Intro to Homeland Security

CHAPTER 10

The Homeland Security Cycle

Chapter Objectives

To understand the elements of the homeland security cycle and why they are important to homeland security

To understand the role of federal, state, local, and tribal governments in the homeland security cycle

Chapter Outline

• Introduction

• The Homeland Security Cycle

• Mitigation

• Preparedness

• Response

• Recovery

• Chapter Summary

Introduction

In May 2012, FBI agents foiled a plan by five suspected terrorists (and self-proclaimed anarchists) to destroy a bridge near Cleveland, Ohio. The plan was thwarted after an FBI informant infiltrated the group and recorded conversations in which the plot was discussed in the months before the attempted bombing. The five men were arrested by members of a Joint Terrorism Task Force who claimed that the public was never in any danger because the explosives they tried to use were provided by an undercover FBI agent and were not operable explosives.1 Four of the men eventually pleaded guilty. Three men received sentences of 8–11 years in prison, and the fourth received a sentence of 6 years in prison. The last of the five men received a psychiatric evaluation, which was ruled inconclusive.

The FBI’s use of a paid informant to gather intelligence on the anarchists represents the first stage in the homeland security cycle. In this stage, information is collected and analyzed as a way to prevent terrorist attacks, as was done in this case. Other actions taken by the FBI or local law enforcement and first responders could be taken to prepare for events, should they take place. These would constitute the second stage of the homeland security cycle and could include, for example, carrying out mock drills that allow responders to “practice” their actions. The third stage of the cycle is response, which would take place right after an event. If the five suspects had been able to carry out their plot, first responders would need to react quickly and provide necessary services for any victims. The final stage, had the suspects carried out their plot, would be recovery from the event, which might include rebuilding the bridge or other actions to restore the local community.

The Homeland Security Cycle

The homeland security cycle refers to the four stages necessary to prepare for an event and to respond to it. The first two stages, mitigation and preparedness, occur before an emergency happens, whereas the final two, response and recovery, are the actions taken in the aftermath. Mitigation means to lessen the effects of an emergency, and preparedness is simply being ready for it. The third stage, response, refers to the activities that take place immediately after the event. The final stage, recovery, occurs after immediate needs are met and any dangers subside.

KEY TERM

Mitigation—the effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of disasters.

KEY TERM

Preparedness—a continuous cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating, and taking corrective action in an effort to ensure effective coordination during incident response.

On the federal level, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is largely responsible for helping America with the different stages of the cycle. This is in line with their mission, which is “to lead America to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from disasters.” There are also state and local agencies that assist with all four stages of the cycle.

KEY TERM

FEMA—the Federal Emergency Management Agency is the agency within the Department of Homeland Security responsible for responding to catastrophes and issuing a disaster and/or emergency declaration, thereby allowing them to provide monetary assistance.

Mitigation

The term mitigation refers to the process through which attempts are made to prevent a possible emergency or to reduce the potential impact of that emergency (be it terrorist attacks, natural disasters, or human-made disasters) before it occurs. In other words, mitigation refers to those steps taken to reduce the risk of an attack or emergency. These steps can also be thought of as any actions taken with the intent of avoiding an incident or intervening in an effort to limit the effects if an incident should occur. Mitigation also includes a level of risk management. For instance, more attention will be given to protecting the country’s critical infrastructure.

Courtesy of Rosanna Arias/FEMA.

The activities considered to be part of the mitigation stage are varied, but they all have the common goal of reducing the risks associated with potential hazards. They are the policies and actions that can be implemented as a way to reduce risk to people and property from hazardous events. These can include a range of activities such as restrictive building codes, improved surveillance of critical sites, immunizations to prevent diseases, and increased security operations.

Mitigation efforts usually address two components: the probability of an event occurring (likelihood) and the consequences of an event. When it comes to reducing the probability, it is relatively easy to implement policies that minimize the risk of a man-made attack. These can include such activities as gathering “actionable” information about terrorist activity, analyzing that intelligence, oversight of a group’s communications, and various surveillance techniques. All of these activities are focused on preventing a threat from being carried out. Much of this is done by the Department of Homeland Security along with certain state and local agencies.

