under the h eadin g "Work to Be Comp leted ," d escribe the work that r e mains. If you are more than three days late (for school projects) or two weeks late (for business proj ects), submit a new schedule showing how you will be able to meet the original deadline. Depending on the length and complexity of t11e report, you may use a head- ing "Potential Problems and Solutions. • You may want to discuss "Preliminary Conclusions• if you want feedback before writing the final report or if your readers have asked for substantive interim reports.

4. Either e xpress your confiden ce in having the report ready by the due date or request a conferen ce to discuss extending the due date o r limiting the proj ect if you are

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS • 26 7

Figure 11.3 A Student Chronological Progress Report

"' 'fl:Summarile results in terms

of purpose, - schedule

.r Underline headings or

bold

.r Be very specific aiXJut

what you·ve done and how

you've over- come problems

.r Show how you've

overcome minor problems

and solutions to potential

problems

.r Specify the work that

remains

To: lsobd M. Findlay

From: David G. Bunnel DCfg Date: November 10. 2017

Subjc<:t: Progress on Software Feasibility Study for the Architcdure Firm Putrid and

I have obtained most of the infonnation necessary to reoommend whether CADAM or CATIA is better for Putrid and As.wc--i.ates.lnc. (P&A). l am currently analyzing and organizing this information and am on sc,hcdule.

Baekg_r ound

To Jearn how computer literate P&A employees are. I inter\'iewed a j udgment sample of fi\'e employees. My interview with Bruce Ratekin. the director of P&A ' s Computer-AWed Design (CAD) Department. on No\'ember 3 e nabled me to determine the an:hitecturul dr.1fting needs of the finn. Mr. Ratekin also gave me a basic dr.twing of a bui lding showing both two- and three-dimensional views so that I could repHc.ate the drawing with both software packages .

I obtained tutorials for both packages to use as a re-ference while making the drawings. First I drew the building using CADAM. the package designed primarily for twtH!imensiunal architectuml drawings. 1 encountered problems with the: isometric drawing then: was a mistake in the manual ) was us ing: 1 fixed the problem by trying alternati ves and fi nall y getting help from another CADAM user. Next 1 used CA TIA. the package whose strength is thrce4 dimensional drawings. to c.·onstruct the drawing .

I am in the process of comparing the two packages on these <.Titeria: quality of drawing. ease of data entry (lines. poinL<>. surfaces. etc.) for computer expert.<> and novices. and ease of making changes in the <."'mpleted drawings. on my experi ence with the pack.uges. I ha\'e analyzed the trnining people with and without experi ence in CAD would need to learn to use eac.h of these packages.

Making the drawings has shown that neither of the packages can do everything that P&A needs. There-fore. I want to in\'estigate the feasibility of P&A' s buying both pac kages .

As soon as he comes back from an unexpected illness that has kept him out of the office .. 1 w ill meet with Tom Merrick. the CAD systems prog.mmmer for Mount Royal Uni\'ersity. to Jearn about software expansion flexibility for both packages us well as the <.'Osts for initial instnllati on. main tenance. and software updates. After this meeting. 1 will be ready to begin the first draft of my report.

Whether I am ab le to meet my deadline will depend on when I am able to meet with Mr. Merric k. Right now. I am on schedule and plan to submit my report by the Dc:cember 10 deadline.

- .r Indicate changes in pur- pose, scope, or recommenda- tions. Progress report is a /ow-risk way to bring the read- ers on board.

.r End on a positive note

behind your original schedule, show why you think you can still finish the project on time.

Under each heading, the group could discuss the tasks it has completed and those that remain.

In a task progress report, organize information under the various tasks you have worked on during the period. For example, a task progress report for a group report proj ect might use these headings:

Finding Background Informat ion in Print and Digital Resources

Analyzing Our Survey Data

Working on the Introduction of the Report and the Appendices

268 PART 4 REPORTS

Rerommen.dntion progress reports recommend action: increasing the funding for a project, changing its direction, cancelling a project that isn't working out When the recom- mendation will be easy for readers to accept, use the persua- sive direct req_uest pattern of organization from •• Chapter 9. If the recommendation is likely to meet stron g resis- tance, the indir ect problem-solving pattern may be more effective.

Trip, Conference, and Workshop Reports Busin esses want to know the benefi ts o f bu s iness trips or conference or workshop participation they have sup- ported. Typically s ubmitted to supervisors on return to

the office, these repor ts clarify the value to th e participant and the business of the learning (such as about new pro· cedures, regulations, software, o r equipment) and other opportunities (networking, potential or completed deals, for instance).

Trip reports (see Figure 11.4) should be organized the audience in mind to evaluate what the writer accomplished on the trip. They should avoid merely enumerating a chron· ological list of activities and/or listing activities, tin1es, and e11:penses.

Using a direct pattern of organization, trip reports include these parts:

• Introd u ction. Where you went, when you went, why you went there, and report overview.

Figure 11.4 A Student Trip Report

• Bod g . What you achieved, how you and the business benefit, and what the trip cost (expenses may be listed separately).

x Poor: After registration at 8 :30a.m., the first speaker at q:oo a.m. started the seminar with a talk on evidence-based management.

-" Better: The highlight of the morning was keynote speaker Joan Reynolds, who engaged her audience with examples of evidence-based management in action: sharing decision making, learning from mistakes. and saving lives in the process.

• Con clusion. Exp resses thanks for the opportunity and summarizes value. Close may a lso include reconunenda- tions on future trips.

Refer to Figure 3.3 for a planning guide for a trip report.

To: Dean Susan l Andrews. Wilson Business School

From: Joonne La.ehance !'t Date: February 20.2017

Subject: Connections 2017: A Valuable inve...:;tment in Learning

Attending the February 18 bu..:;i ne..:;s semjnar Connectjons 2017 SpOn..:;ored by the Wilson Business School at the Trade Centre taught me more than I had expected. Networking with business leaderS. gathering informatio n from the trnde show. and listening to keynote Speakers and the panel of Wilson graduates led me to l'e\'alue connection.s and my own diven:;e experience. Although I ab::o saw impres...:;i"e oral pr-esentation skills. got adv ic.e on social networking etiquette. and ga.i ned crucial contacts. my repOrt focuse..:; on what I learned about how my C-lasses and extracurricular experience c.an help me get an interview and land my dream job in human resource management.

Connecting Work, Edutati<m.al, and Extracur ricular Ex-pe rien<:t'

Before the seminar I looked for-ward to learning from cootacts in the real world. but I underestimated the experience of the classroom and the SpOrt..:; arena. When I listened to Jes..:;e Steeves. Wilson gruduate and Olympic rower. talk about returnin g from the Ol)' mpics wi th "absolutely nothing to put o n his resume." his a..:;ses...:;ment made sense at finn. Focused on training. towelling to competition. and winning medals. he had left room ooly for his academic oommitmenu. He had no "real" experience for the human resources positioos he wan ted. But a me ntor helped him see how for years he had been putting theory into practice in class and extracurricular settings. Only then did he redesign his str.negy. make vi..:;ible hi..:; assets. and land his job as HR Manager.

