Sociology (Due 20 hours)

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Essentials of Sociology

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 10

Gender and Age

Learning Objectives (1 of 4)

10.1 Distinguish between sex and gender; use research on Vietnam veterans and testosterone to explain why the door to biology is opening in sociology.

10.2 Discuss the origin of gender discrimination, and review global aspects of violence against women.

Learning Objectives (2 of 4)

10.3 Review the rise of feminism, and summarize gender inequality in health care and education

10.4 Explain reasons for the pay gap; discuss the glass ceiling and sexual harassment.

10.5 Summarize violence against women: rape, murder, and violence in the home.

10.6 Discuss changes in gender and politics.

10.7 Explain why the future looks hopeful.

Learning Objectives (3 of 4)

10.8 Understand how attitudes toward the elderly vary around the world; explain how industrialization led to a graying globe.

10.9 Discuss changes in perceptions of the elderly.

10.10 Summarize theories of disengagement, activity, and continuity.

Learning Objectives (4 of 4)

10.11 Explain the conflict perspective on Social Security, and discuss intergenerational competition and conflict.

10.12 Discuss developing views of aging and the impact of technology on how long people live.

Issues of Sex and Gender 10.1 Distinguish between sex and gender; use research on Vietnam veterans and testosterone to explain why the door to biology is opening in sociology.

The Sociological Significance of Gender

Gender Differences in Behavior: Biology or Culture?

The Dominant Position in Sociology

Opening the Door to Biology

The Sociological Significance of Gender

Standards of gender

Each human group determines its ideas of “maleness” and femaleness”

Standards of gender are arbitrary and vary from one culture to another, but due to ethnocentrism, each group thinks that its preferences reflect what gender “really” is

Around the world men and women try to make themselves appealing by aspiring to their group’s standards of gender

Gender Differences in Behavior: Biology or Culture?

Determining sex

Egg (by mother) and sperm (by father)

23 chromosomes by egg (ovum) and 23 chromosome by the sperm

Egg has the X chromosome but sperm can have X or Y

An XX combination results in a girl

An XY combination results in a boy

The Dominant Position in Sociology

Does biology determine behavior?

The dominant sociological position is that social factors, not biology, are the reasons people do what they do

Opening the Door to Biology (1 of 2)

A medical accident

The Vietnam veterans study

More research on humans

Opening the Door to Biology (2 of 2)

Hue, South Vietnam, February 6, 1958. A U.S. Marine keeps firing while others pull a wounded soldier to safety.

Gender Inequality in Global Perspective (1 of 4) 10.2 Discuss the origin of gender discrimination, and review global aspects of violence against women.

How Did Females Become a Minority Group?

Sex typing of work

Global violence against women

Gender Inequality in Global Perspective (2 of 4)

It is the job of these women in Burundi to get the water for their families. They carry not only the water, but also their young children.

Gender Inequality in Global Perspective (3 of 4)

Swara, an ancient custom, includes both adult males marrying female children and marrying children to one another. To settle a debt, the father of this Pakistani girl offered her as a bride when she was just 5 years old. To protect her identity, only part of her face is shown.

Gender Inequality in Global Perspective (4 of 4)

A 6-year-old girl in Kenya screaming in pain as she is being circumcised. Her 18-year-old sister is holding her so she cannot move. Later, she will comfort the girl.

Gender Inequality in the United States 10.3 Review the rise of feminism, and summarize gender inequality in health care and education.

Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism

Gender Inequality in Health Care

Gender Inequality in Education

Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism

The “first wave” of the U.S. women’s movement met enormous opposition

The “second wave” continues today

The “third wave” overlaps and incorporates more women of color and alternative views

Figure 10.1 Teaching Gender

The “Dick and Jane” readers were the top selling readers

in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. In addition to reading, they taught “gender messages.” What gender message do you see here?

What gender lesson is being taught here?

Besides learning words like “pigs” (relevant at that historical period), boys and girls also learned that rough outside work

was for men.

What does this page teach children other than how to read the word “Father”? (Look to the left to see what Jane and Mother

are doing.)

Source: From Dick and Jane: Fun with Our Family, Illustrations © copyright 1951, 1979, and Dick and Jane: We Play Outside, copyright © 1965, Pearson Education, Inc., published by Scott, Foresman and Company. Used with permission.

Gender Inequality in Health Care

Sexism

Heart surgery

Hysterectomies

Figure 10.2 Changes in College Enrollment, by Sex

*This sharp drop in women’s enrollment occurred when large numbers of male soldiers returned from World War II and attended college under the new GI Bill of Rights.

**Author’s estimate.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 1938:Table 114; 1959:Table 158; 1991:Table 261; 2011:Table 273; 2017:Table 290.

Figure 10.3 College Students, by Sex and Race–Ethnicity

Bar graph showing the male/female proportion of U.S. college students across various racial-ethnic groups.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017: Table 291.

Gender Inequality in Education

With fewer men than women in college, is it time to consider affirmative action for men?