State and local fusion centers also collect intelligence from various agencies and organizations and analyze it in an effort to prevent terrorist actions. These centers collect and “fuse” sensitive information from many sources, including law enforcement, task forces, the National Counterterrorism Center, other fusion centers, and first responders. Today, over 70 state and local intelligence fusion centers exist, with “satellite” offices that focus on intelligence gathering and dissemination in different parts of the state.2

The National Strategy for Homeland Security notes that intelligence and information analysis is an integral part of the nation’s effort to reduce America’s vulnerabilities. They note four categories of intelligence analysis, including: (1) tactical threat analysis (analysis of a group’s current and potential activities); (2) strategic analysis of the enemy (knowing the group’s identities, financial and political sources of support, motivation, goals, current and future capabilities); (3) vulnerability assessments (the consequences of a terrorist attack against specific sites or facilities); and (4) threat-vulnerability integration (mapping terrorist threats and the vulnerabilities of their potential targets).

There are numerous agencies that assist with mitigation. Within the Department of Homeland Security, a Mitigation Directorate was created as part of FEMA; its mission is to protect lives and prevent loss of property resulting from natural and man-made events. This group is responsible for implementing any risk-reduction programs for the nation that have been authorized by Congress.

FEMA has developed different courses of action for mitigation policy. One of those is the Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings. This document, written for architects, engineers, and builders, provides guidelines on ways to reduce the effects of potential terrorist attacks by reducing the physical damage to buildings that can occur during an attack. Such changes will also reduce human casualties.

While it is impossible to implement policies that prevent a natural hazard such as a hurricane or earthquake from occurring, it is possible to reduce the impact of a natural disaster with actions taken before the event occurs. Some activities include stricter building codes, evacuation plans, building levees, and other structures. In some cases, it can simply involve educating citizens on measures they can take to reduce injury and death (e.g., first-aid techniques).

As a way to mitigate the effects of hurricanes, FEMA has created the National Hurricane Program that conducts assessments of, and provides assistance to, state and local agencies with their own hurricane education plans. Through FEMA, experts also conduct analyses of storms to help predict the most likely effects of storm surges and high winds, help to assess shelter availability and capacity for those residents affected by the storm, and calculate evacuation times required, if needed.

Additionally, FEMA has created the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program. Along with the U.S. Geological Survey, FEMA conducts and supports ongoing earth science research to better understand the nature, the effects, and the likelihood of earthquakes.

FEMA also supports the Mitigation Grant programs to provide financial assistance to states. These grant programs include the Hazards Mitigation Grant Program, Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, the Severe Repetitive Loss Grant Program, and the Repetitive Flood Claims Grant Program. They also oversee the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), which was created by Congress as a way to mitigate future losses due to flooding. This program supports building and zoning ordinances and access to affordable, federally backed flood insurance for property owners.

Preparedness

The second stage of the homeland security cycle is preparedness, which refers to those activities that help officials be prepared in the case of an emergency. It is the “state of readiness” that local, state, and federal officials must develop so they are prepared to respond to a variety of emergencies. These plans include a range of activities, programs, and systems so that officials may respond quickly and effectively in time of a disaster. Being prepared and responding quickly to a disaster is critical for minimizing deaths, injuries, financial losses, property damage, and interruption of business activities.

© photka/ShutterStock, Inc.

Activities related to preparedness are very closely tied to activities taken in the mitigation stage, and the distinction between them is often not clear. However, preparedness refers to actions taken to plan for the best response to an event, whereas mitigation includes all the actions taken to minimize the scope of the event before it happens.

Many activities can be considered to be part of the preparedness stage, but they generally include developing plans and procedures to ensure that first responders are properly trained and equipped to provide assistance should an event occur. In many areas, mock exercises or drills are developed and carried out as a way to establish processes and procedures that will be used during an actual emergency. Preparedness also includes establishing (and testing or practicing, when possible) evacuation procedures from buildings, first-response training to employees (such as first aid), public education, and emergency operations centers. These are the kinds of actions that can help people survive disasters by teaching them specific procedures so that they are comfortable should they ever be needed. Whenever possible, this includes testing of all procedures before an event to ensure their effectiveness.

Preparedness also includes developing plans to coordinate all resources in a community that may be needed in an actual emergency. Every relevant agency or organization should be ready to provide a specific level of service, depending on the nature and seriousness of the incident. All organizations should ensure that they are prepared to respond to an incident and know what their specific role will be. It is crucial that all organizations and personnel who could be part of a response team are completely cognizant of their roles and responsibilities. Moreover, a comprehensive system for communication between these organizations must be established.