Making the Val ue of Dh'erSe Ex-perien<:t'

JlL.:;t a..:; Steeves learned to rea..:;sess the leadership. teamwork. time management. interpersonal. and oommunic-ation skills he had refi ned over his yearS in sport..:; and school. so I am now rethinking (a) how I benefit from my cJa..:;ses and my c.ommitment to intercollegiate S()(.'Cer and (b) how I can pre..:;ent that experience as busines...:; asset..:;.

I now recognize benefit in boUl the topic and process of cJa..:;s group work. adapting to different perspecti\•es. learning styles. and work schedules. Instead of thinking of cJa..:;s projects a..:; make-work. I a.rn now determined to make them work for me in my profe..:;sional develOpment str.ueg.y. My soccer too is no longer just about keeping fit but about keeping prepared for my profe..:;sional fu ture.

Getting a Good Re turn on ln n""S tmenl

In conclusion. I did Je-arn from the real world. although not in the ways I had expected. In addition to making some good contacts and acquiring some useful professional tips. I le-arned how work. schooL and SpOrts t -an c.omplement ruther than compete with one another and help build the well-rou nded candidate businesses seek today. I am grateful for this oppor-tunity. Continuing to sponsor the annual Connections seminar i..:; an impOrtant investment in the professional development of all our stude nu.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 26q

:... I I I 1.. I I I I •• " _• I I o L I·- • "• o •- I • "• _. L• o " _ • "• '_1_ j "• -L -' -_.

Progress reports can do more than jus t report progress. You can use progress re ports to do the following: • Enhance your Image. Deta ils about the number of docu-

ments you have read, people you have surveyed, or experi· ments you have conducted create a picture of a ha rdworking person doing a thorough job.

• Float trial balloons. Explain, "I could continue to do X !what you approved!; I could do Y ins tead !what I would like to do now]." The detail in the progress report can he lp back

L03

WRITING PROPOSALS By suggesting a method for fmding information or solving a p roblem, proposals he lp an organization decide whe ther to change, how to change, o r h ow to implement a chan ge that is agreed on (see Figure 11.5).

Proposals have two goals: to get the proj ect accep ted a nd to get you accep ted to do the j ob. In defining the problem a nd purpose, you a lready consider a udien ce needs. Depending on prop osal content and reader expectations, you will choose your organizational s trategy-direct or indirect. Whe n readers may be receptive to your findings, use the direct pattern (see

Figure 9. 1 ). Wh en readers are unfamiliar with the content o r may be reluctant to accept the p roposal, use the indirect p at· tern Figure 9.3) to prepare them for your findings.

Proposals must stress reade r benefits and provide spe· cific su pporting details. Attention to de ta ils-including good v isual impact a n d proofreading- h elps establish your profes· s iona l intage and su ggests that you would give the same care to the project if your proposal is accepted. See •• Figures 10.7 a n d 10.8 for unaccep table an d good examples of p roposal introductions.

up your cla im. Even if the idea is rejected, you don't lose fa ce because you have n't made a separate issue of the alternative.

Minimize potential problems. As you do the work, it may become clear that implementing your recommendations wi ll be difficult. In your regular progress reports, you can alert your boss or the fu nding agency to the challe nges that lie ahead, enabling them to prepare ps ychologically and cally to act on your recommendations.

To write a good p rop osal, you need to have a clear view of the p ro blem an d the kind o f research or other action need ed to s olve it. A proposal must answer tl1e following q,uestions convinc ingly:

• What prob lem will y ou s o lve? Defin e the p roblem as the a udience sees it, even if y ou believe tltat the present- ing pro blem is part of a larger problem tl1at must firs t be solved.

• Bow will you solve it? Prove tltat your me tl1ods a nd time- lines are feasible and tltat your solution is economic an d efficient. Sp ecify the topics you will investigate. Explain how y ou will gatl1e r data.

• What e xac tlg will you prov ide? Specify the tangible products you will produce; explain how you will evaluate them.

• Ca n y ou d e liv e r what you p r omise? Show tl1at you have the knowledge, the staff, and the facilities to do what you say you will. Describe your previous work in this area, your other q,ualifications, a n d the q,ualifications of any people who will be helping you.

• What benefit s can you offe r ? Show why the compan y sh ould hire you. Discuss the benefits-direct and indirect- that your firm can provide.

Figure 11.5 Relationship among Situation, Proposal, and Final Report

COMPANY' S CURRENT SITUATION

We don't know whether we should change.

We need to;want to change, but we don' t know exactly what we need to do.

We need to;want to change, and we know what to do, but we need he lp doing it.

THE PROPOSAL OFFERS TO

Assess whether change is a good idea

Develop a plan to achieve the desired goal

Implement the plan, increase (or decrease) measurable outcomes

THE FINAL REPORT WILL PROVIDE

Insight, recommending whether change is desirable

A pla n for achieving the desired change

A record of the implementation and evaluation process

Source: Adapted from Richard C. Freed. Shervin Freed, and Joseph 0. Romano. W)'iting Winning Proposals: Your Guide ro Landing the Client. Making the Sale, Persuading rhe Boss (New York: McGraw-Hill . 1qq5), 21.

270 • PART 4 REPORTS

• When will you c om plete the work? Provide a detailed schedule showing when each phase of the work will be completed.

• H ow much will y o u charge? Provide a detailed budget that includes costs for materials, salaries, and overhead

Government agencies and companies oft en issue req,u ests for p roposals ( RFPs). Follow the RFP exactly wh en you respond to a proposal. Evaluators look only under the head- ings specified in the RFP. If information isn't there, the pro- posal gets no points in that category.

Proposals for Class Research Projects A proposal for a student report usually has the following sections:

I. In your fllSt paragraph (no heading), summarize in a few sentences the topic and purposes of your report, explaining its benefits and giving an o\·erview of its contents.

2. Problem. What organizational problem (or challenge or opportunity) exists? What is at issue? Why does it need to be solved? Is t11ere a history or background that is relevant?

3. Feasibility. Can a solution be found in the time available? How do you know?

4. Audie n ce. Who in the organization would have the power to implement your reconm1endation? What secondary audiences might be asked to evaluate your report? What audi- ences would be affected by your reconm1endation? \Vill any- one in the organization serve as a gatekeeper, detemlining whether your report is sent to decision makers? What watch- dog audiences might read the report?

For each of these audiences and for your initial audience (your professor), give the person's name, job title, and busi- ness address and answer the following q_uestions:

• What is the audience's majo r concern or priority? • What will the audience see as advantages of your proposal? • What objections, if any, are readers likely to have? • How interested is the audience in the topic of your report? • I low much does the audience know about the topic of your

report? • What terms, concepts, eq_uations, or assumptions may need

to be explained? • liow do your readers affect the report content, organiza-

tion, or style?

