write an essay in 9 hours

d326055753

Chapter1.pptx

Home >Education homework help >write an essay in 9 hours

Who am I?

Lindsay Hanlon

CD 125

Who are you?

Your name and major if you have one.

What semester is this for you in college? How many units are you taking?

Other commitments outside of this class?

What do you need from me to be successful?

‹#›

History, Theories, and Methods

Chapter one

Spring 2018

Rathus

1.1 What Is Child Development? Coming to Terms with Terms

What Is Child Development?

Defining “Child” through Periods of Development

Conception and Prenatal

Infancy

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Adolescence

‹#›

What Is Child Development?wqA

Dimensions (or domains) of Development

Biological

Cognitive

Social

Emotional

Behavioral

‹#›

What Is Child Development?

Defining Development

Qualitative changes

Changes in type or kind

Development

Quantitative changes

Changes in amount

Growth

‹#›

What Is Child Development?

Field of study that tries to understand the processes that govern the appearance and growth of children’s:

Biological structures

Psychological traits

Behavior

Understanding

Ways of adapting to demands of life

‹#›

Why Do Researchers Study Child Development?

To gain insight into:

Human nature

Origins of adult behavior

Origins of sex differences and gender roles

Effects of culture on development

Origins, prevention, and treatment of developmental problems

Optimize conditions of development

‹#›

What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History?

Ancient Times and Middle Ages

Children viewed as innately evil

Age 7 is the “age of reason”

Children were treated as miniature adults

John Locke

Child came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates”

Focus on role of environment and experience

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Children are inherently good

‹#›

What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History?

Industrial Revolution

Childhood is recognized as a special time period of life

Children still labored in in factories from dawn to dusk

20th Century

Laws to protect child rights in labor, education, neglect

Juvenile courts

‹#›

To deepen your understanding on historical perspectives check out this website (not required): Child Labor in US History

Pioneers in the Study of Child Development

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)

Theory of evolution

Use of baby biography

G. Stanley Hall (1844 – 1924)

Child development as an academic discipline

Questionnaire methodology with children

Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911)

First standardized intelligence test

‹#›

1.2 Theories of Child Development

‹#›

Theories of Child Development

Theories of development help us:

Describe

Explain

Predict

Influence events being studied

‹#›

Theories of Child Development

Formulation of relationships underlying observed events

Include descriptive terms and concepts

Based on assumptions about behavior

Allow explanations and predictions

Wide range of applicability

Enable influence of events

‹#›

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

View children (and adults) involved in conflict

Internal basic drives conflict with external limits

Internalize ‘external’ demands and rules

Conflict then occurs between these opposing inner forces

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Stage theories

Distinct periods of development

‹#›

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Levels of awareness

Conscious and unconscious

Parts of personality

Ego

Superego

Quantity of gratification at each stage

Fixated at that stage

‹#›

Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development

Oral Stage

Sucking

Early weaning or breast-fed too long

Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit”

Anal Stage

Control and elimination of waste

Excessively strict or permissive toilet training

Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness)

‹#›

Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development

Phallic Stage

Parent-child conflict over masturbation

View same-sex parent as rival

Latency Stage

Sexual feelings remain unconscious

‹#›

read more about the life and works of Sigmund Freud.

URL: http://www.freudfile.org/

Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development

Genital Stage

Begins at adolescence

Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other sex

Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development

‹#›

Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development

Contributions

Comprehensive theory of childhood

Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators

Criticisms

Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled

Little empirical data

Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives (Erik Erikson, Karen Horney)

‹#›

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

Modified and expanded Freud’s theory

Successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity

Differences from psychosexual development

Focuses on development of self-identity

Includes conscious and purposeful acts in development

Extends stages to eight; throughout adulthood

‹#›

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Trust versus Mistrust

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

Initiative versus Guilt

Industry versus Inferiority

Identity versus Role Diffusion

Intimacy versus Isolation

Generativity versus Stagnation

Ego Integrity versus Despair

‹#›

In depth article on Erik Erikson: A brief biography of Erik Erikson

Evaluation of Psychosocial Development

Highly appealing

Emphasizes choice and minimizes urges

Portrays people as prosocial and helpful

Some empirical support

‹#›

The Learning Perspectives

Behaviorism

Observable behaviors only

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Social Cognitive Theory

Observational learning

‹#›

Classical Conditioning

Simple learning

Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with second stimulus

Elicits the response usually brought by the second stimulus

Example: Bell and Pad Method to eliminate bed-wetting

‹#›

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Learn to do something because of its effects