Some of the nation’s actions to prepare for emergencies can be found in the National Response Framework. In this document, it is noted that a “unified national effort” is needed to prepare for a response. In the report it is noted that all levels of government have a responsibility to develop detailed all-hazards contingency plans that clearly articulate procedures that are tailored to each jurisdiction, and should be integrated, operational, and incorporate the private-sector. The report also indicates that well-qualified teams should be assembled and provided with the equipment necessary to respond to a variety of incidents. Finally, these teams must be trained through a series of exercises that not only train individuals but also contain a mechanism for corrective action. This is particularly important for states, as they will often be the first responders to most emergencies. Every state has established a homeland security or emergency management system, some of which are listed in Box 10.1.

KEY TERM

National Response Framework—the NRF is a guide to how the nation responds to all types of disasters and emergencies.

BOX 10.1 State-level Agencies Preparing for Attacks

Louisiana Governor’s Office for Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness: encourages families and businesses to make plans so people know what to do if an emergency strikes; informs the public when serious weather is approaching; provides guidance on how to receive help; helps families and businesses mitigate damages by providing advice on ways to prevent flood damages, food safety rules, and how to build safe homes.

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency (PEMA): provides disaster assistance to families, businesses, and communities after a disaster to help them recover and move forward. They also have a Division of Exercise and Evaluation that oversees training programs for responders. The director of this agency also serves as the homeland security adviser to the governor.

Tennessee Office of Homeland Security: top priority is to protect the lives and livelihood of the citizens of the state. They seek to educate, train, organize, and utilize citizens during an emergency to maintain a Citizen Corps program that includes five programs: CERT Training, Neighborhood Watch, Volunteers in Police Service, Medical Reserve Corps, and Fire Corps. They have instituted a Citizen Outreach program to help citizens be prepared for an emergency, a program to protect the infrastructure in the state, and a grant program for first responders, among others.

Oklahoma Office of Homeland Security: has identified their objectives to include preventing a terrorist attack in Oklahoma, reducing Oklahoma’s vulnerability to terrorist attack, and minimizing the damage from and respond to a terrorist attack should one occur. The duties of their office are to develop and implement a comprehensive statewide homeland security strategy, to plan and implement a statewide response system, to administer the homeland security advisory system, to coordinate, apply for, and distribute federal homeland security grant funds, and to implement national homeland security plans.

New York Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Services: has four key offices, including Intelligence and Analysis, Public Safety, Critical Infrastructure Protection, and Federal Grant Program Administration. They also have programs to prepare citizens for future attacks, and an Office of Cybersecurity.

Data from: Louisiana Governor’s Office of homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness. (2012). Retrieved online at http://gohsep.la.gov/; Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.pema.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/training_and_exercises/4684; Tennessee Office of Homeland Security. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.tn.gov/homelandsecurity/index.shtml; Oklahoma Office of Homeland Security. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.ok.gov/homeland/About_Us/index.html; New York Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Services. (2012). Retrieved online http://www.dhses.ny.gov/

Preparedness also takes place on the community level. In preparation, the communities need to identify possible shelter locations for those affected by an emergency, along with food, clothing, and evacuation routes.3 Once the potential hazards in a community are identified, officials can proceed to develop a comprehensive preparedness plan. Many communities have developed different warning systems and signals that alert citizens of dangerous weather systems. Many communities broadcast warnings through emergency radio and television broadcasts. In other areas, there are reverse 911 calls, or special sirens, or emergency workers may go door-to-door to warn people. The Emergency Alert System (EAS) is a way to warn the entire nation of a national threat or emergency on very short notice.4

In order to oversee the coordinated response approach developed in the National Response Plan, the federal government created the National Incident Management System (NIMS) as a way to provide a nationwide method for federal, state, and local governments to work effectively and efficiently together to prepare for, respond to, and recover from incidents. According to NIMS, all agencies should have at least a minimal level of preparedness for communications between agencies, resource management, and command structure.

KEY TERM

National Response Plan—the National Response Plan (NRP) is an all-discipline, all-hazards plan that establishes a single, comprehensive framework for the management of domestic incidents; it provides the structure and mechanisms for the coordination of federal support to state, local, and tribal incident managers and for exercising direct federal authorities and responsibilities (replaced by the broader National Response Framework).

KEY TERM

National Incident Management System—the National Incident Management System (NIMS) identifies concepts and principles that answer how to manage emergencies from preparedness to recovery regardless of their cause, size, location or complexity.