5. Topics to inves tigate. List the q_ucstions and s ubq_ues- tions you will answer in your report, the topics or concepts you will explain, and the aspects of the problem you will discuss. Indicate how deeply you will examine each and explain your rationale.

6. Meth ods/p rocedure. How will you get answers to your q,uestions? Whom "'ill you interview or survey? Provide a draft of your q_uestions. What published sources will you use? Give the full bibliographic references.

7. Qualificatlons/facilitiesfresources. Do you have the knowl- edge and skills needed to conduct this study? Do you have adeq_uate access to the organization? Do you have access to eq_uipment to conduct your research (e.g., computer, books, etc.)? Where wiD you get help if you hit an unex-pected snag? You will be more convincing if you have already scheduled an interview and checked out books or online sources.

8. Wo r k sch e d ul e . List the date when you expect to finish each of the following activities:

• Gathering information • Analyzing information • Preparing the progress report • Organlzing infom1ation

• Writing the drafl • Revising the draft • Preparing the visuals

• Editing the draft • Proofreading the report

Organize your work schedule either in a chart or in a cal- endar. A good schedule provides realistic estimates for each activity, allows time for unexpected snags, and shows that you can complete the work on time. 9. Call to action. In your fmal section, invite any suggestions

your professor may ha\'e for inlpro,'ing the research plan. Ask your professor to appro\'e your proposal so that you can begin work on your report. Figure I LG shows a student proposal for a long report writ-

ten in third-person in tile interests of objectivity.

Proposals for Action

You can write a proposal for action or change in your orga- nization. NormalllJ, proposals for action reconunend new pro- granlS or ways to solve organizational problems.

Organize a proposal for action as a direct req_uest ( .. Chapter 9). Explain in detail how your idea could be imple- mented. Be sure to answer your readers' q,uestions and to overcome objections.

Sales Proposals

To sell goods, ideas, or services, you may be asked to submit a proposal.

Be sure that you understand the buyer's priorities. Do not asstmle that the bulJer wiD understand why your product or sys- tem is good. Show tile reader benefits ( .. Chapter 2) and present the benefits using you.attitude ( .. Chapter 2). Consider using psy- chological description ( .. Chapter 9) to make the benefits vivid.

t;se language appropriate for your audience. E,·en if tile buyers want a system, they may not want the level of detail 1J1at your staff could provide; they n1ay not understand or appreciate technical jargon (-. Chapter 3).

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS • 271

Figure 11.6 Proposal for a Student Report Using Survey, On line, and Library Research

To: lsobel .M. Find lay

From: Elizabeth Ryan

Date: March 19. 2017

I

"" In subject line l ) lndicate

that this is a proposal

..,. Summarize Subject: Proposal to W rite a Problem-Solving Report Recommending W ays co Increase Student

Attendance Rates at Uni\•ers:ity of Saskatc-hewan Huskies Women ·s Basketball Games

----r 2) Specify the ----- kind of report

topic and pur- -r---.. poses of report I Uni\tersity o f Saskatchewan ( U ofS) Husl::ics men·s bastctball team is a crowd p lcaser. selling o ut home:

games in good years.. Howe\'er. the women ·s basketball team suffers from low attendance: figures ex.ttpt w he n they make the playoffs. H usk:ie A thle tics would like to find ways to inc rease attendance thro ughout the: season. The proposal is to survey students. intervie:W staff of HusJ::ie Athletics. a nd read online and print Sotll'CeS to find sol utions co the: problem.

3 ) Specify the topic

"" If "Problem• (Challenge and

Opportunity) ---- "" Some reports will need a "Background" _ section so that the reader can understand what led to the problem statement

section is detailed and --l---- we/1 written, you may be

able to use it unchanged in

your report

"" Convince your professor that you have a backup plan -r--- if your original

proposal proves unworkable

"" Show how

Challe.OJ:e. a nd Opportunity

The Physical Activities Complex (PAC) ho lds 2 .400 fans. but s ince the PAC's inceptio n in 2003. tbc: wome n H usl::ies ha\'C: played tx-fore mao;ses of empty seats.. Despite: growing success 0\'e r the last few years.. including Cana da West titles (2006. 2011. 2014. 2016. 2017). o nly once: has attendance: come close co capocity: 2 .237 a t chc: Canada Wesa championship game: on .M.ntt'h 5. 201 1. The: previo us high had been 700 a t a women's o nly game (Tem Schneider. personal communicatio n. March )(). 2017).

Still. tbc: figures remain d isappointing. though they are a t lcast40% better tha n in the close to 20 years tlw the: team m issed the: p layoffs. The: opportun ity to buikl student a tte nda nce is great a t a time w he n students tt: present only 30'ii. o( overall a ttendance (Tera Schneider. prrsonal communication. Marc-h I 0. 20 17).

Husl::ic A thle tics woukllike to incre.ase attendance:. particula r ly student attendance:. a t women's basketbal l games.. S tu de nt attendance: builds school spirit and the momle o( student athletes.

t<u.sibili ly

Since basketball is a popular sport. it seems li kel y that a ttc:ndance can be increased. Cenainly saudents respond to marketing appeals for sports a nd other products.. If tbc: repon is unable to de monstrate that possible stmtegies will increase a tte nda nce. it will show readers w hy the: obvio us soluti ons won ' t work a nd recomme nd that the uniw:rs.ity h i.re a professional sports mattccing consulting fmn.

Audience

your audiences All the: report a ud iences arc: a t least somc:wha t interesaed in incre.asing None of thc:m is hosai le. will affect how _....J._---- can be presented starightforwardly. Tile copic is not cechnicaL so no gk>ssary will be you'll present information in

your report

"" Ust your major audi- ences ----1-- Identify their knowledge, interests, and concerns

(conunued)

In the case of long proposals, provide a one-page cover Jet- ter in a modified version of the sales pattern in •• Chapter 9:

• Catch your re aders' a ttention and sununarize up to three major be nefits.

a n d proposals submitted to a founda tion, a corporation, a gove rnme nt agen cy, or a re ligious agen cy. In a proposal for funding, stress t11e needs your project will meet and show how your project h elps fulfill the goals of the funding organization.

• Discuss ea ch of the major benefits in the order they a re lis ted in the first paragraph.

• Deal with any objections or concerns your readers may hav e.

• Mention other benefits briefly. • Ask readers to approve your propos a l; provide a reason for

a cting promptly.

Proposals for Funding Proposals for funding include both b usiness plans (i.e., doc- ume nts w ritten to raise capital for ne w busin ess ve ntures)

272 PART 4 REPORTS

Every funding source has certain priorities; s ome have de ta iled lists of the kind of projects they fund. For instance, Imagine Canada's Grant Connect, the ne w g eneration of Canadian Directo•y to Foundations and Co1porations, is a bilingual online directory listing funding resources releva nt to those working in the vo luntary sector.

