Computer Science 2 Assignments - 2 Discussions

Sinners0043

chapter1.pdf

Home >Computer Science homework help >Computer Science 2 Assignments - 2 Discussions

System s A

nalysis and D esign

K enneth E. K

endall Julie E. K

endall T

EN T

H ED

IT IO

GLOBAL EDITION

This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.

G LO

B A

L ED

IT IO

The tenth edition of Systems Analysis and Design presents the latest systems development methods, techniques, and tools in a clear, concise, and engag- ing manner. Designed to help the reader visually capture a system, the book demonstrates how meaningful information systems can be created through the creative application of concepts and rules.

The book also presents the following pedagogical features that enable stu- dents to apply key concepts to real-world situations:

• Consulting Opportunities are minicases that address and encourage in-depth discussions of significant and emerging topics in information systems.

• Stylized visual aids such as conceptual diagrams, computer displays, and paperforms are designed to aid students in understanding complex subject matter.

• HyperCase 2.10 is Web-based, interactive software that presents an original vir- tual organization in a colorful, three-dimensional graphics environment that allows students to immerse themselves in organizational life.

• HyperCase Experiences are challenging exercises in each chapter that help students solve difficult organizational problems such as the development of new systems, the merging of departments, the hiring of employees, security, ecommerce, and disaster recovery planning.

Kenneth E. Kendall • Julie E. Kendall

Systems Analysis and Design

TENTH EDITION

Kendall_10_1292281456_Final.indd 1 06/08/19 3:06 PM

1 SYSTEMS, ROLES, AND DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES 1.1 Healthy Hiring: Ecommerce Help Wanted 41

2 UNDERSTANDING AND MODELING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS 2.1 The E in Vitamin E Stands for Ecommerce 59 2.2 Where There’s Carbon, There’s a Copy 78 2.3 Pyramid Power 79

3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT 3.1 The Sweetest Sound I’ve Ever Sipped 88 3.2 Veni, Vidi, Vendi, or, “I Came, I Saw, I Sold” 100 3.3 We’re Off to See the Wizards 104 3.4 Food for Thought 109 3.5 Goal Tending 126

4 INFORMATION GATHERING: INTERACTIVE METHODS 4.1 Strengthening Your Question Types 146 4.2 Skimming the Surface 149 4.3 A Systems Analyst, I Presume? 155 4.4 The Unbearable Questionnaire 159 4.5 Order in the Courts 162

5 INFORMATION GATHERING: UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS 5.1 Trapping a Sample 174 5.2 A Rose by Any Other Name...Or Quality, Not Quantities 176

6 AGILE MODELING, PROTOTYPING, AND SCRUM 6.1 Is Prototyping King? 195 6.2 Clearing the Way for Customer Links 198 6.3 To Hatch a Fish 204 6.4 This Prototype Is All Wet 206

7 USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS 7.1 There’s No Business Like Flow Business 249

8 ANALYZING SYSTEMS USING DATA DICTIONARIES 8.1 Want to Make It Big in the Theatre? Improve Your Diction(ary)! 267

9 PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURED DECISIONS 9.1 Kit Chen Kaboodle, Inc. 280 9.2 Kneading Structure 284 9.3 Saving a Cent on Citron Car Rental 289 9.4 A Tree for Free 293

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITIES

Kendall_10_1292281456_ifc_Final.indd 1 31/07/19 4:02 PM

10 OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING UML 10.1 Around the World in 80 Objects 302 10.2 Recycling the Programming Environment 312 10.3 Developing a Fine System That Was Long Overdue: Using Object-Oriented Analysis

for the Ruminski Public Library System 332 10.4 C-Shore++ 335

11 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE OUTPUT 11.1 Your Cage or Mine? 344 11.2 A Right Way, a Wrong Way, and a Subway 346 11.3 Should This Chart Be Barred? 349 11.4 Is Your Work a Grind? 357 11.5 A Field Day 362

12 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE INPUT 12.1 This Form May Be Hazardous to Your Health 388 12.2 Squeezin’ Isn’t Pleasin’ 389

13 DESIGNING DATABASES 13.1 Hitch Your Cleaning Cart to a Star 410 13.2 Storing Minerals for Health, Data for Mining 436 13.3 Losing Prospects 438