On the national level, FEMA helps states and local governments develop preparedness plans and to be ready for an event. FEMA oversees the Homeland Security Grant Program, that helps state and local governments develop their strategic plans.5 For example, FEMA suggests preparing for a biological threat by ensuring that all citizens are current with required immunizations. They also suggest having extra water, a battery-powered or hand-cranked radio, and extra flashlights and batteries available in the house. A plan for contacting other family members nearby during an emergency is essential.6

Similar suggestions are made by FEMA in order to prepare for a chemical threat. However, in the case of a chemical attack, FEMA suggests using plastic to seal doors, windows, and vents as a way to prevent chemicals from entering the home.7 FEMA’s suggestions for preparing for a nuclear attack include having an evacuation plan, especially if you live near a potential target, which, generally speaking, includes strategic missile sites, military bases, government centers (Washington, D.C. or a state capital), key transportation or communication centers, manufacturing or industrial centers, petroleum refineries, financial centers, and major ports. In order to protect from radioactive fallout, it would be necessary to take shelter in an underground area or in the middle of a large building.8 Adequately preparing for a radioactive event, according the FEMA, will require a 2-week emergency kit with water, food, and other supplies. It would be helpful to have duct tape, scissors, and plastic for covering vents, windows, and doors to block radioactive material from entering the building.9

FIGURE 10.1 Preparing for a Zombie Apocalypse: The CDC is encouraging people to prepare for a zombie invasion! In case flesh-eating zombies invade, people need to have water, food, medications, tools and supplies, sanitation and hygiene, clothing and bedding, important documents, and first aid supplies to protect themselves. They will also need a plan that outlines to meet other family members, a list of emergency contacts, and an evacuation route.

U.S. Centers for Disease Control. (2011). Preparedness 101: Zombie Apocalypse. Retrieved online at http://blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2011/05/preparedness-101-zombie-apocalypse/

In addition to FEMA other federal agencies help in the planning process, such as the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). As a way to encourage people to be prepared for an emergency, the CDC has developed a tongue-in-cheek educational program that encourages people to be prepared for a zombie apocalypse (see FIGURE 10.1 ). It is a way to reach out to new audiences and encourage them to be prepared for most any emergency. If you are prepared for a zombie attack, you will be prepared for other emergencies. It is a way to teach the importance of emergency preparedness in an entertaining way.

State and local governments also take part in strategic planning. The plans will vary depending on the jurisdiction, but most state and local governments focus on an “all-hazards” approach that includes terrorism as one hazard.10

Response

The third stage of the homeland security cycle is response, which refers to any measures taken at the onset of an emergency to save lives and protect property. These measures often require coordination between different levels of government.

Courtesy of Walt Jennings/FEMA.

KEY TERM

Response—any measures taken at the onset of an emergence to save lives and protect property.

There are many types of response efforts, and they will vary depending on the type and severity of the emergency. They can include issuing warnings to notify the public to take action, notifying emergency response personnel of the event, providing immediate medical assistance to victims, rescuing victims, providing traffic control, evacuating residents, or providing shelter for those affected. These actions all have the goal of restoring order in the affected area in a quick and safe manner.

Response actions are generally carried out by first responders such as local police, fire, and emergency medical personnel. These officials take immediate action in order to secure the scene, maintain order, assist victims, contain any fires that have started, contain the spread of any biological or nuclear material, identify the type of chemical or biological agent used, or retrieving any bodies. Their role may be complicated because the site may be contaminated with chemical, biological, or radioactive substances. At the same time, first responders often need to collect evidence to aid in the subsequent investigation.

One critical step to responding to an event is to ensure that all response tasks are carried out, while at the same time ensuring there is limited overlap. In these situations, clear Command and Control (C2) is essential, which allows all agencies to perform their designated roles to reduce the effects of the emergency while avoiding redundant actions and the wasting of resources.11

In addition to fire, police, and emergency personnel, volunteer groups often respond to emergencies and assist on the front lines. This could include groups such as the American Red Cross, the National Volunteer Organization Against Disasters, Feeding America, American Radio Relay League, or the Salvation Army. These volunteers have usually been trained to provide specific emergency response services in support of the first responders. They often work alongside local, state, and federal authorities to address the immediate needs of disaster victims by providing food, shelter, and clothing. Many of these volunteer groups are listed in more detail in Box 10.2.

