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Chapter Ten

Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development

Learning Objectives

Relate parenting dimensions and discipline techniques to parenting styles and child behaviors.

Explain how siblings influence each other, and how birth order may impact child behaviors and outcomes.

Describe the kinds of play identified by Piaget and by Parten.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the development of empathy and prosocial behavior.

Explain theoretical approaches to aggression in children.

Describe the development of a sense of self and self-esteem.

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Learning Objectives

Discuss changes in the fears of children during the preschool years.

Describe gender-role development and theories related to sex differences.

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10.1 Influences on Development

Parents, Siblings, and Peers

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Children who watch 2 - 4 hours of TV a day will see 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have finished elementary school. TRUE. It is true that children who watch 2–4 hours of television a day will see some 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have ﬁnished elementary school (Huesmann et al., 2003). Perhaps it is remarkable that so many children—exposed to all this—are not more violent in their own lives.

Children mechanically imitate the aggressive behavior they view in the media. FALSE. It is not true that children mechanically imitate the aggressive behavior they view in the media. Nevertheless, exposure to violence in the media increases the probability of violence by viewers.

What Are the Dimensions of Child Rearing?

Warmth – Coldness

Degree of affection and acceptance of child

Parental warmth relates to

Development of moral conscience

Positive social and emotional well being

Restrictiveness – Permissiveness

Degree to which parents impose rules and control

Authoritative style

Permissive style

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The most common fear among preschoolers is fear of social disapproval. FALSE. It is not true that fear of social disapproval is the most common fear among preschoolers. Preschoolers are most likely to have fears that revolve around animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and themes involving personal physical safety (Muris & Field, 2011).

A 2 1/2-year-old may know that she is a girl but still think that she can grow up to be a daddy. TRUE. It’s true! Because most 2½-year-olds have not developed gender stability, a girl of this age may know that she is a girl but still think she can grow up to be a daddy.

How Do Parents Enforce Restrictions?

Inductive Techniques

Reasoning – teach the child principles for use in guiding behavior in similar situations

Power-Assertive Methods

“Spare the rod, spoil the child”

“I’m the boss, I control the world”

Withdrawal of Love

Isolating or ignoring the child

Threatening with loss of love

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What Parenting Styles Transmit Values and Standards?

Authoritative Parents

High on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness

Self-reliance, independence, high self-esteem, and social competence

Authoritarian Parents

Low on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness

Less socially competent, lower self-reliance, and self-esteem

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

Parents who are restrictive and demand mature behavior wind up with rebellious children, not mature children. FALSE It is not true that parents who are strict and demand mature behavior wind up with rebelliious children. Consistent control and ﬁrm enforcement of rules can have positive consequences for the child, particularly when combined with strong support and aﬀection (Grusec & Davidov, 2015).

What Parenting Styles Transmit Values and Standards?

Permissive Parents

Permissive – Indulgent

High Warmth, Low Restrictiveness

Less competent in school and more deviant behavior, but fairly high in social competence and self-confidence

Rejecting – Neglecting

Low Warmth, Low Restrictiveness

Least competent, responsible, and mature children; most prone to problem behaviors

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

There is no point in trying to reason with a 4-year-old. FALSE There is a point in trying to reason with a 4-year-old. The inductive approach helps the child understand moral behavior and fosters prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing. Note: Reasoning with a 4-year-old is not as complex as with an older child. One can say, for example, “Don’t do that because it hurts.”

How Do the Situation and the Child Influence Parenting Styles?

Role of the Situation in Parenting

Use of power-assertive techniques in stressful situations

Role of Child’s Characteristics in Parenting

Aggressive behavior

Willful disobedience

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How Do Siblings Influence Social and Emotional Development?

Functions performed by siblings

Give physical care

Provide emotional support and nurturance

Offer advice and direction

Serve as role models

Provide social interaction

Make demands and impose restrictions

Promote certain cognitive advances

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How Do Siblings Influence Social and Emotional Development?

Positive Aspects

Cooperation

Teaching

Nurturance

Siblings imitate each other

Conflict may enhance social competence and self- identity

As siblings age, relationships become more egalitarian and conflict declines

Negative Aspects

Conflict

Control

Competition

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How Do Siblings Influence Social and Emotional Development?

