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The SAGE Handbook of Human Resource Management

Author: Phyllis Tharenou

Pub. Date: 2010

Product: SAGE Reference

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857021496

Keywords: transfer of training, job transfer, training needs analysis, trainees, train to gain, team training,

labor economics

Disciplines: Human Resource Management (general), Human Resource Management, Business &

Management

Access Date: March 2, 2023

Publishing Company: SAGE Publications Ltd

City: London

Online ISBN: 9780857021496

Retrieved from https://sk-sagepub-com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/reference/hdbk_humanresourcemgmt/n10.xml

Training and Development in Organizations

Training and development remains an important human resource (HR) practice of interest to researchers,

managers, governments, and employees. Training research is of substantial interest and reviews show its

enormous and continued growth (e.g., Aguinis and Kraiger, 2009; Ford and Kraiger, 1995; Goldstein, 1980;

Goldstein and Gessner, 1988; Latham, 1988; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Sonnentag et al., 2004; Tan-

nenbaum and Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). Training is of major interest to practitioners and managers in order

to update employee skills, improve job performance and productivity, and develop the competencies employ-

ees need to meet the strategic objectives of their organizations (Sugrue and Rivera, 2005; 2006). Training is

of significance to governments who facilitate its use to provide the capabilities a country needs for economic

growth and to address skill shortages in a highly competitive global economy (Aguinis and Kraiger, 2009).

Lastly, training is important to employees for whom it increases employment duration and continuity, pay, and

career advancement (Tharenou, 1997).

However, problematic issues continue to arise in regard to the usefulness of and return on training and de-

velopment (Bunch, 2007). Managers want to know what the return is on their investment (ROI; Phillips and

Phillips, 2007). Yet, the impact of training on performance continues to be rarely evaluated and its ROI rarely

calculated (Kraiger et al., 2004; Sugrue and Rivera, 2005). Scholars lament that practitioners do not use the

results of research to incorporate the well-developed scientific knowledge about training into needs analy-

sis, design, delivery, transfer, and evaluation (Kraiger, 2003; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Salas and

Kosarzycki, 2003). Governments are criticized for under investing in the training and development needed by

their countries for economic growth (Tharenou, 1997).

This chapter provides an audit of the training and development literature and its issues and developments.

Training is defined as the systematic acquisition and development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes re-

quired by employees to adequately perform a task or job or to improve performance in the job environment

(Goldstein, 1980; Latham, 1988) and as a planned effort by an organization to facilitate the learning of job-re-

lated behavior on the part of its employees (Wexley, 1984). The chapter begins by considering the discipline

approaches that underlie research on training. Then it examines the process of training by considering its

stages: the pre-training stage (training needs analysis, factors predicting participation in training and develop-

ment, the antecedent conditions to training effectiveness, training design), the training itself (training delivery);

and the post-training stage (transfer of training, evaluation of the effects of training). The chapter closes with

consideration of future development and research needs in the area.

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Approaches Underlying Research into Training and Development

Four major approaches underlie research into training and development in organizations: those of human

resource management (HRM), industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology, labor economics, and industrial re-

lations.

The earlier field of ‘personnel management’ considered training as one of several separate HR practices and

focused on identifying and implementing training models in a series of steps to improve individuals’ job per-

formance. By contrast, in the HRM approach, HR practices, including training and development, are used

to improve organizational performance, help implement an organization's business strategy and meet its ob-

jectives, and help build a sustainable competitive advantage that creates financial performance (Becker and

Huselid, 1998; 2006; Lepak et al., 2006). The approach is strategic in terms of managing human resources to

meet the organization's objectives.

The theoretical basis for the strategic HRM approach includes the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm

(Barney, 1991; Barney and Wright, 1998). High-performance work systems (HPWS) are integrated systems

of HR and other work practices that are internally consistent with each other and externally consistent with

organizational strategy. HPWS are designed to help develop valuable, unique employee capacities that as-

sist an organization to develop core competencies (Becker and Huselid, 1998) – firm-specific resources and

capabilities that enable an organization to enact a strategy that creates value by not being implemented si-

multaneously by competitors and which competitors find hard to duplicate (Barney, 1991). Developing em-

ployees is an effective way of gaining valuable, rare and perhaps unique capacities, and training and develop-

ment is a key practice, amongst others, to do so (Lepak and Snell, 1999). Training, in combination with other

HR practices (e.g., selective staffing, performance-contingent compensation, developmental and merit-based

performance appraisal) and other work practices such as work design (self-managed teams, flexible work as-

signments, teamwork), open communication, quality improvement, and decentralized decision-making, helps

develop core competencies by which the organization can gain a sustained competitive advantage.

A further major theoretical basis used in the HRM approach is social exchange theory. Social exchange can

be viewed as favors one party provides to another that create diffuse future obligations which, due to a norm

of reciprocity, will result in reciprocation by the receiver (Blau, 1964). General training can be viewed as a

resource that an employer provides to help an employee that demonstrates support and caring (Balkin and

Richebé, 2007). Employees perceive training as an investment in, and commitment to, them and reciprocate

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in kind with extra effort, commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and cooperation. Training may be

viewed as a gift when provided on its own or when provided as part of HPWS. Because employees can in-

terpret HPWS as expressing appreciation, investment, and recognition due to the rigorous recruitment, ex-

tensive training, empowerment, and rewards central to HPWS, they begin to perceive themselves in a social

exchange as opposed to a purely economic relationship (Takeuchi et al., 2007). HPWS are thought to result

in generalized norms of reciprocity, shared mental models, role making, and organizational citizenship behav-

iors that then lead to organizational performance (Evans and Davis, 2005).