Other volunteer opportunities for responding to emergencies were established by the White House and The Department of Homeland Security. When announcing these groups in 2002, Bush called for 2 years of volunteer service from every American citizen. One of the groups is the Citizen Corps that provides opportunities for any citizens who have a desire to make their communities safer. Many groups are part of Citizen Corps, including Citizen Corps Councils, Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs), Volunteers in Police Service (VIPS), Medical Reserve, Neighborhood Watch, and Fire Corps. These groups are detailed in Box 10.3.

BOX 10.2 Volunteer Groups

American Red Cross: trains volunteers in their Disaster Action Team to assist victims in emergencies.

National Volunteer Organization Against Disasters: founded in 1970, this group is made up of nonprofit organizations who are involved in providing assistance to communities and survivors. They provide training for their volunteers so they are acquainted with the proper procedures before the actual disaster occurs. There are national members in the organization who are responsible for coordinating volunteer efforts at the national level, while state/territory members ensure coordination efforts among organizations at the state and local level.

Feeding America (formerly America’s Second Harvest): works to provide food to survivors of disaster-affected communities.

American Radio Relay League: trains volunteers who wish to provide emergency communications in times of emergency. They also provide public service announcements as needed.

Salvation Army: has the Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Network (SATERN) that is made up of volunteers who provide emergency communications during disasters. The organization also provides disaster relief services such as basic services, financial assistance, food and shelter, assistance with clean-up and reconstruction efforts.

Data from: National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.nvoadd.org/index/php?option=com_context&view=article&id; Feeding America. (2012). Retrieved online at http://feedingamerica.org/how-we-fight-hunger/mission-and-values.aspx; American Radio Relay League. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.arrl.org/emergency-communications; Salvation Army. (2012). Retrieved online at http://disaster.salvationarmeyusa.org/aboutus/

The National Response Plan outlines the federal government’s plan for responding to an emergency. The report focused on a unified approach to managing incidents that involves many participants from all levels of government. The report notes that once an incident occurs, priorities must shift to employing resources to save lives, protect property and the environment, and preserve the social, economic, and political structure of the jurisdiction. It is essential that affected governments quickly gain and maintain situational awareness and then activate and deploy resources. After that, response actions must be coordinated, as should any requests for additional support.

The federal government has many options for responding to emergencies, and there are many federal agencies that play some role in the response stage of the homeland security cycle, some of which are listed in Box 10.4.

FEMA has suggested ways to respond to various attacks. For example, they suggest that during a chemical threat, people should move quickly away from the impacted area without passing through the contaminated area. If it is not possible to leave a building, they suggest closing all doors and windows and turning off the ventilation. They suggest the room/s be sealed with plastic sheeting and duct tape.12

During a nuclear blast, FEMA suggests listening for officials to make statements about what to do: take shelter, go to a specific place, or evacuate. If it is not possible to evacuate, they suggest finding a building made of brick or concrete to limit exposure to radioactive material. Once in the building, you should go as far below ground as possible or into the center of the structure. If possible, stay there at least 24 hours, until radiation levels decrease. If outside, FEMA suggests taking cover behind anything that may offer protection, and lie flat on the ground, covering your head. It is important to get clean as quickly as possible, removing the outer layer of clothing, placing it in a plastic bag and moving it far away from any people or animals.13

BOX 10.3 Citizen Corps

USA Freedom Corps: within the Executive Office of the President, it is the fifth policy council (along with Domestic, Economic, National Security, and Homeland Security) in the White House. The Corps promotes volunteerism across the nation and seeks to connect Americans to various volunteer opportunities in other federal agencies such as AmeriCorps, Peace Corps, and Senior Corps, while also encouraging citizens to find local opportunities for volunteering.

Citizen Corps: within the DHS Office of Domestic Preparedness. Volunteers in this agency assist in the recovery process after an attack or natural disaster. As a component of USA Freedom Corps, the Citizen Corps encourages people to prepare for emergencies.

Community Emergency Response Team (CERT): CERTs are sponsored by local fire departments or emergency management groups. Volunteers are trained to help in emergencies or to provide medical assistance, crowd control, or conduct training for others. They also help to raise funds to purchase equipment. Sometimes CERT teams go by other names, including Neighborhood Emergency Response Teams (NERT) or in the case where most of the team consists of teenagers: Teen Community Emergency Response Teams (TEEN CERT).

Fire Corps: volunteers help local fire/EMS departments in nonemergency situations. As part of Citizens Corps, these men and women help to increase the ability of fire departments to assist and protect the community.