Figuring the Budget and Costs

For a c las s research project, you may not be asked to pre- pare a budget (as in Figure 11.6). Howev er, a good budget

Figure 11.6 Proposal for a Student Report Using Surve y, Online, and Library Research (continued)

"' Indicate what you'll discuss

briefly and what you'll discuss

in more This Jist should

match your audience's

concerns

"' All items inlistmust

I:Jegrammatl- __.- cally parallel. Here, all are

q,uestions.

"' If you'll administer a

SUNey OrCOt>- dUCt inteNiews,

tell how many __.. subjects you'll

have, how you'll choose them,

a nd what you'll ask them.

to \\ftite a Report 011 :u: U o f S HU:Sbf:s Wmt)(>n'i 8ad:i.'1ball Gan'les M:uclt 19.2017 P..1ge2

lbc primary audirnce will be Athletic Oirc:ctor Basil Hug:hton. who can accept or reject recommendations. He is intercsaed in women's basketball and is knO"A'kdg_eablc about sports martccing.

Secondary audiences co this report include staffers in HusJ::i c Athletics wbo will implement the recommendatio ns.. lbc coaching staff of the: basketball team may be: asked to c\•atuatc the: n-pon. Finally. p layers and students arc: part of the secondary aud;encc. Players benefit from student support at games. and the students arc: the people being targeted for increased a ttenda nce. Only a few o( these secondary audiences will be very interested in the report.

Dr. Findlay w ill be: the initi n1 audience. Shoe has ex plained that she likes men ·s basketball but has nc:vcr been 10 a women ·s bastctba11 game. e\·cn tthough se\·cnd of bet fri ends ha\'C: season tickets.

Topics lo

lbesc questions will be: a nswered in detai l: I. W hld factors affect saudent auenda.nce'!

• Why do the saudents who attend women·s basketball games do so'! • Why do the saudents who don' t attend stay away? • Wha t promocions o r publ icity could make students more likely to attend'!

2. How can student aW'arcncss o f the team be increased'! • What short·lerm strategies exisa? • Wha t lo ng 4 term sttategies exist'! • Does it make sense 10 market the 1eam to fe male: a udi ences?

3. W ould a loyalty program hc:lp'! • What programs arc: a\·ai lable. and whld is invoh'c:'d'! • Wha t arc some uni\·crsity examples of programs?

lbc report will briefly discuss how attendance and newspaper publicity correlate: to the win/loss record . Neither the: cost nor the rc:tum on im•estment of the rc:commendations will be discussed. Nor w ill the tt"potl discuss how c ha nges in coaching or recruiting might affect attendance.

"' If it is well written, the ' Topics to Investigate• section will become the 'Scope· section of the report- with minor revisions

"' Indicate any topics rel- evant to your report that you choose not to

Data. w ill come: from four sources: (I) SUI'Vc:"YS (draft attached) of a convenience: s.ampk of 50 to 100 students a t the Students" Union. (2) intc:n•icws w ith members of H uskie Athletics. (3) obscf\•atio ns o f mattcting tactics on campus and in Sast.atchc:wan. and (4) library and ooline sources about a ttenda nce: at basketball games.

(continued)

discuss

is crucial to making the winning bid for many proposals. Ask for everything you need to do a q,uality job. Asking for too little may lead the funder to think you don't unders tand the project scope.

Think about exactly what needs to be done and who will do it What supplies or materials will be needed? Also think about indirect costs for office space, retirement and health benefits, salaries, office supplies, administration, and infrastructure.

Read the RFP to find out what is and isn' t fundable_ Talk to the program officer a nd read successful proposals to find answers to these q,uestions:

• What size projects will the organization fund in theory?

• Does t11e ftmder prefer making a few big grants or many s maller grants?

• Does the funder expect you to provide in-kind or cost- s haring funds from other sources?

Mak e the basis of your estimates specific.

x Weak: 75 hours of transcribing interviews $1 ,875 "' Better: 25 hours of interviews; a skilled transcriber

can comple te 1 hour of interviews in 3 hours; 75 hours @ $25/hour $1 ,875

Figure your m unbers conservatively. For example, even if you might be able to train someone and pay only $18 an hour, use the going rate of $25 an hour_ Then, even if your grant is cut, you still will be able to do the proj ect well.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 2 73

Figure 11.6 Proposal for a Student Report Using Survey, On line, and Library Research (continued)

.r If you're using library or Web research,

list sources you hope to use. Use full bibliographic

citations.

.r Allow plenty of time! Good reports need

good revision, editing, and

proofreading as well as good

research.

L04

Propoo.sal w Wrire • Reroo1nv.•:lldat.on Ri-pl)tt on Atknd:ltiCe :u U ofS Huskies &sketblll Ganles M:ltdt 19. 201 7

The following websitcs with additional links have already bec:n idc:ntir.ed:

Canadian ASSOC'iation for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity. (2017). Website. Retrie\'Cd from hup:/lwww.caaws.ca/

Canadian lnteruni\tel'Sity Spon. (201 7). Website. Rccrieved from http:J/www.un ivcrsityspon.ca

----1''--1 "' This list uses APA format

Q ualification..;

The resc.archct is a student majoring in Martccing at the University of Saskatchewan and a sports fan who would like to see the student commun ity offer more: support to the: H uskies. Tem Schneider of Huskie Spons Information can gi\te access to key personnel.

Work

The following schc:duk will enable rc:pon compktion by the end of the: summer tenu (Augusa 3 1 2017).

Acth;ty Gathering information An.nJyzing information Organizing information Preparing the progress report Writing the: dmftfcreating visuaJs RC\•ising the d:mftlvisuals Editing the: draft Proofreading the report Preparing PowerPoint slides

Call lo Action

Total T ime 15 bouts )()bouts 7 hours 3 hours 15 hours 12bours 5 hours 3 hours 5 hours

Comple tion Date July6 July 19 July25 July 30 August6 August 10 August 13 August 20 August 20

A conference: to discusslhc: draft proposal and suggestions co impnwe it would be: a ppreciated. Approval of the d:mft wil l penuit research and report comp letion by August 3 1.2017.

(continued)

.r Cite knowl- edge and skills from other classes, jobs, and activities that will enable you to conduct the research and interpret your data. If you've already done some of the work, say so

.r Time needed will depend on the length and topic of the report, your knowledge of the topic, and your writing skills

.r It's tactful to indicate you'll accept sugges- tions. End on a positive note.