Adjusting to birth of sibling

Both positive and negative reaction to stress of new sibling

Regression

Anger and naughtiness

Increased independence and maturity

Preparing the child for the new baby can reduce sibling rivalry

Ownership, buy in...

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The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives

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Figure 10.1 The Self in Relation to Others From the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives. (a) To an individualist, the self is separate from other people. (b) To a collectivist, the self is complete only in terms of relationships to other people. Are there differences in the ways in which people in individualist and collectivist cultures rear their children? Source: Based on Markus & Kitayama (1991).

Birth Order: Just Where Is the Child in the Family?

Firstborn Children

More highly motivated to achieve, more cooperative, adult-oriented

Show greater anxiety, less self-reliant

More likely to have imaginary playmate

Later-born Children

Tend to be more popular with peers

More rebellious, liberal, and agreeable

Parenting style may differ between first- and later-born children

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explore the Child Development Institute website for information regarding sibling rivalry.

URL: http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/

How Do Peers Influence Social and Emotional Development?

Functions of Peer Interactions

Learn social skills

Learn leading and following

Develop physical and cognitive skills

Provide emotional support

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How Do Peers Influence Social and Emotional Development?

By age 2, children:

Imitate another’s play

Engage in social games

Show a preference for a few specific playmates

Preschool friendships

Show higher levels of interaction, prosocial behavior, positive emotions

Early elementary

Based on shared activities and having fun together

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

First-born children are more highly motivated to achieve than later-born children. TRUE It is true that firstborn children, as a group, are more highly motivated to achieve than later-born children. But keep in mind that there are many (many!) exceptions to the rule. The research also remains unclear as to why firstborns are often more highly motivated.

10.2 Social Behavior

In the World, Among Others

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What Are the Characteristics of Play?

Piaget identified 4 kinds of play, characterized by increasing cognitive complexity (De Lisi, 2015)

Functional play – repetitive motor activity

Symbolic play – pretend play

Constructive play – draw or make something

Formal games – games with rules

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Functional Play

Beginning in the sensorimotor stage, the first kind of play involves repetitive motor activity, such as rolling a ball or running and laughing.

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Symbolic play

Also called pretend play, imaginative play, or dramatic play, symbolic play emerges toward the end of the sensorimotor stage and increases during early childhood. In symbolic play, children create settings, characters, and scripts (Mottweiler & Taylor, 2014).

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Constructive play

Constructive play is common in early childhood. Children use objects or materials to draw something or make something, such as a tower of blocks.

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Formal Games

The most complex form of play, according to Piaget, involves formal games with rules. These include board games, which are sometimes enhanced or invented by children, and games involving motor skills, such as marbles and hopscotch, ball games involving sides or teams, and video games. Such games may involve social interaction as well as physical activity and rules. People play such games for a lifetime.

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Theories of Play

Six Types of Play (Parten, 1932)

Nonsocial (Not influenced by other children)

Unoccupied Play-Children do not appear to be playing. They may engage in random movements that seem to be without a goal. Unoccupied play appears to be the least frequent kind of play in nursery schools.

Solitary Play-Children play with toys by themselves, independently of the children around them. Solitary players do not appear to be influenced by children around them. They make no effort to approach them.

Onlooker Play-Children observe other children who are at play. Onlookers frequently talk to the children they are observing and may make suggestions, but they do not overtly join in.

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Social (Interactive and influenced by other children)

Parallel Play-Children play with toys similar to those of surrounding children. However, they treat the toys as they choose and do not directly interact with other children.

Associative Play-Children interact and share toys. However, they do not seem to share group goals. Although they interact, individuals still treat toys as they choose. The association with the other children appears to be more important than the nature of the activity. They seem to enjoy each other’s company.

Cooperative Play-Children interact to achieve common group goals. The play of each child is subordinated to the purposes of the group. One or two group members direct the activities of others. There is also a division of labor, with different children taking different roles. Children may pretend to be members of a family, animals, space monsters, and all sorts of creatures.