14 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION AND UX DESIGN 14.1 School Spirit Comes in Many Sizes 453 14.2 I’d Rather Do It Myself 454 14.3 Don’t Slow Me Down 455 14.4 Waiting to Be Fed 466 14.5 When You Run A Marathon, It Helps to Know Where You’re Going 470 14.6 Hey, Look Me Over (Reprise) 477

15 DESIGNING ACCURATE DATA ENTRY PROCEDURES 15.1 It’s a Wilderness in Here 492 15.2 Catching a Summer Code 494 15.3 To Enter or Not to Enter: That Is the Question 501

16 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION 16.1 The Quality of MIS Is Not Strained 516 16.2 Write Is Right 521 16.3 Cramming for Your Systems Test 525 16.4 You Can Lead a Fish to Water…But You Can’t Make It Drink 536 16.5 The Sweet Smell of Success 543 16.6 Mopping Up with the New System 546

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 1 06/08/19 4:36 PM

Introductory MIS

Database

Systems Analysis and Design

Decision Support Systems

Data Communications & Networking

Electronic Commerce

Enterprise Resource Planning

Project Management

OTHER MIS TITLES OF INTEREST

A00_KEND5554_10_SE_IFC.indd 1 07/12/17 3:30 pmA01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 2 06/08/19 4:36 PM

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

AND

DESIGN

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 3 06/08/19 4:36 PM

This page is intentionally left blank.

Kenneth E. Kendall RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

School of Business–Camden Camden, New Jersey

Julie E. Kendall RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

School of Business–Camden Camden, New Jersey

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

AND

DESIGN

T E N T H E D I T I O N G L O B A L E D I T I O N

Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • Sao Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 5 06/08/19 4:36 PM

Vice President, IT & Careers: Andrew Gilfillan Senior Portfolio Manager: Samantha Lewis Managing Producer: Laura Burgess Associate Content Producer: Stephany Harrington Portfolio Management Assistant: Madeline Houpt Assistant Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Rosemary Iles Associate Project Editor, Global Edition: Aurko Mitra Content Producer, Global Edition: Sonam Arora Director of Product Marketing: Brad Parkins Product Marketing Manager: Heather Taylor Product Marketing Assistant: Jesika Bethea Field Marketing Manager: Molly Schmidt

Field Marketing Assistant: Kelli Fisher Cover Image: LIUSHENGFILM/Shutterstock Vice President, Product Model Management: Jason Fournier Senior Product Model Manager: Eric Hakanson Lead, Production and Digital Studio: Heather Darby Digital Studio Course Producer: Jaimie Noy Media Production Manager, Global Edition: Vikram Kumar Senior Manufacturing Controller, Global Edition: Kay Holman Program Monitor: Freddie Domini, SPi Global Full-Service Project Management: Cenveo® Publisher Services Cover Designer, Global Edition: Lumina Datamatics Inc.

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text.

Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers make no representations about the suitability of the information contained in the documents and related graphics published as part of the services for any purpose. All such documents and related graphics are provided “as is” without warranty of any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers hereby disclaim all warranties and conditions with regard to this information, including all warranties and conditions of merchantability, whether express, implied or statutory, fitness for a particular purpose, title and non-infringement. In no event shall Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers be liable for any special, indirect or consequential damages or any damages whatsoever resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether in an action of contract, negligence or other tortious action, arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information available from the services.

The documents and related graphics contained herein could include technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. Changes are periodically added to the information herein. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers may make improvements and/or changes in the product(s) and/or the program(s) described herein at any time. Partial screen shots may be viewed in full within the software version specified.

Microsoft® and Windows® are registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation in the U.S.A. and other countries. This book is not sponsored or endorsed by or affiliated with the Microsoft Corporation.

Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Hockham Way Harlow Essex CM17 9SR United Kingdom

and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

The rights of Kenneth E. Kendall and Julie E. Kendall to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Systems Analysis and Design, 10th Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-478555-4, by Kenneth E. Kendall and Julie E. Kendall, published by Pearson Education © 2019.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

ISBN 10: 1-292-28145-6 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-28145-2

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Typeset by Cenveo® Publisher Services

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 6 06/08/19 4:36 PM

http://www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/

To the memory of Julia A. Kendall and Edward J. Kendall, whose lifelong example of working

together will inspire us forever.

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 7 06/08/19 4:36 PM

This page is intentionally left blank.