PRESENTING INFORMATION EFFECTIVELY IN REPORTS

Bertolt Brecht has argued, "You cannot just write the trut11; you have to write it for and to somebody, somebody who can do something with it. •

In sum, investment in careful planning, research, and revision yields significant returns, and helps repor1s highlight profitable initiatives and shape business futures. The advice about style in

3 also applies to repons, \vith three exceptions: Careful writing is as critical to effective reports as the care- ful planning, research, a nd analysis discussed Chapter 10. Effective writing is effective revision. Careful revision changes t11e organization, argument, and wording to meet your purposes and your audience's n eeds, while ensuring the report's accuracy, clarity, and credibility.

Careful revision clarifies the key messages as well as the headings and other design elements ( Chapter 4) that will make your document reader-friendly and action-oriented. As

274 PART 4 REPORTS

1. Use a fairly formal s t y le , wi thout con tractions or s lang. In the interests of objectivity, avoid t11e word I and such phrases as "1/we think/believe .... " Report credibility depends on the use of you-attitude, positive emphasis, and bias-free language ( Chapter 2).

2. Avoid t he word yo!L. In a document with multiple audi- ences, it will n ot be clear who you is. Instead, use the

Figure 11.6 Proposal for a Student Report Using Survey, Online, and Library Research (concluded)

..,. Start with easy-to-answer

q,uestions

..,. The words

Suney: Why Do S tuden ts Altend AthJetic Events '!

The purpose of this survey is to determine why students attend sport....; and what might increase attendance. All infonn.uion is to be used .solely for a student research paper. Please return completed surveys to Eliz.abelh or Vicki at the Students;' Unio n. Thank you for your assistance!

I. M F

2. Wha t is your rank? cil'dt) 2 3 4 G rad Other

3. How do you feel about wonlen'.s spons?

..,. In your intro-

l ductory '1. 1) Tell how to

--- return the survey

2 ) Tell how the information will be used.

2 3 4 ..,. Seeing a below each 1 C'njay .. -;, .. ,..,., n 1 ··.m. bit it WOI!Ilt-n·, 5pcl'b :.reburinsf response in

numberanchor •umC'n·,lp«b lb:ln' t tt'llllym:.tt« l'dtalhl!r •·.mmell·$,pottl ------l asutVeycan responses, "' 4. Do you l ike to auend U of S men's games or l isten on the radi o? (Picasecirl.'lc) make respon-

while still allow- y N dents more lng you to aver- willing to admit

age the data 5. How o ften do you aue nd U of S garnes? (Please citde) to feelings they numerically 1 2 3 4 5 may be embar-

A IL'II:IQIIp.me5 rassed to admit 6. If you do not <'me nd all o f the wo me n's basketbaJ I games. w hy not? (Pkii'IC' ch«k aJI 1b&

..,. Think about factors that

alllhe' gamu. thought 10 go.

_ I don 'c like ba.stctb311. _ I don 'c like s-poning events. _ Tbe team is-n ·,good enough.

friends are 001 interested in going. _ I w--:tm co g.o. I just h:rven't b:ld the opportunity.

affect the ----- problem you're .-

studying, and _ G::une time (6:15 '·"'•.)i$ IC:SSrotwcnicm than for men's play(8:00P.M.) _ Tbc cictcts cost 100 mucb for friends without U of S 10 cards ($8).

write survey ctuestions to

get information about them.

_ Otbcr (plcascspcc:ify) ___________________ _

7. To what exte nt wou ld each o f t he follow ing make you more likely to attend a U of S women's basketball r:mk all)

I 2 3 Mud! moR"Iikdy 1o :dtmd P00ibly ln!Jn" litdy

_ lfiCreased aw:torencu on campus {Oyct$. bullC'tin boords. more :miclts in The Sheo/J _.\1arl::cting to uudcnts (gh\".aways.. da)'$ for ttsidtnct balls or slll«m socictiC$) _srudcm Jo)'alt)' program {ll .... •arding points toY.-'ard$ free 1icteu. clothing. food for :utending games) _ Education (pocl:.ct guide explaining lhc ruks of the ,anll' provided at lhc 'lite) _ Oibct(pltasc sp.xify>--------------------

..,. Repeat Than k you! where to tum

return this survey to Eliz.abeth or Vicki at the Unio n.- - - - - - - - -1!!-- in or mail com-

c ompany name. Avoiding "you" stre ngthens the tact and objectiv ity of the report, helping depe rsonalize and av oid the implication that indiv iduals wer e responsible for the report problem.

3. Inclu de in the report all t he inf ormation , defini tions , and d ocumen ts n eeded t o understan d the conclu - sions and reco mmendations. TI1e multiple audiences for reports include readers who may consult the document months or years from now; they will not share your special knowl- edge. E.xplain acronyms and abbreviations the first time they appear. Explain the history or bac kground of the problem. Add as appendices previous documents on which you are building.

The following four points apply to any kind of writing, but they are partic ularly important in reports whethe r y ou submit pape r copy or onlin e (i.e., PDF attac hed).

pleted surveys

1. Say What You Mean

Not-q,uite-right word c hoices a re particularly damaging in reports, which may be s kinm1ed by readers who know very little about th e s ubject. Occasionally you can simply substitute a word.

x Incorrect:

..,. Corre ct:

With these recommendations, we ca n overcome the solutions to our proble m. With these recommendations, we ca n overcome our problem.

..,. Also corre ct: With these recommendations, we ca n solve our problem .

Putting the meaning of your sentence in the ve rbs will h elp you say what you mean.

x Vague: My re port revolves a round the checkout lines and the methods used to get price che cks when they arise.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 275

., Better: The report shows how price checks slow checkout lines and recommends ways to reduce the number of price checks needed.

2. Tighten Your Writ ing

Eliminate lllUlecessary words, use gerunds and infinitives, combine sentences, and reword sen tences to cut the number of wor ds.

x Wordy: Campus Jewellers· main objective is to increase sales. Specifically, the objective i s to double sales in the next five years by becoming a more successful business.

., Better: Campus Jewellers· objective is to double sales in the next five years.

No reader wants l ength for the sak e of length . In a class report, tl1e page req,uirement is an indication of the complexi ty of analysis the pr of essor expects.

Some repetition in reports is legitimate (see tl1e the Job box "Repeating with Style" later in this chapter). TI1e conclu- sion r estates points made in tl1e body of the report; the recom- mendations appear in the transmittal, the executive swmnary, and the r econunendations sections of the report However, repetitive refer ences to ear lier material ("As we have already seen) may indicate that the docwnent needs to be reorganized.

Read the docwnent tlrrough at a single si tting to mak e sure any repetition serves a usef ul purpose. For exan1ple, general readers will f ocus on tl1e executive sw1m1ary, professional read- ers will appreciate tl1e detail of tl1e body, and experts will turn to the technical information in appendices. If tl1e repetition does not appeal to a specifi c group of r eaders or add meaningfully to a particular section, eliminate it

Business plans are themselves compilations of other reports- sales and marketing, operations, human resources, and finan- cials, for instance-and include conventional parts from the transmittal document, cover, table of contents, executive sum- mary, and introduction (e.g., idea history and background, mis- sion, vision, values, goal s} to environment (including social, economic, and political trends), operations, human resources, marketing, financial plans, and references to persuade the reader that it is a viable plan.