B. F. Skinner – Reinforcement

Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow

‹#›

Principles of Operant Conditioning

Positive reinforcers

Something applied that increases the frequency of the behavior

Negative reinforcers

Something removed that increases the frequency of the behavior

‹#›

Positive Versus Negative Reinforcers

‹#›

Punishment

Aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow

Effective in emergencies, but less preferable in general

Offers no alternative, acceptable form of behavior

Tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain conditions

May cause withdrawal from situation

Can create anger and hostility

May be imitated as a way of coping with stress

Instead, reward children for desirable behavior

‹#›

Negative Reinforcers versus Punishments

‹#›

Figure 1.2 Positive versus Negative Reinforcers. All reinforcers increase the frequency of behavior. In these examples, teacher approval functions as a positive reinforcer when students study harder because of it. Teacher disapproval functions as a negative reinforcer when its removal increases the frequency of studying.

Application of Operant Conditioning

Shaping

Teaching complex behaviors

Reinforcing small steps toward the behavioral goal

Socialization of children

Parent and child

Child and child

Teacher and child

Time out

‹#›

Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura

Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning

Skills may lie latent

Child is an active learner

Intentionally seek out or create environments where reinforcers are available

‹#›

Evaluation of Learning Theories

Contributions

Meets the goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and influencing aspects of children’s behavior

Principles are abundant in education and clinical application

Criticisms

Unclear if learning is only mechanical

Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors

‹#›

The Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on children’s mental processes

How children perceive and mentally represent the world

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

Cognitive-developmental theory

Information-processing theory

‹#›

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interested in children’s wrong answers

Piaget’s work was not widely read until mid 1950s

Difficult to understand

Reflected biological-cognitive perspective while behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular

He viewed children as budding scientists

‹#›

Piaget’s Basic Concepts

Scheme

Pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge

Adaptation

Interaction between child and the environment

Assimilation

Responding to new object or event according to existing schemes

‹#›

Piaget’s Basic Concepts

Accommodation

Adjusting scheme to a new object or event

Equilibration

Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation

‹#›

Learn more about Piaget on the Jean Piaget Society website, dedicated to his life and works: Piaget Society

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory

Four major stages

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

Sequence is universal

Development is based on children’s interactions with their environments

Influential in many educational settings

‹#›

Evaluation of Cognitive-Development Theory

Criticisms

Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by age

Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget’s distinct stages

Contributions

Different view of children from psychoanalytic and behaviorist

Foundation for research

‹#›

Information-Processing Theory

Influenced by the concepts of computer science

Process of encoding information (input)

Storage of information (long-term memory)

Retrieval of information (short-term memory)

Manipulation of information to solve problems (output)

Software (mental processes)

Hardware (brain)

‹#›

Information-Processing Theory

Consider cognitive development

Size of short-term memory

Number of programs that can run simultaneously

Applications in education

‹#›

The Biological Perspective

Physical development

Gains in height and weight

Brain development

Developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity

Ethology

Study of behaviors that are specific to a species

‹#›

Ethology and Evolution

Concerned with instinctive behavior patterns

Influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinbergen

Pre-wired—instinctive behavior patterns

Fixed action patterns (FAPs)

Influence of prenatal hormones

Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year

Imprinting

‹#›

Evaluation of Ethology

Assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning

Suggestion that instincts play a role in human behavior

‹#›

The Ecological Systems Theory

Explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)

Focus on two-way interactions between parent and child, not just maturational or child-rearing approaches

View the contexts of human development as a series of systems

‹#›

The Ecological Systems Theory

Five Embedded Systems

Microsystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

Chronosystem

Evaluation of Theory

Helps focus attention on changing systems

‹#›

The Contexts of Human Development

‹#›

Figure 1.4 The Contexts of Human Development. According to ecological systems theory, the systems within which children develop are embedded within larger systems. Children and these systems reciprocally influence each other.