In contrast to the strategic approaches that underlie the HRM approach to training, industrial/organizational

(I/O) psychology focuses on the science of training – how to design, deliver, implement, transfer and evaluate

training so that it is effective (Haccoun and Saks, 1998; Kraiger, 2003; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Dra-

matic progress has been made in how to design, deliver and transfer training to the job and appropriate tools,

techniques, and interventions have been developed (Haccoun and Saks, 1998; Salas and Cannon-Bowers,

2001). The approach to training was once predominantly behavioral (Goldstein, 1980; Latham, 1988; Wexley,

1984) but has moved to a cognitive approach based on principles from cognitive and instructional psychol-

ogy to design and deliver training and assist its transfer to the job (Ford and Kraiger, 1995; Tannenbaum

and Yukl, 1992). For example, stages of skill acquisition high light progression through acquiring declarative

knowledge (knowledge of facts, what to do), knowledge integration (integration of facts), procedural knowl-

edge (knowledge about how to do things; knowing how), and finally tacit knowledge (about when and why to

do things) (Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). Meta-cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquir-

ing knowledge, interpreting feedback and learning from experience (e.g., mental models), especially affecting

how training is designed for tasks involving cognitive processes (Howell and Cooke, 1989; Tannenbaum and

Yukl, 1992).

A third approach underlying research into training and development is that of labor economics. Based at

macro-levels (country, sector/industry, organizational), labor economics seeks to determine what factors

cause participation in government-provided, vocational, and company-provided training and development;

what effect training has on individuals’ outcomes, especially pay, employment probability and continuity, and

performance (e.g., Greenetal., 1996; Upward, 2002); how disadvantaged groups (e.g., the unemployed, eth-

nic minorities, the poor, women) gain and are affected by training and development (Greenberg et al., 2003,

2004; Jones et al., 2008); and how training affects macro-level country, sector, and organizational productivity

(e.g., Bartel, 2000). An underlying theoretical approach continues to be human capital theory (Becker, 1962,

1975). Employees invest in training to learn or improve their skills in order to increase pay and status. Em-

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ployers train employees to gain improvements in productivity through increased knowledge, skill, and ability

(KSAs), training those who are likely to remain with the organization and using general types of training be-

cause they are less transportable, in order to gain the maximum return from their investment.

The fourth approach underlying research into training and development is that of industrial relations (IR). Un-

like HRM, which focuses on the employer as the main stake-holder and on the firm's performance, IR fo-

cuses on the employee and the amount of training employees gain, the work practices and conditions that

promote training, and on how collective approaches dealing with power imbalances can help gain employ-

ees more training (cf. Colakoglu et al., 2006). Hence, as in labor economics, IR focuses on determining who

gets training and development and what conditions increase gaining training and development and on how

training affects employee outcomes and does so from an employee perspective but from the point of view

of employee gains rather than economic growth. IR approaches focus on employee skill acquisition, includ-

ing through vocational training systems and through identification and development of job competencies on

which to base training. A significant research interest is in the effects of collective action and voice by unions

to increase members' training (Boheim and Booth, 2004; Heyes and Stuart, 1998) and in examining effects

on employee training caused by conditions of employment (e.g., Arulampalam and Booth, 1998). The four ap-

proaches often deal with common research questions, especially which factors predict participation in training

and development (all approaches); whether training increases organizational effectiveness (IO psychology,

HRM, labor economics); how to develop competencies through training (IO psychology, HRM, IR); and the

place of training as part of HPWS and a strategic approach to organizational performance (especially HRM

and IR). However, there are also differences in the questions addressed; for example, IO psychology focuses

on how to train; labor economics focuses on macro-level causes of acquiring training and on training's effects

on individual's pay; and industrial relations includes an emphasis on vocational training and on union voice

in training. The approaches often use different research designs. IO psychology focuses on individuals and

groups and often uses experimental laboratory designs to investigate how to train individuals and the effects

on psychological and behavioral outcomes. Both HRM (usually field data based on surveys) and IO psychol-

ogy (often laboratory/experimental data) gather data to answer research questions whereas labor econom-

ics uses archival data at country, sector and organizational level, often requiring complex data analytic tech-

niques, including econometric methods to answer their research questions. Of the four disciplines, industrial

relations is the most likely to use qualitative research designs and adopt case study approaches because of

its interest in examining competency development and approaches to training in individual organizations.

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The Stages of Training and Development

Traditionally, training and development had been conceived of as a five-stage process: needs analysis, de-

sign, delivery, transfer, and evaluation. In effect, three stages exist: what occurs prior to training (training

needs analysis, the organizational, job, and person factors that predict participation, antecedent conditions

affecting training effectiveness, training design); what occurs during training (its delivery including the meth-

ods of training used); and what occurs after training (its transfer, evaluation of its effects) (cf. Salas and

Canon-Bowers, 2001). Events that occur before training have a major impact on how effective training is and

whether it transfers to the job (Noe, 1986; Salas and Canon-Bowers, 2001). Events that occur after training,

especially with respect to how to ensure training transfers to the job, are critical to whether training improves

performance (Ford and Weissbein, 1997; Saks and Belcourt, 2006). Of the stages of training, research had

traditionally focused on training design and delivery (Goldstein, 1980; Latham, 1988; Wexley, 1984). The re-

search emphasis has shifted to what happens after training: on whether training transfers to the job (Burke

and Hutchins, 2007; Ford and Weissbein, 1997) and on the evaluation of the effects of training including de-

termining how it should be evaluated and whether it improves organizational effectiveness (Tharenou et al.,

2007).