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Gender Differences in Play

By 15 to 36 months, children show more preference for gender-stereotyped toys

Girls are more likely to stray from stereotypes

Cross-role activities may represent social prestige of masculinity in American culture

Gender differences in play activities

Boys prefer vigorous, outdoor, rough and tumble play

Girls prefer arts and crafts, domestic play; more closely directed and structured by adults

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Gender Differences in Play

Biological factors

Boys – slightly greater strength and activity level

Girls – slightly greater physical maturity and coordination

Differences in treatment by adults

Children seek “appropriate” labels for toys and play

Peer, parental, adult criticism

Children begin to prefer playmates of same sex by age 2

Gender Differences in Play

Boys’ play is more oriented toward dominance, aggression, and rough play

Not responsive to girls’ polite suggestions

How Does Prosocial Behavior Develop?

Empathy

From infancy, babies cry when they hear other children cry

May be reflexive or the start of empathy

By second year, approach others in distress and try to help

Unresponsive emotionally – more aggressive behavior in school years

Girls show more empathy than boys

Social learning or genetic?

Perspective-taking improves with age

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Influences on Prosocial Behavior

Reinforcement of behaviors

More positive peer response

Responsibility

Household chores and caring for siblings

Observation of sharing behaviors

Parental interactions

Parenting style

Aggression—How Does It Develop?

Aggression in preschoolers

Frequently instrumental or possession-oriented

Usually causes rejection by peers

Aggression at 6 or 7 years old

Hostile and person-oriented

Aggressive behavior appears to be stable over time and predictive of a variety of social and emotional difficulties in adulthood

What Are the Causes of Aggression in Children?

Evolutionary Theory

Struggle for survival

Biological Factors

Genetic factors

Testosterone

Cognitive Factors

Inaccurate interpretation of others’ behavior

Lack of empathy and perspective-taking

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What Are the Causes of Aggression in Children?

Social Cognitive Theory

Reinforcement

Aggressive children associate with aggressive peers

Parental coercion to control children’s behavior

Observational Learning

Model aggressive peers

Parental models

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What Causes Aggression in Children?

Media Influences

Bobo Doll experiment (Bandura, 1963)

Imitation of modeled behavior

Disinhibition of learned aggressive responses

Television viewing

Circular relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior

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Albert Bandura’s Classic Experiment in the Imitation of Aggressive Models

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Figure 10.3 Photos from Albert Bandura’s Classic Experiment in the Imitation of Aggressive Models. Research by Albert Bandura and his colleagues showed that children frequently imitate the aggressive behavior they observe. In the top row, an adult model strikes a clown doll. The second and third rows show a boy and a girl imitating the aggressive behavior. Albert Bandura/Department of Psychology, Stanford University

Media Influences

Observational learning

Disinhibition

Increased arousal

Priming of aggressive thoughts and memories

Habituation

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Other Factors Related to Aggression

Violent video games

Appears to be influenced by male/female cultural stereotyping, biological gender differences, and academic achievement

Parental behavior

Substance abuse

Physical punishments

Father’s absence

Parental rejection

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10.3 Personality and Emotional Development

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How Does the Self Develop During Early Childhood?

Categorical self – external traits

Age groupings

Gender

By age 3, use behaviors and internal states

Appear to occur frequently and are fairly stable over time

Self-esteem

By age 4, begin evaluative judgments

Cognitive and physical competence

Social acceptance by peers and parents

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

Children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive than children who are not. TRUE P It is true that children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive themselves. Perhaps physically aggressive parents serve as models for aggression and also stoke their children’s anger.

Initiative versus Guilt

Erikson’s stage of psychosocial development

Strive to achieve independence from parents

Strive to master adult behaviors

Children begin to internalize adult rules

Fear of violating rules may cause guilt

Support to explore helps develop initiative

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What Sorts of Fears Do Children Have During the Preschool Years?

Number of fears peaks between 2½ and 4 years

Decline in fears of:

Loud noises, falling, sudden movement, and strangers

Most likely to have fears about:

Animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal safety

In middle childhood, fears become more realistic

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

Children who watch 2 - 4 hours of TV a day will see 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have finished elementary school. TRUE It is true that children who watch 2–4 hours of television a day will see some 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have finished elementary school (Huesmann et al., 2003). Perhaps it is remarkable that so many children—exposed to all this—are not more violent in their own lives.