Medical Reserve Corps: as part of Citizen Corps, these volunteers make up a network of public health members in a community who volunteer to provide medical assistance during emergencies.

Volunteers in Police Service (VIPs): part of Citizen Corps, this group provides support to law enforcement agencies by performing clerical tasks, assisting with search and rescue operations, or crowd control.

Data from: Citizen Corps. (2012). Retrieved online at http://citizencorps.gov/citizencorps/index.html; FEMA. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.fema.gov/about/regions/regioniii/citizen_corps.shtm; Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT). (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.citizencorps.gov/cert/; Volunteers in Police Service. 2012). Retrieved online at http://www.policevolunteers.org/

Another type of plan for responding to incidents on the federal level is NIMS. This was created after President George W. Bush called on the Secretary of Homeland Security, through Homeland Security Presidential Directive No. 5, to develop a nationally based incident command system. The purpose was to provide a consistent, nationwide approach for federal, state, local, and tribal governments to work together to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from domestic incidents. It is a set of principles, terminology, and organizational processes that together serves as a comprehensive, standardized approach to the management of domestic incidents at all government levels. The procedures in NIMS are designed to be used to coordinate the different response actions. It is presumed that all responders will be able to share a common understanding and will be able to work together to respond effectively to an emergency.

KEY TERM

Incident command system—the Incident Command System (ICS) is a standardized, on-scene, all-hazards incident management approach.

BOX 10.4 Federal Response Agencies

Integrated Hazard Information Services: works with emergency managers, the media, private sector, and weather forecasters to inform the public about hazardous weather conditions.

Center for Domestic Preparedness Consortium: A part of FEMA, this is a partnership of several organizations that work to further counter-terrorism preparedness needs for the nation’s first responders. They help enhance preparedness of federal, state, local, and tribal emergency responders as a way to reduce the nation’s vulnerabilities. The members include:

• Center for Domestic Preparedness: the only federally chartered training center for weapons of mass destruction.

• The Energetic Materials Research and Testing Center: a research-oriented public university that specializes in training for explosives, live explosives, and incendiary devices.

• National Center for Biomedical Research and Training: training for weapons of mass destruction, counter-terrorism, and high-consequence events for emergency management personnel, law enforcement, HazMat, public health, EMS, and agricultural.

• National Emergency Response and Rescue Training Center: designs, develops, and delivers training and technical assistance for first responders.

• Nevada Test Site’s Counter-Terrorism Operations Support Program: provides training for radiological/nuclear weapons; teaches first responders to detect, prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from acts of terrorism with WMDs.

• Transportation Technology Center, Inc: provides training for first responders as well as surface transportation security, such as railroads and heavy freight transport systems.

• National Disaster Preparedness Training Center at the University of Hawaii: provides training to island communities throughout the Pacific so they are able to respond, recover, and reconstruct their communities after a catastrophe.

Domestic Preparedness Office: was originally established by the FBI in 1998 as a way to coordinate all federal efforts surrounding WMDs. The office works with other federal agencies to assist state and local first responders to respond to a WMD attack. The office was moved to the DHS in 2003.

Domestic Emergency Support Team: was created by the Presidential Decision Directive 39 by President Clinton in June 1995; made up of many teams who can be deployed quickly from the FBI, FEMA, Department of Defense, Department of Energy, and others who respond to attacks made with WMDs. President Bush transferred it to DHS from the Justice Department in 2003.

National Disaster Medical System: combines federal and nonfederal medical resources to establish an integrated national medical response capability that can assist first responders in times of emergency. The agency is part of the Department of Health and Human Services.

Strategic National Stockpile: has large quantities of medicine and supplies that could be used if local supplies are exhausted as a result of an emergency. Medicine could be delivered to any state and would be free. There are enough supplies to protect people in several large cities.