PART I SYSTEMS ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTALS 1 SYSTEMS, ROLES, AND DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES 39

2 UNDERSTANDING AND MODELING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS 57

3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT 86

PART II INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS 4 INFORMATION GATHERING: INTERACTIVE METHODS 141

5 INFORMATION GATHERING: UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS 170

6 AGILE MODELING, PROTOTYPING, AND SCRUM 193

PART III THE ANALYSIS PROCESS 7 USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS 225

8 ANALYZING SYSTEMS USING DATA DICTIONARIES 255

9 PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURED DECISIONS 279

10 OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING UML 299

PART IV THE ESSENTIALS OF DESIGN 11 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE OUTPUT 339

12 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE INPUT 381

13 DESIGNING DATABASES 409

14 HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION AND UX DESIGN 448

PART V QUALITY ASSURANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION 15 DESIGNING ACCURATE DATA ENTRY PROCEDURES 485

16 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION 512

GLOSSARY 553

ACRONYMS 561

INDEX 563

BRIEF CONTENTS

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 9 06/08/19 4:36 PM

This page is intentionally left blank.

PART I SYSTEMS ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTALS 39

1 SYSTEMS, ROLES, AND DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGIES 39

Need for Systems Analysis and Design 40

Roles of a Systems Analyst 40 Systems Analyst as Consultant 40

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 1.1 Healthy Hiring: Ecommerce Help Wanted 41 Systems Analyst as Supporting Expert 41 / Systems Analyst as Agent of Change 41 / Qualities of a Systems Analyst 42

The Systems Development Life Cycle 42 Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives 43 / Determining Human Information Requirements 43 / Analyzing System Needs 44

MAC APPEAL 44 Designing the Recommended System 45 / Developing and Documenting Software 45 / Testing and Maintaining the System 45 / Implementing and Evaluating the System 45 / The Impact of Maintenance 46 / Using CASE Tools 47

The Agile Approach 48 Exploration 49 / Planning 49 / Iterations to the First Release 50 / Productionizing 50 / Maintenance 50

Object-Oriented Systems Analysis and Design 50 Object-Oriented Similarities to SDLC 50

Choosing Which Systems Development Method to Use 52

Developing Open Source Software 53 Why Organizations Participate in Open Source Communities 53 / The Role of the Analyst in Open Source Software 53

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 1 54 SUMMARY 54 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 55 REVIEW QUESTIONS 55 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 56

2 UNDERSTANDING AND MODELING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS 57

Organizations as Systems 58 Interrelatedness and Interdependence of Systems 58

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 2.1 The E in Vitamin E Stands for Ecommerce 59 Virtual Organizations and Virtual Teams 59 / Taking a Systems Perspective 60 / Enterprise Systems: Viewing the Organization as a System 60

Depicting Systems Graphically 62 Systems and the Context-Level Data Flow Diagram 62 / Systems and the Entity-Relationship Model 63

CONTENTS

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 11 06/08/19 4:36 PM

12 C O N T E N T S

Use Case Modeling 68

MAC APPEAL 69 Use Case Symbols 70 / Use Case Relationships 70 / Developing System Scope 71 / Developing Use Case Diagrams 72 / Developing Use Case Scenarios 72 / Use Case Levels 72 / Creating Use Case Descriptions 76 / Why Use Case Diagrams Are Helpful 77

Levels of Management 77

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 2.2 Where There’s Carbon, There’s a Copy 78 Implications for Information Systems Development 78

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 2.3 Pyramid Power 79 Collaborative Design 79

Organizational Culture 80 Technology’s Impact on Culture 80

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 2 81 SUMMARY 82 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 82 REVIEW QUESTIONS 82 PROBLEMS 83 GROUP PROJECTS 84 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 85

3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT 86

Project Initiation 87 Problems in an Organization 87 / Defining the Problem 87

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 3.1 The Sweetest Sound I’ve Ever Sipped 88 Selection of Projects 91

Determining Feasibility 92 Determining Whether It Is Possible 92 / Estimating Workloads 93

Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs 94 Inventorying Computer Hardware 94 / Evaluating Computer Hardware for Purchase 96 / Renting Time and Space in the Cloud 96 / Evaluation of Vendor Support for Computer Hardware 98 / Understanding the Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) Option 98 / Creating Custom Software 99

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 3.2 Veni, Vidi, Vendi, or, “I Came, I Saw, I Sold” 100 Purchasing COTS Software 100 / Using the Services of a SaaS Provider 101 / Evaluation of Vendor Support for Software and SaaS 102