Training Needs Analysis

Training needs analysis determines where training and development needs to be conducted in an organiza-

tion (organization-level analysis), what is to be trained in terms of identifying the knowledge, skills and abilities

needed to perform the tasks in a job (task- or operations-level analysis), and what training particular individ-

uals need (individual- or person-level analysis) (McGehee and Thayer, 1961; Moore and Dutton, 1978). The

results are intended to lead to the specification of learning objectives and thus affect the design and delivery

of training (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). However, concern continues to be expressed about the lack of

adequate models to guide training need analysis (Clarke, 2003), the accuracy of the needs identified, and the

relative lack of research in this area compared to other training stages (Aguinis and Kraiger, 2009).

Advances have mostly occurred in the task or operations analysis component of training need analysis. Cog-

nitive task analysis has been added to the previously behavioral emphasis to help identify the knowledge and

skills needed to perform tasks and to identify the cognitive capacities and cues that enable trainees to know

when to apply these skills (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). A trend in task analysis has been to focus on

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identifying the ‘competencies’ employees need for their jobs (Gangani et al., 2006) which are based on meet-

ing the objectives of the business and in implementing the business strategy (Kraiger, 2003). Competencies

are a cluster of interrelated knowledge, skills, values, attitudes or other characteristics important for success-

ful job performance (Kraiger, 2003). There continues to be ongoing interest in identifying competencies to ef-

fectively train managers: the cross-cultural competencies needed by expatriate managers (Leiba-O'Sullivan,

1999), the competencies needed by managers in general (Agut and Grau, 2002), the competencies needed

to implement diversity initiatives (Roberson et al., 2003), and the competencies needed for the development

of HR professionals (Broom et al., 1998; Walker and Stopper, 2000). Task analysis has also advanced from

examining individual jobs to determining the training needs required for team performance (e.g., Bowers et

al., 1998).

Person analysis has been the least developed aspect of training need analysis. Difficulties continue to be en-

countered in the adequacy of methods available to measure the discrepancy between the desired and actual

behavior of an employee. It continues to be difficult to determine what managers need training in, which tools

to use to identify which managers need training, and how to accurately measure a manager's training needs

(Agut and Grau, 2002).

What Factors Predict Participation in Training and Development?

In contrast to the lesser amount of research conducted into training need analysis has been the greater em-

phasis on identifying the organizational, job, and person factors that predict participation in training and devel-

opment. A significant body of knowledge has accumulated from HRM, I/O psychology, labor economics and

IR studies as to what causes employees to gain training and development.

At an organizational level, training is more likely to occur when it is aligned with the strategic direction of the

organization (e.g., Montesino, 2002), when organization change is occurring (e.g., Leigh and Gifford, 1999),

when innovative work practices are being introduced (e.g., total quality management, team approaches, lean

management) (Lynch and Black, 1998; Snell et al., 2000), and when high performance work systems are be-

ing used (Barnard and Rodgers, 2000; Whitfield, 2000). Large organizations, which thus allow economies of

scale, and organizations that have high investment in physical capital, and thus need specialized skills, pro-

vide more training than others (Lynch and Black, 1998; Tharenou, 1997) as do those where there is union

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workplace recognition and union involvement in training decisions (Boheim and Booth, 2004; Heyes and Stu-

art, 1998), suggesting that a collective voice helps gain training for employees. Participation in training and

development is more likely to occur in organizational environments where individuals report supervisor sup-

port and a supportive climate for development (Sonnentag et al., 2004; Tharenou, 1997).

At the job level, those working in highly skilled jobs (especially managers) receive more training and develop-

ment than others, presumably due to need and because the training provides greater returns to the organiza-

tion (Tharenou, 1997).

At the person level, demographic and psychological factors predict participation in training and development.

With respect to demographic factors, employees who receive more training and development are younger,

may be more educated, and are usually judged to be less likely to leave the organization (Loewenstein and

Spletzer, 1997; Tharenou, 1997). There continues to be a substantial interest in how to increase older work-

ers’ lower motivation to learn and participation in formal and voluntary training and development (Sonnen-

tag et al., 2004). Gender is not consistently linked to participation in training. Women may participate in less

training and development than men (Royalty, 1996) but at times there are no gender differences when other

factors are controlled (Keaveny and Inderrieden, 1998; Royalty, 1996; Wooden and Vanden Heuvel, 1997).

With respect to psychological factors, those who receive more training and development are more motivated

to learn than others (Colquitt et al., 2000). A learning and development orientation is the tendency toward

involvement in continuous learning (Maurer, 2002).

Overall, the individual factors leading to gaining training support a selection explanation (Green, 1993), espe-

cially according to the returns the organization will gain from developing human capital (Becker, 1962, 1975).

Employers select workers who they know will provide the most benefits and return from training through (a)

being high in ability and thus able to be trained; (b) having a high probability of remaining with the firm or

being younger, thus providing a greater opportunity to recoup the investment in training than for others; and

Antecedent Conditions to Successful Training and Development

Antecedent conditions to training are what trainees bring to the training setting, the work environment factors

that engage the trainee to learn and participate in the training, and how the training is prepared to maximize

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the learning experience (Salas and Canon-Bowers, 2001). What individuals bring to the training and the sup-

port they gain in the work situation have received increased interest and are important to whether training is

effective or not (Noe, 1986; Noe and Colquitt, 2002).