Emily Barker recommends that your plan include the following: • • 9e crystal clear about how your own offering i s different

(from the competition) and why it gives customers a better value:

• Provide •evidence that customers will buy your product- and buy it at the price you're charging."

3. Int roduce Sources and Visuals Gracef ully

The first time y ou cite an author's work, use their f ull name: "Rosabeth Moss Kanter points out. .. ." In subseq,uent citations, use only the last name: "Kanter shows .... " In AP A styl e, a f ull name i s n ever included: As Kan ter (20 16) f ound . . ..

Use active r ather tl1an passive verbs. The verb y ou use indi cates your attitude toward tl1e source. Says and 1vrites are neutral. Points out, shows, suggests, discovers, an d notes sug- gest you agr ee with the source. Wor ds su ch as claims, argues, contends that, believes, an d alleges distance you fr om tlle source. At a minimum, tlley suggest you know tllat not every- on e agrees witll tlle source; tlley ar e also appropriate to report tl1e vi ews of someone witll whom you disagree.

Use active ver bs to refer to visuals, as well. For exampl e:

As Table 1 shows, . . See Rg ure 4

For a fuller discussion of w hen and how to integr ate good vi suals, see Chapter 4.

4 . Use Blueprints, Transit ions, Topic Sentences, and Headings Bluep r ints are over views or forecasts tllat tell read er s what y ou will discuss in a secti on or in th e en tire report . Mak e y our bl ueprint easy to read b y telling r eaders h ow m an y points tllere are and usin g bull ets or n urnbers. I n tlle fol- l owing exan1pl e, tlle first sen tence in tlle revised par agrap h tells readers to l ook for f our points; tlle n urnbers separate

Ensure the " path to profitability " is "both clear and short-a year to 18 months . . . . Sawy entrepreneurs will also want to include the slowing economy in their assumptions." When students compete for real money in case competitions

now int egrat ed into course offerings, the stakes are high and the learning curve steep. And the opportunities are increasing. After almost 20 years of hosting the IBK Capital-lvey Business Plan Competition, the lvey Business School added the Spin Master- lvey HBA Business Plan Competition in January 2017 (each with prizes of $15,000}. The Queen's Entrepreneurs· Competition held in Toronto targets undergraduate students and offers $75,000 in prizes, while the student-run McGill Management International Case Competition rewards first, second, and third place. International opportunities are increasing too, with the KPMG International Case Competition in lisbon, April 201 7 , attracting q2 students from 30 countries (selected from 21,000 applicants}.

• Based on Canada Business, "Developing Your Business accessed April 2q. 2011. http:/ jwww.canadabusiness.ca/eng/125/138/; Emily Barker, "The Bullet· proof Business P!an.M Inc .. October 2001. 102- 104; lvey. Pierre L. Morrissette Institute for Entrepreneurship. '"Business Plan Competitions." accessed March 13, 201 7, https:/ jwww.ivey.uwo.cajentrepreneurshipjstudentsjbusiness-plan-compet itionsj; Queen's Entrepreneurs' Competition, Abour, accessed March 13. 2017. http:/ jtfleq,ec.comjhistory/; Jennifer Lewington, ·case Competitions Become Serious Business.M Reporr on Business Education. Marcl117. 2017. E2.

276 PART 4 REPORTS

the four points clearly. This overview paragraph also makes a contract with readers, who now expectlo read about tax ben- efits first and employee benefits lasL

X PARAGRAPH WITHOUT NUMBERS: Employee stock ownership programs (ESOPs) have several advantages. They provide tax benefits for the company. ESOPs also create tax benefits for employees and for lenders. They provide a defence against takeovers. In some organizations, productivity increases because workers now have a financial stake In the company's profits. ESOPs are an attractive employee benefit and help the company hire and retain good employees.

.., REVISED PARAGRAPH WITH NUMBERS: Employee stock ownership programs (ESOPs) provide four benefits:

1. ESOPs provide tax benefits fOf the company. rts employees, and lenders to the plan.

2. ESOPs help create a defence against takeovers.

3. ESOPs may increase productivity by giving workers a financial stake in the company's profits.

4. As an attractive employee benefit. ESOPs help the company hire and retain good employees.

Transitions ( .. Chapter 3) are words, phrases, or sentences that tclluour readers whether the discussion is continuing on the same point or shifting points. For example:

There are economic advantages, too

(Tells readers you are still discussing advantages. but you have now moved to economic advantages.)

An alternative to this plan is ...

(Tells readers a second option follows.)

These advantages, however, are found only in A, not in B or C

(Prepares readers for a shift from A to B and C.) A topic sentence ( .. Chapter 3) introduces or sununarizes

the main idea of a sentence. Readers who skim reports can foUow your ideas more easily if each paragraph begins with a clear topic sentence.

X HARD TO READ (NO TOPIC SENTENCE): Another main use of ice is to keep the fish fresh. Each of the seven kinds of fish served at the restaurant req,ulres 3. 78 lltres twice a day, for a total of 52.q2 litres. An additional 22.68 litres a day are required for the salad bar.

"' BEITER (BEGINS WITH TOPIC SENTENCE): Sevent\J'Six litres of ice a day are needed to keep food fresh. Of this, the biggest pOftion litres) IS used to keep the fish fresh. Each of the seven kinds of fish served at the restaurant requires 3.781itres twice a day (7 x 7.56 = 52.q2 L). An additional 22.68 litres a day are req,uired for the salad bar.

Headings (see •• Chapter 4) are single words, short phrases, or complete sentences that indicate the topic in each section. A heading must cover all of the material under it until the next heading. For example, Cost of Tu ilion cannot include the cost of books or of room and board You can have one paragraph under a heading or several pages. If you do have several pages between headings, you may want to consider using sub- headings. Use subheadings only when you have two or more divisions wilhin a main heading.

Topic (or ftmclioual) headings focus on the structure of the report. As IJOU can see from the foUowing example, topic headings give VCflJ little information .

T op ic Headings Are Va gue:

Recommendation

Problem Situation 1 Situation 2

Causes or the Problem Background

cause 1 cause 2

Recommended Solution

Talking heads (or itifonnative headings), in contrast, tell the reader what to e1c-pect. Talldng heads, like those in the exantples in this chapter, prO\ ide an overview of each section and of the entire report.

T alkin g Heads Are Specific:

Recommended Reformulation for Vibe Bleach

Problems in Maintaining Vibe's Granular Structure Solidifying During Storage and Transportation Customer Complaints about "Blocks" of Vibe in Boxes

Why Vibe Bleach ·cakes· Vibe's Formula The Manufactunng Process The Chemical Process of Solidification

Modifications Needed to Keep Vibe Rowing Freely

In a veru complicated report, you may need up to Utree levels of headings. F1gure 11.7 illustrates one way to set up headings. Although the figure shows only one example of each level or head- ings, in an actual report you would not use a subheading unless you had at least two subsections under the next higher heading.