Identifying, Forecasting, and Comparing Costs and Benefits 103 Forecasting 103 / Identifying Benefits and Costs 103

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 3.3 We’re Off to See the Wizards 104 Comparing Costs and Benefits 105

Managing Time and Activities 106 The Work Breakdown Structure 106 / Time Estimation Techniques 107

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 3.4 Food for Thought 109

Project Scheduling 109 Using Gantt Charts for Project Scheduling 110 / Using PERT Diagrams 111

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 12 06/08/19 4:36 PM

C O N T E N T S 13

Controlling a Project 114 Estimating Costs and Preparing the Budget 114

MAC APPEAL 115 Managing Risk 116 / Managing Time Using Expediting 117 / Controlling Costs Using Earned Value Management 119

Managing the Project Team 122 Assembling a Team 122 / Communication Strategies for Managing Teams 122

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 3.1 123 Setting Project Productivity Goals 124 / Motivating Project Team Members 124 / Managing Ecommerce Projects 124 / Creating a Project Charter 125

The Systems Proposal 125 What to Include in a Systems Proposal 125

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 3.5 Goal Tending 126 Using Figures for Effective Communication 127

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 3.2 130 SUMMARY 130 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 132 REVIEW QUESTIONS 132 PROBLEMS 133 GROUP PROJECTS 138 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 138

PART II INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS 141

4 INFORMATION GATHERING: INTERACTIVE METHODS 141

Interviewing 142 Five Steps in Interview Preparation 142 / Question Types 143 / Arranging Questions in a Logical Sequence 145

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 4.1 Strengthening Your Question Types 146 Writing the Interview Report 148

Listening to Stories 148

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 4.2 Skimming the Surface 149 Stories Are Made Up of Elements 149 / Reasons for Telling Stories 151

Joint Application Design 151 Conditions That Support the Use of JAD 152 / Who Is Involved? 152 / Where to Hold JAD Meetings 152

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 4.1 153 Accomplishing a Structured Analysis of Project Activities 153 / Potential Benefits of Using JAD in Place of Traditional Interviewing 154 / Potential Drawbacks of Using JAD 154

Using Questionnaires 154

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 4.3 A Systems Analyst, I Presume? 155 Planning for the Use of Questionnaires 155 / Writing Questions 155

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 4.4 The Unbearable Questionnaire 159 Designing Questionnaires 160 / Administering Questionnaires 161

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 13 06/08/19 4:36 PM

14 C O N T E N T S

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 4.5 Order in the Courts 162

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 4.2 163 SUMMARY 163 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 164 REVIEW QUESTIONS 165 PROBLEMS 165 GROUP PROJECTS 168 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 169

5 INFORMATION GATHERING: UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS 170

Sampling 171 The Need for Sampling 171 / Sampling Design 171 / The Sample Size Decision 173

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 5.1 Trapping a Sample 174

Analyzing Quantitative Documents 175 Systematically Examining Qualitative Documents 175

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 5.2 A Rose by Any Other Name . . . Or Quality, Not Quantities 176

Analyzing Qualitative Documents 179 Systematically Examining Qualitative Documents 179

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 5.1 180

Using Text Analytics 181

Observing a Decision Maker’s Behavior 182 Observing a Typical Manager’s Decision-Making Activities 183

Observing the Physical Environment 184 Structured Observation of the Environment (STROBE) 184

MAC APPEAL 186 Applying STROBE 186

SUMMARY 187

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 5.2 188 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 189 REVIEW QUESTIONS 189 PROBLEMS 189 GROUP PROJECTS 191 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 191

6 AGILE MODELING, PROTOTYPING, AND SCRUM 193

Prototyping 194 Kinds of Prototypes 194

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 6.1 Is Prototyping King? 195 The Users’ Role in Prototyping 196

Agile Modeling 196 Values and Principles of Agile Modeling 196

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 6.2 Clearing the Way for Customer Links 198 Activities, Resources, and Practices of Agile Modeling 199 / The Agile Development Process 203

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 14 06/08/19 4:36 PM

C O N T E N T S 15

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 6.3 To Hatch a Fish 204

Scrum 205

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 6.4 This Prototype Is All Wet 206 Roles Played in Scrum 206 / The Product Backlog 207 / The Sprint Cycle 207 / Other Unique Scrum Features 208 / Kanban 210 / Scrum Advantages and Disadvantages 211