The Sociocultural Perspective

Views children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures in which they live

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky’s (1896–1934) sociocultural theory

Impact of human diversity on children

‹#›

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled

Use of conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning

Scaffolding

Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform independently

May also be used by children with peers

‹#›

Evaluation of Sociocultural Theory

Research support for:

Scaffolding

Private speech

Teachers often discourage private speech due to distraction

Sociocultural Perspective and Human Diversity

Awareness of diversity among children

Ethnic Groups

Understanding of children’s family values and cultural expectations

Gender

Understanding of gender-role expectations

Socio-economic Status

Associated with opportunity

1. 3 Controversies in Child Development

‹#›

The Nature – Nurture Controversy

To what extent is human behavior the result of:

Nature—heredity

Nurture—environmental influences

Orientation toward nature

Cognitive-development theory

Biological theorists

Orientation toward nurture

Learning theories

Contemporary view – both nature and nurture

‹#›

The Continuity – Discontinuity Controversy

Do developmental changes occur:

Continuously (gradually)?

Discontinuously (qualitative leaps)?

Orientation toward continuity

Maturational theories

Orientation toward discontinuity

Stage theories (Freud, Piaget)

‹#›

The Active – Passive Controversy

For learning to occur, do educators need to:

Motivate passive learners, or

Encourage active learners to explore?

Perspectives of children as both active and passive

Bronfenbrenner’s bidirectional influence

Bandura’s two-way influences between children and the environment

‹#›

1.4 How Do We Study Child Development?

‹#›

What Is the Scientific Method?

Step 1: Forming a Research Question

Step 2: Developing a Hypothesis

Step 3: Testing the Hypothesis

Step 4: Drawing Conclusions

Step 5: Publishing Findings

‹#›

Naturalistic Observation

Field studies

Observations done in natural (real-life) settings

Control for interference

Examples of naturalistic observation studies

Activity levels of 3- to 5-year olds in preschools

Motor behavior of Native American Hopi children strapped to cradleboards

Language development in various countries

Socialization patterns in diverse cultures

‹#›

Case Study

Account of behavior of an individual

Diaries

Direct observations

Questionnaires

Standardized tests

Interviews

Other sources of records

Examples of case studies

Piaget’s observation of children’s behavior

Freud’s studies of his patients

‹#›

Survey

Assist in studying behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed

Questionnaires or Interviews

Used to study attitudes

May question parents or teachers about children

May also use records to obtain information

‹#›

Correlation: What Does It Mean to Correlate Information?

Mathematical calculation to determine relationships between behaviors and/or traits (variables)

Correlation coefficient

Mathematical number between +1.00 and -1.00

Positive correlation

Negative correlation

Limitation: Shows relationships, not cause and effect

‹#›

Examples of Positive and Negative Correlations

‹#›

What Is an Experiment?

Used to determine cause and effect

Research method in which one group receives treatment and another does not

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variable — manipulated by experimenter

Dependent variable — measured results – depends on independent variable

What Is an Experiment?

Experimental and Control Groups

Experimental group — receive the treatment

Control group — do not receive the treatment

Random Assignment

Ethical and practical considerations

How Do Researchers Study Development Over Time?

Longitudinal research

Same children are observed repeatedly over time

Most span months or a few years, not decades

Drawbacks to longitudinal research

May lose participants over time

Difficult to enlist volunteers for long-term participation

Researchers must be patient

Older researchers may need to rely on younger researchers will continue the research

‹#›

How Do Researchers Study Development Over Time?

Cross-Sectional Studies

Children of different ages are observed and compared

Cohort effect

Cross-Sequential Research

Combines longitudinal (time period) and cross-sectional (cohorts) methods

Breaks time span into convenient segments

Time-lag comparisons

‹#›

Example of Cross-Sequential Research

‹#›

1.5 Ethical Considerations

‹#›

Ethical Considerations

Professional groups propose guidelines for research with children

American Psychological Association

Society for Research in Child Development

Government review boards

‹#›

Ethical Considerations

Risk of physical or psychological harm

Voluntary informed consent

Right to withdraw from study

Debriefing

Confidentiality

Prior approval of research by review committee

‹#›