Children mechanically imitate the aggressive behavior they view in the media. FALSE It is not true that children mechanically imitate the aggressive behavior they view in the media. Nevertheless, exposure to violence in the media increases the probability of violence by viewers.

Participant Modeling

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Figure 10.5 Participant Modeling. Participant modeling helps children overcome fears through principles of observational learning. In these photos, children with a fear of snakes, children with a fear of snakes observe and then imitate models who are unafraid. As another example, parents often try to convince children that something tastes good by eating it in front of them and saying “Mmm!.” Albert Bandura/Department of Psychology, Stanford University

10.4 Development of Gender Roles and Gender Differences

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URL: http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/family-living/kids-media-safety/television.shtml

While our gender may begin with the assignment of our sex, it doesn’t end there. A person’s gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions:

Body

Identity

Expression

https://www.genderspectrum.org/quick-links/understanding-gender/

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Body: our body, our experience of our own body, how society genders bodies, and how others interact with us based on our body.

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Identity: our deeply held, internal sense of self as male, female, a blend of both, or neither; who we internally know ourselves to be.

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Expression: how we present our gender in the world and how society, culture, community, and family perceive, interact with, and try to shape our gender. Gender expression is also related to gender roles and how society uses those roles to try to enforce conformity to current gender norms.

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Each of these dimensions can vary greatly across a range of possibilities. A person’s comfort in their gender is related to the degree to which these three dimensions feel in harmony. Let’s explore each of these dimensions in a little more detail.

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What Are Stereotypes and Gender Roles?

Gender Roles

Cultural stereotypes of males and females

Behavioral expectations based on gender

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How Do Gender Roles Develop?

Stages of Development of Gender Roles

Initially label the genders

2 to 2½ years – accurate identifying of pictures of girls and boys

3 years – display knowledge of gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, work, and activities

Increasingly traditional in stereotyping between 3 and 10 years of age (Hilliard & Liben, 2010)

Older children become somewhat more flexible

Recognize individual differences

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How Do Genders Differ in Their Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Development?

In infancy, gender differences are small and inconsistent

In early childhood

Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play and are more aggressive

Girls show more empathy and report more fears

Girls show more verbal ability; boys more visual-spatial ability

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What Are the Origins of Gender Differences?

Evolution and Heredity

Gender differences are the result of natural selection, adaptation

Survival set passed through genes (heredity)

Organization of the Brain

Example: Use of hippocampus when navigating

Males use both hemispheres and rely on geometry

Females use right hemisphere (with right prefrontal cortex) and rely on landmarks

Males’ hemispheres may be more specialized than females’

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Truth or Fiction Revisited

The most common fear among preschoolers is fear of social disapproval. FALSE It is not true that fear of social disapproval is the most common fear among preschoolers. Preschoolers are most likely to have fears that revolve around animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and themes involving personal physical safety (Muris & Field, 2011).

What Are the Origins of Gender Differences?

Sex Hormones

Gender differences in personality and gender-typed activity preferences may be related to prenatal levels of sex hormones

Cross-species findings suggest gender-typed preferences might develop without socialization

Social Cognitive Theory

Rewards and punishment

Observational learning

Socialization

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What Are the Origins of Gender Differences?

Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)

Gender Identity

Knowledge that one is male or female

Gender Stability

Recognize people retain their gender for life

Gender Constancy

Recognize gender does not change, even if people modify behavior or dress

Once a child has achieved gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways consistent with their gender

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Cisgender: gender identity consistent with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Transgender: person has a gender identity that does not match the sex they were assigned at birth.

Non-Binary: people who do not identify strictly as a boy or a girl – they could identify as both, or neither, or as another gender entirely.

Agender: people do not identify with any gender.

https://www.genderspectrum.org/quick-links/understanding-gender/

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What Are the Origins of Gender Differences?

Gender-Schema Theory

Use gender as one way of organizing their perceptions of the world

Gender schema - cluster of concepts about male and female traits and behaviors

Gender identity brings “gender-appropriate” behavior

As soon as gender-labels are understood, children seek information about gender-typed traits and try to live up to them

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