Avoid having a heading or subheading all by itself at the bottom of Ute page. instead, have at least one line (prefer- ably two) of tm>e. If there isn't room for a line of lype under it, put the heading on the next page. Don't use a heading as the antecedent for a pr onoun. Instead, repeat the noun. Maintain parallelism ( .. Chapter 3) when writing headings. Each or the numbered talking heads in this section begins with a verb, for instance: Say, Tighten, Introduce, Use.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS • 277

Figure 11.7 Setting Up Headings in a Single-Spaced Document

Centre the title a nd use bold and a bigger

font

Heading for main divisions

l)•ping Titles a nd H eadings ro r Re ports ---------1- (14-point type}

For the title: of a report. usc a bold foot two point sizes bigger than tbc: largest size: in the body of the rt"por1. You may want to use an C\'cn bigger sizc or a different foot to create an attractive titl e page. Capit.n1ize the Two empty first word and aU major words of the spaces (triple

J:. space} One empty - 1---- --::------ - --- --j 'Ping Utad ings ror Repor ts (12_point type}

space {double-. Centn" main he.adings. capit.nJizc the: first and a11 major words.. and use bold. In s.ingle-spnced text. lc.ave space) two empty spoces before main headings and one after. Also lea\'e an extm space: between paragmphs. You

may aJso want to use main he.adings that are one point size: bigger than the body text. 11-point type for body text This example provides j ust one: example of each IC\'CI of he.ading.. in a real document. usc: headings o nly w hen you have at least two of them in the document. In a report. you' ll h.a\'e SC\'eml.

Two empty -l------1 ------- - ---- - - ---- - -!1= Bold; left spaces (triple space}

One empty space

Most reports use subheadings under some ma;n heruHngs. Use subheruHngs only ;r you have at least two margin of them under a g iven heading. It is O K to usc: subheadings in some sections and not in o thers. Norm.n11y 11-point type you' ll have: several paragraphs under a subheading. but it' s OK to have: j usa one: paragraph under some subheadings..

Subheadings in a rcpon usc the same format as he.adings in kuc:rs and memos. Bold subheadings and sec them at the left mn.rgin. Capital itt the first word and major words. Leave two cmpcy spaces befcm-the subhe.ading and one: cmpcy space after it. before: the fi.rsa paragraph under the subhe-ading. Use the same size: font as the body parag:mphs.

Period a fter heading

TypinJt f ' u rtber S ubdhision.o;. For a \'ery long rcpon . you may need further subdivisions subhe-ading.. Bold the further subdivision. capitalizing the first word and major words. and end phrase -------- with a period. Begin the tex t on the same line. Use norm.n1 spacing bccwccn paragraphs. Further subdivide: a

One empty space (normal paragraph spacing}

s ubheading only if you have at least two such subdivisions under a given subheading. It is O K to usc: divisions under some subheadings and not under others.

LOS

WRITING FORMAL REPORTS Formal reports a re distinguish ed from infonnal Jetter and memo reports by their length and by their components. A full fonnal report may contain the following components:

• Cover • Title Page • Letter or Memo of Transmittal • Table of Contents • List of illustrations • Executive Sununary • Body • Introduction (orients readers to t11e report) • Background or History of the Problem (orients readers to

the topic of the report)

• Body (presents and interprets data in words and visuals) • Conclusions (sununarizes main points of report) • Recommendations (reconunends actions to solve the prob-

lem; ma y be combined with Conclusions; may be put at beginning of body rather than at t11e end)

• Notes, References, or Works Cited ( doctunent sources cited in the report)

278 PART 4 REPORTS

• Appendices (provide additiona l materials t11at the careful reader may want transcript of an interview, copies of q,ues- tionnaires, tallies of a ll the q,uestions, computer printouts, previous reports)

Not every fonnal report necessarily has a ll these compo- nents. Some organizations call for additional components or arrange these components in a different order. Figure 11.8 sh ows a n example of a fo nna l report.

Using Your Time and Proposal Efficiently

To use your time efficiently, think about your audience, pur- pose, and the parts of the report before you begin writing. Remember that much of the introduction comes from your proposal, with only minor revisions. You can write six sec tions even before you have finis hed your research: Purpose, Scope, Assumptions, Methods, Criteria, and Definitions. You can write the title page and the transmittal as soon as you know what your reconunendation will be.

Save a copy of your q,uestionnaire or interview q,uestions to include in an appendix. As you tally and analyze t11e data, prepare an appenc!Lx stumnarizing all the responses to your q,uestion- naire, your figures and tables, and a complete Jist of references from your backgrotmd reading. You can print appendices before the final report is ready if you number their pages separately (e.g., Appenc!Lx A pages would beA-1, A-2, and so forth).

Figure 11.8 A Fo rmal Report: Titl e Page

You don't need to follow !his

spacing exactly. r----------------llL3.5 cm-5 em It's a guide to creating a bal- anced, attrac- tive t/Ue page. Slam Dunk Use a big font Here, !he title is

in 24-point type and !he subtitle is 20-polnt type.

Centre each line of title

Increasing Attendance at University of Saskatchewan Women 's

Basketball Games

10-14 spaces Centre each line

Change to 12-point type

University of Saskatchewan Sa.<kalOon. S K S7N 5B3

No punctuation

Double space (one blank space)

Name of reader, job title,

organization, city, province,

postal code

When job title and organiza- tion are long, put !hem on two different lines

10-14 spaces Prepared by l Name of writer,

job U!le, orga- nization, city,

province, postal code

Date report is released

After you have analyzed your data, write the body, the con- clusions, and recommendations. Prepare a draft of the table of contents and the Jist of illustrations. Write the executive sum- mary last, when you have clarifi ed your core ideas.

When you write a long report, Jist. all the sections (headings) your report will have. Mark those that are most. important to your readers and your logic, and spend m ost of your time on them.

Title Page

The report title page usually includes four items: t11e title of the report, for whom the report is prepared, by whom it is pre- pared, and the release date.

No punctuation

Double space (one blank space)

4-10 spaces

cm-5 em

(continued)

The title of t11e report s hould be as infor mative as pos- sible. Like subj ect lines, report titles are typically straigh t- forward.

x Poor title: New Plant Site .,. Better title: Why Woodstock, Ontario, Is the Best

Site for the New Toyota Plant x Poor title: Voter Participation .,. Better title: Increasing Voter Participation in Student

Elections: An Anal ysis of University Student Union Communications

Large organizations that issue many reports may use two- part titles to make it easier to search for reports electronically.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS • 27q

Figure 11.8 A Formal Report: Letter of Transmittal (cont inued)

You may a /so design a let- terhead for

yourself, espe- cially if you're assuming that you are doing

the report as a consultant

In paragraph 1, record the

submission of the report.