Figure 10.4 Gender Changes in Professional Degrees

Bar graph

showing the

distinct changes

in the relative

proportion

of females

in three major

professions

since 1970.

*Latest year available.

Source: By the author. Based on Digest of Education Statistics 2007:Table 269; 2017:Table 319.

Gender Inequality in the Workplace (1 of 4) 10.4 Explain reasons for the pay gap; discuss the glass ceiling and sexual harassment.

The Pay Gap

Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking?

Sexual Harassment—And Worse

Figure 10.5 Proportion of Men and Women in the U.S. Labor Force

Line graph demonstrating the change in the male/female proportion of the U.S. workforce over time.

Source: By the author. Based on Women’s Bureau of the United States 1969:10; Manpower Report to the President, 1971:203, 205; Mills and Palumbo 1980:6, 45; Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 611.

Figure 10.6 Women in the Workforce

U.S. map showing state-by-state percentages of women working outside the home.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 618.

Figure 10.7 The Gender Pay Gap, by Education1

1Mean earnings of full-time year-around workers. The percentage at the bottom of each purple bar indicates the women’s percentage of the men’s income. Categories in the government table that are not here are those with less than 9th grade education and those who have professional degrees.

Source: By the author. Based on U.S. Census Bureau 2016c.

Figure 10.8 The Gender Gap over Time: What Percentage of Men’s Income Do Women Earn?

Graph demonstrating

the growing difference

in pay between

men and women

over time.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995:Table 739; 2017:Table 730, and earlier years; and Figure 10.7 of this chapter. Broken lines indicate the author’s estimate.

The Pay Gap

To start at a higher salary, learn to negotiate. And don't accept the first offer.

Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking?

As the glass ceiling slowly cracks, women are gaining entry into the top positions of U.S. corporations. Shown here is Mary Barra, the CEO of General Motors.

Sexual Harassment—and Worse

Sexual Harassment

Unwelcome sexual attention at work or at school, which may affect job or school performance or create a hostile environment

Gender and Violence (1 of 4) 10.5 Summarize violence against women: rape, murder, and violence in the home.

Violence against Women

Rape: Various kinds exist, varying from forcible rape by strangers to acquaintance rape

Murder

Domestic violence

Gender and Violence (2 of 4)

Table 10.1 Rape Victims
Age	Rate per 1,000 Females
12–14	1.4
15–17	1.7
18–20	2.6
21–24	1.8
25–34	1.3
35–49	0.9
50–64	0.5
65 and Older	0.1

NOTE: In 2012, the age categories were changed, creating some distortions, especially for ages 18–20.

Source: By the author. A ten-year average based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2008:Table 313; 2009:Table 305; 2010: Table 305; 2011: Table 313; 2012: Table 317; 2013: Table 322; 2014: Table 328; 2015: Table 329; 2016: Table 338; 2017: Table 341.

Gender and Violence (3 of 4)

Table 10.2 Relationship of Victims and Rapists
Relationship	Percentage
Known to the Victim	53%
Well Known or Casual Acquaintance	33%
Intimate Partner	12%
Relative	8%
Stranger	39%
Not Reported	8%

Source: By the author. A ten-year average as reported in Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 342.

Figure 10.9 Killers and Their Victims

Bar graphs comparing the proportion of males to females in those who kill and those who are killed.

Source: FBI 2016:Table 6, Expanded Homicide Data.

Gender and Violence (4 of 4)

Domestic violence

In the family, too, women are the typical victims

The Changing Face of Politics (1 of 2) 10.6 Discuss changes in gender and politics.

Underrepresentation

Although women voters greatly outnumber men voters, men greatly outnumber women in political office

The Changing Face of Politics (2 of 2)

Table 10.3 U.S. Women in Political Office
National Office	Offices Held by Women (Percentage)	Offices Held by Women (Number)
U.S. Senate	21%	21
U.S. Representatives	19.8%	84
State Office
Governors	12%	6
Lt. Governors	24%	12
Attorneys General	14%	7
Secretaries of State	26%	13
Treasurers	16%	8
State Auditors	20%	10
State Legislators	25%	1,840

Source: By the author. Based on Center for American Women and Politics 2017.

Glimpsing the Future 10.7 Explain why the future looks hopeful.

The Future Looks Hopeful

Stereotypes are being shattered and structural barriers continue to fall

Aging in Global Perspective (1 of 2) 10.8 Understand how attitudes toward the elderly vary around the world; explain how industrialization led to a graying globe.

Extremes of Attitudes and Practices

Industrialization and the Graying of the Globe

The Graying of America

Extremes of Attitudes and Practices

Among some groups, the elderly don’t retire. They continue their traditional tasks, but they do slow down. This man on the Li River in Yangshuo, Guangxi, China, continues to fish with his cormorant, just as he has done from his youth.

Figure 10.10 The Graying of the Globe

World map showing country-by-country percentages of their over-64 populations.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 1348.

Figure 10.11 U.S. Life Expectancy by Year of Birth

Sources: By the author. Based on Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part I, Series B, 107–115; Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 112.