DevOps: A Cultural Shift for App Development 212

Comparing Agile Modeling and Structured Methods 213 Lessons Learned from Agile Modeling 213 / Improving Efficiency in Knowledge Work: SDLC versus Agile 214

MAC APPEAL 216 Risks Inherent in Organizational Innovation 218

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 6 220 SUMMARY 220 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 221 REVIEW QUESTIONS 221 PROBLEMS 222 GROUP PROJECTS 223 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 224

PART III THE ANALYSIS PROCESS 225

7 USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS 225

The Data Flow Approach to Human Requirements Determination 226 Conventions Used in Data Flow Diagrams 226

Developing Data Flow Diagrams 227 Creating the Context Diagram 227 / Drawing Diagram 0 (The Next Level) 228 / Creating Child Diagrams (More Detailed Levels) 230 / Checking Diagrams for Errors 230

Logical and Physical Data Flow Diagrams 232 Developing Logical Data Flow Diagrams 235 / Developing Physical Data Flow Diagrams 236 / Partitioning Data Flow Diagrams 238

A Data Flow Diagram Example 240 Developing the List of Business Activities 241 / Creating a Context-Level Data Flow Diagram 241 / Drawing Diagram 0 241 / Creating a Child Diagram 242 / Creating a Physical Data Flow Diagram from the Logical DFD 242 / Partitioning the Physical DFD 244

Partitioning Websites 246

Communicating Using Data Flow Diagrams 247

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 7.1 There’s No Business Like Flow Business 249

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 7 250 SUMMARY 250 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 251 REVIEW QUESTIONS 251 PROBLEMS 252 GROUP PROJECTS 253 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 254

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 15 06/08/19 4:36 PM

16 C O N T E N T S

8 ANALYZING SYSTEMS USING DATA DICTIONARIES 255

The Data Dictionary 256 Need for Understanding the Data Dictionary 256

The Data Repository 256 Defining the Data Flows 257 / Describing Data Structures 259 / Logical and Physical Data Structures 259 / Data Elements 261 / Data Stores 264

Creating a Data Dictionary 265 Analyzing Input and Output 265 / Developing Data Stores 266

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 8.1 Want to Make It Big in the Theatre? Improve Your Diction(ary)! 267

Using a Data Dictionary 268 Using Data Dictionaries to Create XML 270 / XML Document Type Definitions 272 / XML Schemas 273

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 8 274 SUMMARY 274 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 275 REVIEW QUESTIONS 275 PROBLEMS 276 GROUP PROJECTS 278 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 278

9 PROCESS SPECIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURED DECISIONS 279

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 9.1 Kit Chen Kaboodle, Inc. 280

Overview of Process Specifications 280 Process Specification Format 281

Structured English 282 Writing Structured English 282

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 9.2 Kneading Structure 284 Data Dictionary and Process Specifications 285

Decision Tables 286 Developing Decision Tables 288

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 9.3 Saving a Cent on Citron Car Rental 289 Checking for Completeness and Accuracy 290

Decision Trees 292 Drawing Decision Trees 292

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 9.4 A Tree for Free 293

Choosing a Structured Decision Analysis Technique 294

SUMMARY 294

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 9 295 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 295 REVIEW QUESTIONS 295 PROBLEMS 295 GROUP PROJECTS 297 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 298

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 16 06/08/19 4:36 PM

C O N T E N T S 17

10 OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN USING UML 299

Object-Oriented Concepts 300 Objects 300 / Classes 300 / Inheritance 301

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 10.1 Around the World in 80 Objects 302

CRC Cards and Object Think 302 Interacting During a CRC Session 304

Unified Modeling Language (UML) Concepts and Diagrams 304

Use Case Modeling 307

Activity Diagrams 309 Creating Activity Diagrams 311

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 10.2 Recycling the Programming Environment 312 Repository Entries for an Activity Diagram 312

Sequence and Communication Diagrams 313 Sequence Diagrams 313 / Communication Diagrams 315

Class Diagrams 316 Method Overloading 317 / Types of Classes 317 / Defining Messages and Methods 318

Enhancing Sequence Diagrams 318 A Class Example for the Web 319 / Presentation, Business, and Persistence Layers in Sequence Diagrams 321

Enhancing Class Diagrams 321 Relationships 322 / Generalization/Specialization (Gen/Spec) Diagrams 325