Note when -t--- and by whom

the report was authorized.

Note report's purpose.

Acknowledge people who helped you

Use a goodWill ending: posi-

tive, personal, and forward

looking.

For e xample:

2315 Lome Avenue Saskaroon. SK S7J OS4

Augusr 30. 20 17

Hughton. Ath letk Director Huskie Athletks University of Saskatchewan 87 Campus Drive Saskaroon. SK S7N 5B3

Dear Mr. Huglllon:

Here is the repon you autho rized in March identifying why auenda1lCe at women· s Huskies basketball games is IO\V and recommelldi ng ways to increase student attendance at the games.

As you know. even though the team has been doing well. attendance at women·s home games nO€ to expected levels. When I sun•eyed a convenience sample of I found no season tic.ket holders and only two people who said they attended .. a few·· each Fully 34% had never been to a Huskies women·s basketball game.

Because most srudents do like basketbaJI (62% foiJow the me n·s team). it's reasonable to think that some students could be persuaded to attend women·s as well. The two reasons for not attendi ng. accordi ng to my survey. were ··( ,lever thought to go .. and .. my aren't interested in going:· I therefore recomme nd strategies that would remind students about the women's team and would encourage groups of people to go to the games together.

Sho rt.renn solutions that could be implemented this year include having team members ,risit the Memorial Union Building. Place Riel. or the Bowl to drum up support. an abundance of

about upcoming around and regular Twitter and Facebook updates. Longer.temt strategies include creating a calendar of special days for specific groups. offering giveaways. and cultivating sports writers. Because further research is needed you might put a staff person in charge of marketing the women's basketbaiJ team and hi re a student to do this research.

This letter uses block forma t

Give recom- mendations or thesis

11le information in this report came from prim and online sources. a survey of U of S students. and interviews with several me mbers of Athletics. Tera Schneider of Hus kie Athletics' Information office was particularly helpful. Thank the Thank you for the opporruniry ro conducr this research. r ve enjoyed learning more abour the reader for the

team. the workings of Huskie Athletics. and marketi ng I look forward -,o--1-t-- opportunity to presenting my repo rt fi ndi ngs to you and your staff at the Pbysic-.al Acthrities Complex at 3:'00 p.m. do the research on September 6.

Elizabeth Ryan

(continued)

If used, centre page number at the bottom of the page. Use a /ower- case Roman numeral.

If the title d oes not contain the recommendation, it nor- ma ny indicates what problem the report tries to s olv e.

Small Business Adm inistration: Steps Taken to Better Manage Its Human Capital, But More Needs to Be Done

Eliminate unnecessary words.

x Wordy: Report of a Study on Ways to Market Life Insurance to Urban Professional People Who Are in Their Mid-40s In many cases, the title will state the recommendation in the

report: "Why the United Nations Should Establish a Seed Bank." Howeve r, the title s hould omit reconm1e ndations in t11ese cases:

• Readers will fmd the recommendations ha rd to a ccept. • Putting all the recommendations in t11e title would mak e it

too long. • The report does not offe r recommendations.

280 PART 4 REPORTS

,. Better: Ways to Market Life Insurance to the Mid-40s Urban Professional

The p repared fo r section normally includes the name of the pe rson who will ma ke a decision based on the report, j ob title, the organization's name, and its location.

The prepared by section will have the author's name, title, the organization, and its location.

Figure 11.8 A Formal Report: Table of Contents (con tinued) Headings or

subheadings must be paral-

lel within a section. Here, headings are

nouns and noun (ger-

und) phrases. Questions

and complete sentences can also be used.

Table of con- tents does not

list itself.

Capitalize first letter of each major word In

headings.

Indentations show level of heading at a

glance.

Add a ·ustof Illustrations•

at the bottom of the Table of Contents or on

a separate page if the report

has graphs and other visuals. Omit ·ust of

Illustrations• if you have only

tables.

Rgures and Tables are num- bered Indepen- dently, so you

can have both a ' Figure 1" and a

' Table 1"

Table of Contents

Lener ofTran.sJnittal .. ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... .... i

Executive Sumn1ary . ... ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ iii

Introduction ....... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ... I Purpose and Scope ..... ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... . I Assuntption ... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ . ...... ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ....... I M ethods ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ...... I Limitations.. . I

Anendance at U ofS Women's BasketbaJI Home Games ... 2

The lmponance of Increasing Student Attendance ........ ........ ........ .. ...... ........ ........ ........ ........ 2

f actors Leading to Low Attendance at U of S Women's BasketbaiJ Games ........ ......... .. . 3

Increasing Attendance through Marketing. ......... ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ . 4 Short-Term Marketing: Education and Increasing Awareness ...... ......... ........ ........ ....... 4 Long-Temt M a1·keting ....... ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ .. 5 Loyalty Program . ..... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ .... 6

Conclusions and Recommendations ..... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ . 7

.......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ... 7

Appendix A: Raw Survey Dala . ...... ........ ........ ........ .................................................. ........ .. A-1

List of Dlust rations

figure I U of S Women Win More Games . . . But Anract fewer fans .... ........ ........ ........ 2

figure 2 Most Students Who Don't Attend Games .. Never Thought" about Going ........ .. 3

Table I A Loyalty Program May Create Loyal Fans ............................................ ........ .... 4

ii

(continued)

Some reports have separate sections for ·conclusions· and "Recom- mendations·

Line up right margin (Justify}

The r e lease date, the date the report will be released to the public, is usua lly the date the rep ort is scheduled for discus- s ion by the d ecision ma k ers. The report is typically d ue four to s ix weeks before the re lease date so the decision ma k ers can review tl1e report before the meeting.

The transmittal has several purposes: to transmit or record the s ub mission of the rep ort, to orient read ers to the report, and to build a g ood in1age of the report a nd of the writer. An informal writing style is appropriate for a transmittal even w hen the style of the report is more fonnal.

If you have the facilities and the time, try using different s izes and styles of type, colour, and artwork to c reate a vis u- a lly attractive a nd in1pressive title page. However, a pla in key ed p ag e is a lso acceptable (see Figure 11.8).

Letter or Memo of Transmittal Use a Jetter o f transmittal (see pag e i o f Figure 11.8) if you a re not a regu la r employee of th e organization for which you p repare the report; use a memo if you are a regula r emplo yee.

Organize the transmittal in this way:

1. Transmit the r e port. Record tl1e transmission (Here is . . . ) . Tell w hen an d by w hom it was authorized a nd the purpose it was to fulfill.

2. Summarize your conclusions and recomme ndations . If the recommendations will be e asy fo r readers to accept, put them early in the transmittal. If the y will b e diffi- c ult, s tunmarize the finding s and conclusions before the recommendations.

CHAPTER 11 WRITING PROPOSALS AND REPORTS 281