Other Response Agencies: The FBI has many offices that help with response efforts. These include the Domestic Terrorism/Counterterrorism Planning Section, the Laboratory Division, and the Critical Incident Response Group. Other federal agencies play a role in response, such as the Department of Defense, Department of Energy, Department of Health and Human Services, the EPA, the Department of Agriculture, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

Data from: Integrated Hazard Information Services. (2012). Retrieved online at http://fxa.noas.gov/NGWT; Consortium” Center for Domestic Preparedness, FEMA. (2012). Retrieved online at http://cdp.dhs.gov/consortium.html; Domestic Preparedness Office, (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.faqs.org/espionage/De-Eb/Domestic-Preparedness-Office-NDPO-United-States; National Disaster Medical System. (2012) Retrieved online at http://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/responders/ndms/Pages/default.aspx; Strategic National Stockpile. (2012). Retrieved online at http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/stockpile/stockpile.htm

On the local level, each township has the responsibility to provide qualified first responders who can handle a variety of emergencies. This usually includes police, firefighters, and emergency medical staff. If the emergency covers a wide region beyond their capabilities, the local leaders will rely on the state for assistance.14 More than likely, the state and local agencies will be the first responders to an emergency. If needed, they can ask for assistance from neighboring communities or states. If the emergency is complex or requires more resources than are available, or if the costs are too high for local governments, the mayor or governor can request assistance from the federal government. The specific procedures by which a state can make an appeal to the federal government are outlined in the NRF.

If a state governor wishes, he or she can formally request that the president declare a major disaster or make an emergency declaration. Such a request will first be analyzed by the regional FEMA administrator, who will then make a recommendation to the national FEMA administrator. This administrator will then make a recommendation to the president, who will decide whether to declare a disaster based partly on the FEMA recommendation. If a declaration is made, the FEMA administrator will then determine which components of the NRF to activate.

KEY TERM

Emergency declaration—declarations to trigger aid that protects property, public health, and safety and lessens or averts the threat of an incident becoming a catastrophic event.

Recovery

The last stage of the homeland security cycle is recovery, or the efforts taken to restore the infrastructure and the social and economic underpinnings of a community to a state of normalcy. This stage begins in the period immediately following a disaster and can continue for months and, in some cases, years. Recovery is a gradual process, and the health and safety of the residents must be the first concern.

KEY TERM

Recovery—the efforts taken to restore the infrastructure and the social and economic underpinnings of a community to a state of normalcy.

Courtesy of Greg Henshall/FEMA.

With most incidents, there are both short-term recovery needs as well as long-term recovery needs. In the short term, people will need functioning transportation systems (i.e., roads), utilities, schools, medical facilities, and government buildings. Some victims will need food, shelter, and other government assistance programs. The essential infrastructure will need to be repaired or maintained, such as power, communication systems, and water and sewage.

Long-term recovery may take months or even years. This will involve any actions taken to return the community to one that functions well for its citizens. Any areas that were directly affected by the incident may need to have homes or commercial buildings permanently repaired or rebuilt. Economic activity will need to be restored by resuming regular business and employment. Long-term recovery may also require emergency economic aid, accessible business loans, environmental monitoring, and long-term mental health services.

The National Response Framework addresses the need for specific policies for helping individuals and communities to recover from an emergency and return to self-sufficiency. Recovery efforts will, of course, be unique to each community, but should be overseen by a Joint Field Office. The JFO will do things such as coordinate assistance programs that will help individuals, households, and businesses return to normal, establish Disaster Recovery Centers, and coordinate public assistance grant programs.

KEY TERM

Joint Field Office—when an incident is of such severity, magnitude, and/or complexity that it requires coordinated Federal assistance, the Secretary of Homeland Security, in coordination with other Federal departments and agencies, initiates actions to respond to and recover from the incident, including the establishment of the Joint Field Office to provide the Incident Commander Federal Resources.

The federal government plays the largest role in providing the technical and financial support for recovery. For the most part, recovery is the responsibility of FEMA. The assistance they provide to each community after a disaster will vary depending on the community and the type and severity of the emergency. The response to a hurricane, for instance, will be very different from that required from an attack that involved chemical agents.

FEMA also suggests ways to recover from different types of emergencies. For example, they recommend that after a chemical attack, it is necessary to decontaminate the area as quickly as possible in order to minimize potential health consequences. They suggest citizens stay in a shelter until officials announce it is safe to leave. Plus, anyone who has had any contact with a chemical agent should receive medical treatment.15

Effective recovery efforts may require contributions from all sectors of society. The Joint Field Office serves as the central coordination point for all levels of government, as well as private-sector and nongovernmental entities.

Chapter Summary

There are four stages to the homeland security cycle. They include mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. The first two stages revolve around activities that can be taken to lessen the chance that an event may occur, or to lessen the impact of an event. The second two stages occur after an attack or natural disaster to help citizens and communities respond and recover from the event. Activities during all four stages of the cycle may involve all levels of government, from local up to federal.