Statechart Diagrams 328 A State Transition Example 329

Packages and Other UML Artifacts 330

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 10.3 Developing a Fine System That Was Long Overdue: Using Object-Oriented Analysis for the Ruminski Public Library System 332

Putting UML to Work 332

The Importance of Using UML for Modeling 334

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 10.4 C-Shore++ 335 SUMMARY 335

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 10 336 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 336 REVIEW QUESTIONS 337 PROBLEMS 337 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 338

PART IV THE ESSENTIALS OF DESIGN 339

11 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE OUTPUT 339

Output Design Objectives 340 Designing Output to Serve the Intended Purpose 340 / Designing Output to Fit the User 340 / Delivering the Appropriate Quantity of Output 340 / Making Sure the Output Is Where It Is Needed 340 / Providing Output on Time 340 / Choosing the Right Output Method 341

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 17 06/08/19 4:36 PM

18 C O N T E N T S

Relating Output Content to Output Method 341 Output Technologies 341 / Factors to Consider When Choosing Output Technology 341

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 11.1 Your Cage or Mine? 344

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 11.2 A Right Way, a Wrong Way, and a Subway 346

Realizing How Output Bias Affects Users 347 Recognizing Bias in the Way Output Is Used 347 / Avoiding Bias in the Design of Output 348

Designing Printed Output 348

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 11.3 Should This Chart Be Barred? 349

Designing Output for Displays 350 Guidelines for Display Design 350 / Using Graphical Output in Screen Design 351 / Dashboards 351 / Infographics 353

Designing a Website 354 Responsive Web Design 355 / Flat Web Design 355 / General Guidelines for Designing Websites 356

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 11.4 Is Your Work a Grind? 357 Specific Guidelines for Website Design 358

MAC APPEAL 360

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 11.5 A Field Day 362

Web 2.0 Technologies 362

Social Media Design 363 Guidelines for Social Media Design 364

Designing Apps for Smartphones and Tablets 365 Set Up a Developer Account 366 / Choose a Development Process 366 / Be an Original 366 / Determine How You Will Price the App 366 / Follow the Rules 367 / Design Your Icon 367 / Choose an Appropriate Name for the App 367 / Design for a Variety of Devices 367 / Design the Output for the App 368 / Design the Output a Second Time for a Different Orientation 369 / Share a Prototype of Your Work 369 / Design the App’s Logic 369 / Design Movement 370 / Create the User Interface Using Gestures 370 / Protect Your Intellectual Property 370 / Market Your App 371

Output Production and XML 371 Ajax 373

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 11 374 SUMMARY 374 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 375 REVIEW QUESTIONS 375 PROBLEMS 376 GROUP PROJECTS 379 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 380

12 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE INPUT 381

Good Form Design 382 Making Forms Easy to Fill In 382 / Meeting the Intended Purpose 385 / Ensuring Accurate Completion 385 / Keeping Forms Attractive 385 / Controlling Business Forms 385

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 18 06/08/19 4:36 PM

C O N T E N T S 19

Good Display and Web Forms Design 386 Keeping the Display Simple 386 / Keeping the Display Consistent 387 / Facilitating Movement 387 / Designing an Attractive and Pleasing Display 387 / Using Icons in Display Design 387

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 12.1 This Form May Be Hazardous to Your Health 388

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 12.2 Squeezin’ Isn’t Pleasin’ 389 Graphical User Interface Design 389 / Form Controls and Values 392 / Hidden Fields 392 / Event-Response Charts 393 / Dynamic Web Pages 395 / Three-Dimensional Web Pages 395 / Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) 397

MAC APPEAL 399 Using Color in Display Design 399

Website Design 400 SUMMARY 402

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 12 403 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 404 REVIEW QUESTIONS 404 PROBLEMS 405 GROUP PROJECTS 408 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 408

13 DESIGNING DATABASES 409

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 13.1 Hitch Your Cleaning Cart to a Star 410

Databases 410

Data Concepts 411 Reality, Data, and Metadata 411 / Files 416 / Relational Databases 418

Normalization 420 The Three Steps of Normalization 420 / A Normalization Example 420 / Using an Entity-Relationship Diagram to Determine Record Keys 428 / One-to-Many Relationships 429 / Many-to-Many Relationships 429

Guidelines for Master File/Database Relation Design 430 Integrity Constraints 430