Figure 10.12 The Graying of America: Americans Age 65 and Older

Bar graph illustrating the increase in the percentage of the aged over time in the United States.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 8, and earlier years.

Figure 10.13 The Median Age of the U.S. Population

Bar graph illustrating the increase in the average age over time in the United States.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 8, and earlier years.

Figure 10.14 Life Expectancy in Global Perspective

Bar graph comparing

the life expectancy

in selected countries.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 1349.

Figure 10.15 As Florida Goes, So Goes the Nation

U.S. map showing percentage of elderly by state.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 2017:Table 17.

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 10.9 Discuss changes in perceptions of the elderly.

Shifting Meanings of Growing Old

The Influence of the Mass Media

Shifting Meanings of Growing Old

Shifting meaning from asset to liability

Shifting again from a period preceding death to a period of growth

The Influence of the Mass Media

When does "old" begin? Until recently, Halle Berry, age 51, would have been considered elderly. No longer. This change illustrates the social nature of age and aging.

The Functionalist Perspective (1 of 2) 10.10 Summarize theories of disengagement, activity, and continuity.

Disengagement Theory

Activity Theory

Continuity Theory

Disengagement Theory

The function of pensions

The benefits of retirement through the disengagement theory

Evaluation of the theory

Exchanging one set of roles for another

What is the meaning of retirement

Activity Theory

This 73-year-old man teaches yoga in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. I wonder how many 20-year-olds, even teenagers, could keep up with him.

Continuity Theory

Adjusting to changes in life by continuing ties to the past

The impact of social class

Evaluation of the theory

Is the theory too broad?

The Conflict Perspective (1 of 2) 10.11 Explain the conflict perspective on Social Security, and discuss intergenerational competition and conflict.

Fighting for Resources: Social Security Legislation

“Old People Are Sucking Us Dry”: Intergenerational Competition and Conflict

Fighting for Resources: Social Security Legislation

The U.S. elderly are a potent political force today. They were not considered so until Dr. Francis Everett Townsend (pictured here) organized them as a political force in the 1930s. Townsend proposed a radical $200 per month pension plan for the elderly in the midst of the Great Depression. His plan and campaign frightened Congress.

Figure 10.16 Social Security Payments to Beneficiaries

Line graph illustrating the dramatic increase in the amount of money spent on Social Security.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States 1997:Table 518;

2017:Table 567. Broken line indicates the author’s projections.

Figure 10.17 Health Care Costs for the Elderly and Disabled

Line graph illustrating

the dramatic increase

in the amount of money

spent on Medicare and

Medicaid.

NOTE: Medicare is intended for the elderly and disabled, Medicaid for the poor. About 18 percent of Medicaid payments ($53 billion) go for medical care for the elderly (Statistical Abstract 2017:Table 161).

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States various years, and 2017:Table 148. Broken lines indicate the author's projections.

Figure 10.18 Age and Trends in Poverty

Line graph comparing percentages of children and seniors in the United States over time.

Source: By the author. Based on Statistical Abstract of the United States, various years, and 2017:Table 738. Broken lines indicate the author’s projections.

Looking Toward the Future 10.12 Discuss developing views of aging and the impact of technology on how long people live.

New Views: Creative Aging

A new period of life . . . but social class still matters

Photo Credits

Chapter 10 307: Monika Graff UPI Photo Service/Newscom; 306: Wilson Melo/Reuters; 306: Universal Images Group/SuperStock; 306: Art Wolfe/Science Source; 306: Bill Bachmann/The Image Works; 306: Dinodia/The Image Works; 306: Monica Rodriguez/Getty Images; 306: Nevada Wier/Getty Images; 306: Blaine Harrington III/Alamy Stock Photo; 308: Thomas Dallal/Sipa Press; 308: TopFoto/The Image Works; 309: Ingram Publishing/Newscom; 312: Jeremy Horner/Alamy Stock Photo; 313: Sean Sprague/The Image Works; 310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 310: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 311: James M. Henslin; 313: AAMIR QURESHI/Staff/Getty Images; 314: Getty Images; 315: Francoise Sylvie/SIPA/Newscom; 316: Hulton Deutsch/Getty Images; 318: Westend61/Getty Images; 320: anythings/Shutterstock; 320: Steve Debenport/E+/Getty Images; 326: dpa picture alliance/Alamy Stock Photo; 327: Kes/www.CartoonStock.com; 328: Hero Images Inc./Alamy Stock Photo; 330: Jason Dorday/Stringer/Getty Images; 303: Christie’s Images Ltd./SuperStock; 331: Sean Pavone/Alamy Stock Photo; 331: PETE SOUZA/KRT/Newscom; 335: James M. Henslin; 336: Dennis Van Tine/Sipa USA/AP Images; 337: The Brilliant Mind of Edison Lee is used with the permission of John Hambrock, King Features Syndicate and the Cartoonist Group. All rights reserved.; 338: Imagine China/Newscom; 339: Bettmann/Getty Images; 340: Enigma/Alamy Stock Photo; 340: Dennis Welsh/UpperCut Images/Getty Images; 342: Reed Saxon/AP Images;