Personal characteristics have become important in determining whether training will be effective. The evi-

dence supports individuals being selected for training based on suitable psychological attributes for effective

training. Employees who have high cognitive ability (a finding already known from the personnel selection

literature) and motivation to learn are more effectively trained than others as measured by the declarative

knowledge, affective reactions, skill acquisition, and self-efficacy they gain from training (Colquitt et al., 2000;

Salgado et al., 2003; Sonnentag et al., 2004). Motivation to learn is the desire on the part of the trainee to

learn the training material. Training effectiveness is also increased by other pre-training psychological attrib-

utes including a learning goal orientation – which is the desire to increase one's competence by developing

new skills and mastery, in contrast to a performance goal orientation which is the desire to demonstrate one's

competence and to be positively evaluated by others (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Sonnentag et al.,

2004).

The characteristics of the trainee's work situation are also important to training being effective. Working in a

climate that enables the use of newly learned behaviors and skills from training (e.g., having adequate re-

sources, opportunities to use skills, favorable consequences for using skills) and having supervisor and co-

worker support for using new learning help facilitate and enhance learning and result in training being effective

(Colquitt et al., 2000). How training is framed within the organization (e.g., through having a positive transfer

climate, working in a learning organization) is particularly important for training to be effective, especially for

certain kinds of training such as diversity training (Holiday et al., 2003).

An individual's motivation to learn is an important attribute that they bring to training that increases its effec-

tiveness and mediates the impact of other facilitating factors (Colquitt et al., 2000; Ford and Noe, 1992). A

motivation to learn arises from both individual and situational characteristics. Meta-analyses show that em-

ployees who are motivated to learn accord high value to training, lack anxiety, have an internal locus of con-

trol, have high achievement motivation, are conscientious, have high self-efficacy (i.e., believe that they can

master the learning material and the training), are committed to their organizations, and plan their careers

(Colquitt et al., 2000). Employees with high motivation to learn are also associated with having high supervi-

sor and peer support and a positive work climate.

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Individual and situational characteristics that occur priortot raining are critical toenable transfer of what was

learnt in training to the job. Psychological attributes are important for training to transfer (i.e., to result in be-

havior change on the job) as are work environment support and climate. Meta-analyses show that greater

post-training transfer happens to those who, pre-training, accord high value to training, are motivated to learn,

are conscientious, have high self-efficacy, are committed to their organizations, explore their careers, and

plan their careers (Colquitt et al., 2000). Skill acquisition and postraining self-efficacy are also important an-

tecedents of transfer. The situational characteristics that help learning transfer from the training situation to

the job are a positive work climate, supervisor support, and peer support. Transfer of training predicts perfor-

mance back on the job (Colquitt et al., 2000).

Designing Training

Research on designing training has focused on the learning principles that need to be incorporated for training

to be effective (Kraiger, 2003; Noe and Colquitt, 2002; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). It has not examined how

to design training to be a part of systems of HR practices (HPWS) or to meet or help implement the needs

of the business strategy. There has been a major change to the design of training through the incorporation

of principles gained from cognitive psychology on how people learn (Howell and Cooke, 1989; Kraiger, 2003;

Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992).

From the I/O psychology literature, training comprises a series of steps that design a plan of instruction based

on well-supported learning principles (cf. Ford and Kraiger, 1995; Kraiger, 2003; Noe and Colquitt, 2002; Tan-

nenbaum and Yukl, 1992). Following from the identification through training needs analysis of the knowledge,

skills and attitudes (KSAs) or competencies required, the first step is to specify clear specific instructional

objectives based on the KSAs and competencies. The second step is to design the training based on the

instructional objectives in step one, which involves specifying a desired sequence of training activities and

designing the presentation of the training content to incorporate learning principles and assist transfer. The

third step is to select the training method, which may be on or off the job, to maximize learning. The fourth

step is to ensure a learning environment that enhances the motivation to learn and optimizes learning through

the outcomes that can be expected. The final step is to design measures of training effectiveness that are

outcome-focused based on the instructional objectives set in step one.

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The incorporation of well-supported learning principles validated over many years is important in the training

design stage (Kraiger, 2003; Noe and Colquitt, 2002; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). The principles focus on

the training content and the trainee's involvement. The training content needs to be designed to be relevant,

preferably having identical elements to the job in order for learning to be able transfer to the job; to have

stimulus variability to enable it to be interesting; and to have appropriate task sequencing (e.g., from easy to

difficult). The design needs to provide opportunities for practice and the best conditions to gain the benefits

of practice, usually to use over learning and consideration of whether to use whole or part learning; to enable

the mental conceptualization of training material prior to training; and to allow observation of demonstration of

the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be learned. Learning principles are incorporated into the design to allow

the trainee to learn actively, for example, by incorporating practice, by recalling information from memory, by

applying principles to a task, and by using symbolic mental rehearsal (Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). Learning

principles also include providing reinforcement, providing feedback or knowledge of results during and after

practice, and enabling trainees to seek feedback and self-monitor their learning; and catering for differences

in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge.

A relatively new topic of interest is how much learner control or choice should be allowed in the design of

training in e-learning environments (DeRouin et al., 2005a). A meta-analysis shows the impact of learner

control is very small (Kraiger and Jerden, 2007); learner control benefits only some learners in some situa-

tions (DeRouin et al., 2005a) and improves only certain learning outcomes under certain conditions (Kraiger

and Jerden, 2007). Trainees do not make good instructional use of the control they are given, which may

be assisted by adaptive guidance – that is by some form of advisement (Bell and Kozlowski, 2002). Learner

control in e-learning situations was more effective for procedural learning (how to do things) than declarative

learning (facts about what to do) and retention; for gaining skill-based outcomes than cognitive outcomes; for

work than educational tasks; and over training's pace and navigation more than content (Kraiger and Jerden,

2007).

Research interest has developed in whether the wrong people might be trainers. If unskilled or untrained peo-

ple conduct training, it likely will affect whether the training is properly designed according to training principles

and whether it is properly delivered. Problems arise when using untrained or informal or accidental trainers,

including line managers and peers, and when incorporating unwilling mentors and coaches into on-the job

training programs (Heslin et al., 2006). This is in contrast to the effectiveness of training gained through using

trained trainers or expert trainers overseen by the HR function (Bartlett, 2003). There is also considerable re-

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search interest in the problems that occur through the outsourcing of training and development, in which trust

and contractual specificity have become major issues (e.g., Gainey and Klaas, 2003).

The Delivery of Training

Research has focused on how to deliver training as a separate practice rather than on how to deliver it as

part of HPWS or to meet the needs or strategy of the business. There has been little research on the change

management principles that are needed to successfully implement well-designed training that can transfer

to the job and provide positive outcomes, despite the lack of use by practitioners of scientifically-established

principles of training design and delivery.

The delivery of training has traditionally focused on the trainee's learning style, the way the training is deliv-

ered, and the methods used for training (Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992), and to a lesser extent on particular

populations to be trained or the specific training content. Individuals have different learning styles that may

need to be catered for in the design and delivery of training. The original Kolb (1984) framework presented the

four learning styles of diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating. Efforts continue to develop

learning style questionnaires to assess the several models of trainees’ styles that exist with debate continuing

about their validity and psychometric properties (Sonnentag et al., 2004).

With respect to the way training is delivered, the experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) is the most well-

known model trainers use. The process for delivering training comprises the five stages of trainees experienc-

ing concrete events (concrete experience), reflecting on those experiences from different perspectives (reflec-

tive observation), generalizing from those reflections by constructing theories which integrate observations

(abstract conceptualization) and planning by actively using theories to make decisions and solve problems

(active experimentation). Concrete experience can occur off the job as experiential learning activities or on

the job through the beneficial effects of having developmental jobs and challenging job situations (Sonnentag

et al., 2004).

With respect to the methods used, training is conducted by a range of standard methods whose validity

has been well established (Burke and Day, 1986). They include lectures (surprisingly an effective training

method), lectures and group discussion, role plays, behavioral role modeling, simulations and business

games, and computer-assisted learning/high technology methods. Research continues to support the validity

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of these traditional methods of delivery (Callahan et al., 2003).

With respect to specific methods, behavior modeling training (observing a model displaying the behavior to be

learned, the trainee then practicing the behavior, and then gaining feedback to adjust behavior) continues to

be an effective method. However, there are qualifications. Meta-analysis shows that behavior modeling train-

ing improves learning the most (declarative and procedural knowledge-skills) and well; improves job behavior

less; and improves results outcomes less still and in a very small way (Taylor et al., 2005). Although effects on

declarative knowledge (knowledge about facts) decayed over time, training effects on procedural skills (how

to do things) and job behavior remained stable or increased, supporting the utility of behavior modeling train-

ing for improving skills and job behavior. Transfer of training to job behavior was greatest when conditions

linked to transfer were included in the training: when trainees generated practice scenarios, trainees were

instructed to set goals, trainees’ managers were also trained, and rewards and sanctions were instituted in

trainees’ work environments for using the new skills (Taylor et al., 2005).

Simulation-based training and games continue to be shown to work well as training methods, especially for

the situations encountered in the military and aviation which need to train complex skills that will transfer to

the job (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001).

Substantial research also occurs into newer methods of delivering training. They include new forms of team

training, error training, and ‘e-learning.’ Team training has had a long history, starting from team-building as an

organizational development intervention. Major advances have been made through developing other forms

of team training (Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). Team training is where members of work teams as a group

acquire the knowledge and skills and practice behaviors that are needed to work together. Transactive mem-

ory appears to underlie the success of some of these new forms of team training (Sonnentag et al., 2004).

Transactive memory is a group memory system that details the expertise possessed by group members along

with an awareness of who knows what within the group. For example, cross-training (e.g., positional rotation)

aims to develop shared mental models among team members and teaches each team member the roles and

responsibilities of the others. It has positive effects on team performance (Marks et al., 2002; Sonnentag et

al., 2004).

Other forms of team training also give positive results, including team coordination training, team leadership

training, team self-correction, and distributed team training (Kraiger, 2003; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001).

Crew resource management training is a form of team coordination training designed to prevent errors in the

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cockpit. It generally produces positive trainee reactions, but has mixed results for effects on learning and be-

havior change and an unknown impact on organizational results such as safety (Salas et al., 2006). Team

training is also being applied to virtual teams who operate using computer-based technology from geograph-

ically dispersed locations (Soderlund and Bredin, 2006). Team training is effective if focused on the required

team competencies and designed to give trainees realistic opportunities to practice and to gain feedback

(Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001).

Error training has become a significant new type of active learner training which demonstrates the beneficial

effects of trainees making errors during learning (Joung et al., 2006) rather than only being trained in correct

methods. Error training stresses trainees' roles as active participants in the learning process (Sonnentag et

al., 2004). Error and stress exposure training result in less stress and improved performance (Salas and Can-

non-Bowers, 2001). Meta-analysis showed that error management training has positive effects (over training

methods without errors) which are larger for post-training transfer than within-training performance and for

structurally distinct performance tasks than for tasks similar to the training (Keith and Frese, 2007). Both ac-

tive exploration and error encouragement are effective elements.

The most prolific research interest into the newer methods of training has been in the relatively recent ‘e-

learning’, in order to solve the problem of how to make e-learning as effective as face-to-face training (DeR-

ouin et al., 2005b). E-learning is the learning of knowledge, skills and attitudes through web- and comput-

er-based learning technologies or virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. Meta-analysis found that web-

based instruction (WBI) was slightly more effective than classroom instruction (CI) for teaching declarative

knowledge; the two delivery media were equally effective for teaching procedural knowledge; and trainees

were equally satisfied with web-based instruction and classroom instruction (Sitzmann et al., 2006). However,

web-based instruction and classroom instruction were equally effective for teaching declarative knowledge

when the same instructional methods were used in both, suggesting WBI is not more effective than CI. WBI

was more effective than CI for teaching declarative knowledge when trainees were provided with control,

practiced the training material and received feedback during training, and were in long courses.

Compared to research on the methods of delivery of training, there has been less focus on training particular

populations/types and kinds of content. Of ongoing interest is how to train managers in the competencies they

need (Hernez-Broome and Hughes, 2004). Charismatic leadership in managers can be developed through

training (Frese et al., 2003); diversity training is given to managers (i.e., to reduce employment discrimination,

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to support a diverse workforce, to be more receptive to diversity) (e.g., De Meuse et al., 2007; Sanchez and

Medkik, 2004); and training in cross-cultural competencies facilitates managers’ success on international as-

signments (Littrell et al., 2006). Meta-analysis supports the effectiveness of management development (Burke

and Day, 1986) and managerial leadership development programs increase managers’ knowledge strongly,

improve their job behavior/expertise but less, and increase systems results/performance outcomes less so,

though moderately (Collins and Holton, 2004). Cross-cultural training of expatriate managers increases their

performance and adjustment (e.g., Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Morris and Robie, 2001).

Training is effective for older employees, as shown by meta-analysis. Results continue to find that older adults

are able to learn new skills but that they show less mastery of training material and take longer to complete

training tasks and programs than younger adults (Kubeck et al., 1996). The three instructional methods of lec-

tures, role modeling, and active participation and the two instructional factors of self-pacing and smaller group

size are effective for older learners, resulting in high training performance, especially when older employees

can self-pace (Callahan et al., 2003).

Transfer of Training to the Job

Of the stages of training, transfer had been of relatively late interest (Baldwin and Ford, 1988), although the

science and theory of how to transfer training to the job are now well developed (Burke and Hutchins, 2007;

Ford and Weissbein, 1997). Transfer of training is the extent to which trainees effectively apply the knowl-

edge, skills, behaviors and attitudes gained in training to their jobs (Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). It is the

evaluation of whether anticipated gains in knowledge, skills and affect from training have been achieved and

whether the changes are then applied to the job to generalize skills and retain long-term skills on the job (Ford

and Kraiger, 1995). Without transfer, the benefits of training to behavioral change on the job cannot be real-

ized, and, ultimately, the possible improvement in organizational results.

The primary factors influencing transfer are well-established. Particular learner characteristics increase trans-

fer (cognitive ability, self-efficacy, pretraining motivation, anxiety/ negative affectivity, openness to experience,

perceived utility, career planning, organizational commitment). Particular kinds of intervention design and de-

livery increase transfer (learning goals, content relevance, practice and feedback, behavioral modeling, error-

based examples), although less evidence is available in this category. Recently examined work environment

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influences are shown to increase transfer (transfer climate, supervisor support, peer support, opportunity to

perform) (Burke and Hutchins, 2007).

Transfer arises especially from what occurs before and after training, and not just during training (Saks and

Belcourt, 2006), requiring substantial efforts from supervisors to enable transfer to occur. Before training,

transfer is affected by what employees bring to the training; transfer especially increases if trainees have

high motivation to learn, a high capacity to transfer, and a supportive work environment for applying learning

(Colquitt et al., 2000; Noe, 1986). Transfer is also enhanced by how the training has been designed – if the

content is relevant to the job and if training corresponds to what is done on the job (i.e., fidelity), transfer in-

creases. During training, successful transfer is determined by how the training is delivered; for example, by

enabling practice and over learning to firmly develop principles and skills and by setting goals during training

to achieve back on the job.

After training, transfer is increased when the immediate supervisor provides support and encouragement for

trainees to apply on the job what they learnt in the training; when peers provide support for the use of the

training; when needed resources are provided; and when trainees return to a work climate that helps transfer

rather than provides barriers or constraints to block transfer (Colquitt et al., 2000; Sonnentag et al., 2004).

After training, transfer also occurs when trainees are provided with the opportunity to perform what was learnt

during the training and by having a short-time interval between the training and the opportunity to use the

learning (Ford and Weissbein, 1997; Sonnentag et al., 2004). Research continues into the development of

instruments to measure the extent to which a transfer climate exists in an organization (Holton and Elwood,

1997), demonstrating similar cross-country elements of a positive climate, job utility, and provision of rewards

(Holton et al., 2000).

Specific strategies such as relapse prevention (training in self-management to prevent slips back into pre-

training behaviors) and goal-setting have been investigated to determine if they assist the transfer of training

to the job, though the results for their effectiveness are conflicting and managers are not necessarily keen to

apply them to help transfer (Hunt and Saks, 2003; Hutchins and Burke, 2006).

It is not known if vertical transfer of training occurs where individuals’ learning outcomes and behavior change

translates into organizational results (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Research is also lacking on whether

training introduced as part of a system of HR practices transfers more to the job than when training is con-

ducted as a single practice. Training might transfer more to the job when it is delivered as part of HPWS, when

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major workplace interventions are being introduced for which it is needed (e.g., total quality management,

lean production, business process re-engineering, teamwork), or when it is implemented to meet organiza-

tional objectives and business strategy, than when training is introduced as a standalone practice.

Evaluating the Effects of Training

Interest in the evaluation of training has substantially increased (Alvarez et al., 2004; Collins, 2002). Within

organizations, training evaluation is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information nec-

essary to make effective training decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and modification of various

training activities (Goldstein, 1980). It is a set of procedures designed to systematically collect valid descrip-

tive and judgmental information about the ways in which a planned change effort has altered or failed to alter

organizational processes (Wexley, 1984). Two major areas are the focus of interest: how should training be

evaluated (i.e., the validity of any model of outcomes proposed) and does training have positive outcomes or

effects.

There has been continued controversy about how training should be evaluated – what criteria should be used

and which underlying model or theory of evaluation is valid (Alliger and Janak, 1989; Alliger et al., 1997). Kirk-

patrick's four-level model (1959, 1976) is the most used. In the model, training leads to trainee reactions (i.e.,

how well trainees like the training), which leads to trainee learning (i.e., what knowledge or skills were learnt),

which then leads to trainee behavior on the job (i.e., what were the changes in job behavior), which then leads

to organization results (i.e., what were the organizational results from training). Phillips (1996a, b) suggests

that organizational results from training should then lead to greater financial returns for the organization, an

approach consistent with the perspective used in strategic HRM (Becker and Huselid, 2006).

Evidence from meta-analyses has not supported Kirkpatrick's model, especially trainee reactions being relat-

ed to trainee learning (Alliger et al., 1997; Colquitt et al., 2000). Trainees’ reactions were related only in a small

way to learning measured as declarative knowledge and skill acquisition (Colquitt et al., 2000). Utility-type

reaction measures, assessing trainees’ views of training's usefulness for and applicability to job performance,

were more strongly related to learning and on-the-job performance (i.e., transfer) than were affective-type re-

action measures (Alliger et al., 1997). Utility-type reaction measures were stronger correlates of transfer (on-

the-job performance) than were measures of immediate or retained learning. Hence, if trainees’ reactions are

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to be used to measure the effectiveness of training, they should be of its utility and not of liking for it. Learning

was moderately related to behavior change (i.e., transfer) which, in turn, was related to results, which were

measured, however, as individuals’ job performance (Colquitt et al., 2000) not as organizational results. Thus,

conclusions could not be drawn about the validity of the final sequence proposed in Kirkpatrick's (1959, 1976)

model.

In sum, too few studies have examined the causal sequence in Kirkpatrick's (1959; 1976) model to draw

strong conclusions, especially whether training's effects on behavior change lead to effects on organizational

results. Hence, a supported model for evaluating training and development is still not available. New models

continue to be developed (e.g., Alvarez et al., 2004; Holton, 1996). But, valid, less expensive, simpler, and

more user-friendly designs have been developed to evaluate the effects of training (Arvey et al., 1996). For

example, studies show that the internal referencing strategy, in which effect sizes for trained outcomes are

compared to effect sizes for non-trained outcomes, provides a research design for evaluation that does not

require control groups (e.g., Frese et al., 2003).

By contrast, the second major area of interest with respect to the evaluation of training has clear results. Train-

ing works. Traditionally, training has been evaluated at the level of the individual where there are clear positive

effects. Meta-analyses and qualitative reviews show that training improves employees’ learning (knowledge,

skills, attitudes) and behavior back on the job (job performance, output, quality of work) (Aguinis and Kraiger,

2009; Arthur et al., 2003; Burke and Day, 1986; Collins and Holton, 2004; Guzzo et al., 1985; Katzell and

Guzzo, 1983). Meta-analyses show that training has a medium to large effect and that its effects on trainees’

learning and behavior are stronger than on results (Arthur et al., 2003; Collins and Holton, 2004), which were

mostly measured at the individual and not the organizational level. In addition, the training method used, the

skill or task characteristic trained, and the choice of evaluation criteria are related to the effectiveness of train-

ing programs (Arthur et al., 2003; Burke and Day, 1986; Collins and Holton, 2004).

Most studies have shown immediate effects of training. The small number that have investigated long-term

effects have given positive results (Sonnentag et al., 2004). Training also improves employees’ organization-

al attitudes and not only their immediate reactions at the end of the program; for example, training improves

employees’ commitment to the organization (Bartlett, 2001).

Interest has recently arisen in determining whether training improves organizational effectiveness (Aguinis

and Kraiger, 2009; Tharenou, 2006; Tharenou et al., 2007). Some scholars believe that training should im-

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prove organizational performance (Martocchio and Baldwin, 1997), whereas others emphasize that training

should only have behavioral effects on the individual (Barrie and Pace, 1997). There have been attempts to

estimate the ROI from formal company training (Bartel, 2000). The main conclusion drawn was that the ROI of

employee training might be higher than previously believed, perhaps in the range of 100–200 per cent (Bartel,

2000), but it was based on very few studies which measured individual-level outcomes.

By contrast, meta-analysis has shown that organizations that train more have greater organizational perfor-

mance (including productivity and quality) and more positive collective HR outcomes (including satisfaction,

skills and competencies, and retention) – although the effect sizes for objective output measures were small.

However, organizations that trained more did not have greater objectively measured financial performance

(Tharenou et al., 2007). Longitudinal, multivariate, highly controlled studies showed consistently that training

improved objectively-measured organizational performance. Hence, training improves organizational perfor-

mance and HR outcomes and, unsurprisingly for a distal variable, not the bottom line. Training was more

related to objectively-measured organizational effectiveness when used in conjunction with business direc-

tion and strategy than when not (Tharenou, 2006; Tharenou et al., 2007). Training was more strongly relat-

ed to organizational outcomes when matched with key contextual factors of organizational capital intensity

and business strategy – in support of a contingency perspective that, when training is matched with business

needs, performance improves. Training more often was related independently to organizational outcomes in

support of a universalistic perspective and did not need to be part of a system of HR practices. Only a minority

of studies showed support for a configurational perspective, in which, when training was part of HPWS, or-

ganizational performance was higher than when training was used an independent practice. There was also

support from longitudinal studies that organizations with poorer performance subsequently trained their em-

ployees more, resulting in increased performance (Tharenou, 2006; Tharenou et al., 2007). The meta-analy-

sis showed much stronger effects of training on subjectively measured outcomes measures, especially when

financial performance was subjectively measured, but these effects appeared inflated.

By contrast, the results of a meta-analysis suggested that systems of high performance work practices have

stronger positive effects on organizational performance than individual practices do, including training, which

still had a positive effect when used independently (Combs et al., 2006). Research needs to examine when

training should be used as a separate practice, when it should follow from business strategy, or when it may

be best used as part of HPWS and organizational change efforts. In sum, despite the spate of results, more

research is needed to determine how training improves organizational performance.

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The Future

Although there has been dramatic progress in the development of the science and practice of training, issues

need resolution. Many of the valid ways found for conducting training and the principles found to enhance

transfer to the job are not applied by practitioners or endorsed by management (Kraiger, 2003; Salas and

Cannon-Bowers, 2001). There are negative attitudes to what are seen as complex, expensive, and effortful

processes to design, deliver and implement training, including the more recent cognitive principles and meth-

ods (Hesketh, 1997). Research needs to examine how to change managers’ and practitioners’ attitudes in

order to implement what research has found for designing and delivering effective training and transferring it

to the job and organization (cf. Hunt and Saks, 2003). The use of strong change management and organiza-

tional development principles facilitate the successful implementation of training (Wong et al., 1997) and of

training needs analysis (Reed and Yakola, 2006). The implementation of training using the science of training

needs to be addressed as a change management process and as part of organizational development strate-

gies. Moreover, training is only one of many methods for increasing organizational performance (Wright and

Geroy, 2001) and research needs to more effectively consider training in interaction with other workplaces

practices to understand its effects.

A second issue is the separate training literatures that exist in the disciplines of strategic HRM, I/O psycholo-

gy, labor economics, and industrial relations. For example, the literatures on training in HRM and I/O psychol-

ogy remain separate. The training practice that forms part of high performance work systems seems remark-

ably simple and unspecified compared to the complex training design principles and methods found from I/

O psychology. There needs to be a marrying together of the principles underlying the strategic HR approach

to training and the conditions found in I/O psychology for effective training to occur. Moreover, for training

to increase organizational effectiveness, training needs to be effectively designed and delivered and transfer

to the job (I/O psychology), be of strategic importance to the organization (strategic HRM), operate in orga-

nizations whose structures and processes enable training to occur (labor economics), and capitalize on the

cooperation of the workforce (industrial relations).

More broadly, despite the different interests of HRM (the management perspective), labor economics (the

societal perspective), and industrial relations (the employee perspective), all three use an organizational-

level lens whereas I/O psychology uses an individual- or team-level lens. A multi-level approach is needed to

bridge these traditions. Organizational-level (macro), team-level (meso), and individual-level (micro) training

research, models, and theory need to be integrated. For example, training is known to improve an individual's

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skills, knowledge, and job performance and to improve organizational productivity. But it is not known if the

improvement at individual level translates vertically to an improvement at organizational level, or, if it does,

how it may do so; for example does it do so through effects at the work unit-level (Kozlowski et al., 2000).

Research needs to integrate the individual, work-unit/team, and organizational levels and investigate how in-

dividual performance and transfer lead to improved organizational effectiveness (Chen and Klimoski, 2007;

Tharenou et al., 2007).

In conclusion, research into training and development in organizations is thriving, underpinned by the ap-

proaches developed from strategic human resource management, industry/organizational psychology, labor

economics, and industrial relations. Research on training has extended its interest from training models and

the steps involved in training of training needs analysis, design, and delivery to the activities conducted pre-

training – especially the psychological processes and environmental factors that lead to participation in train-

ing and that enable successful transfer of training to the work environment – and post-training – especially

the factors that lead to transfer of what is learnt in training to the job and the evaluation of training's effects on

organizational effectiveness.

PhyllisTharenou

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• transfer of training

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• job transfer

• training needs analysis

• trainees

• train to gain

• team training

• labor economics

https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857021496

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