MAC APPEAL 431 Anomalies 432

Making Use of a Database 432 Steps in Retrieving and Presenting Data 432

Denormalization 433

Data Warehouses 434

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 13.2 Storing Minerals for Health, Data for Mining 436 Online Analytical Processing 436 / Data Mining 436

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 13.3 Losing Prospects 438

Business Intelligence (BI) 438

Data Analytics 439

Blockchains 440

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 13 441

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 19 06/08/19 4:36 PM

20 C O N T E N T S

SUMMARY 442 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 443 REVIEW QUESTIONS 444 PROBLEMS 444 GROUP PROJECTS 446 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 446

14 HUMAN–COMPUTER INTERACTION AND UX DESIGN 448

Understanding Human–Computer Interaction 449 How Fit Affects Performance and Well-Being 449

Usability 450 Designing for the Cognitive Styles of Individual Users 451 / Physical Considerations in HCI Design 451 / Considering Human Limitations, Disabilities, and Design 452 / Implementing Good HCI Practices 452

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.1 School Spirit Comes in Many Sizes 453

Types of User Interface 453

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.2 I’d Rather Do It Myself 454

Natural-Language Interfaces 454 / Question-and-Answer Interfaces 454 / Menus 454

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.3 Don’t Slow Me Down 455 Form-Fill Interfaces 455 / Choosing and Evaluating Interfaces 456

UX Design 456 Five Designer Actions that Promote Good UX Design 458 / Five Designer Actions to Avoid in UX Design 458 / UX Design Guidelines: An Ecommerce Example 459 / Benefits of UX Design 460

Designing Interfaces for Smartphones and Tablets 460 Gestures 461 / Alerts, Notices, and Queries 461 / Badges 462

Design for Intelligent Personal Assistants 462

Designing for Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality 463

Guidelines for Dialogue Design 463 Meaningful Communication 464 / Minimal User Action 465

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.4 Waiting to Be Fed 466 Standard Operation and Consistency 466

Feedback for Users 467 Types of Feedback 467 / Including Feedback in Design 468

Special Design Considerations for Ecommerce 469 Soliciting Feedback from Ecommerce Website Customers 469

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.5 When You Run a Marathon, It Helps to Know Where You’re Going 470

MAC APPEAL 471 Easy Navigation for Ecommerce Websites 471

Mashups 473

Designing Queries 473 Query Types 473 / Query Methods 476

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 14.6 Hey, Look Me Over (Reprise) 477

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 20 06/08/19 4:36 PM

C O N T E N T S 21

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 14 479 SUMMARY 480 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 480 REVIEW QUESTIONS 481 PROBLEMS 482 GROUP PROJECTS 483 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 484

PART V QUALITY ASSURANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION 485

15 DESIGNING ACCURATE DATA ENTRY PROCEDURES 485

Effective Coding 486 Keeping Track of Something 486 / Classifying Information 487 / Concealing Information 491 / Revealing Information 489 / Requesting Appropriate Action 491 / General Guidelines for Coding 491

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 15.1 It’s a Wilderness in Here 492

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 15.2 Catching a Summer Code 494

Effective and Efficient Data Capture 494 Deciding What to Capture 495 / Letting the Computer Do the Rest 495 / Avoiding Bottlenecks and Extra Steps 496 / Starting with a Good Form 496 / Choosing a Data Entry Method 496

Ensuring Data Quality through Input Validation 500

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 15.3 To Enter or Not to Enter: That Is the Question 501 Validating Input Transactions 501 / Validating Input Data 502 / The Process of Validation 504

Data Accuracy Advantages in Ecommerce Environments 505 Customers Keying Their Own Data 505 / Storing Data for Later Use 505 / Using Data through the Order Fulfillment Process 505

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 15 506 Providing Feedback to Customers 506

SUMMARY 506 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 507 REVIEW QUESTIONS 508 PROBLEMS 508 GROUP PROJECTS 510 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 510

16 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION 512

The Total Quality Management Approach 513 Six Sigma 513 / Responsibility for Total Quality Management 513 / Structured Walkthrough 514 / Top-Down Systems Design and Development 515

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.1 The Quality of MIS Is Not Strained 516

MAC APPEAL 517 Using Structure Charts to Design Modular Systems 517 / Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) 519

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 21 06/08/19 4:36 PM

22 C O N T E N T S

Documentation Approaches 520 Procedure Manuals 520 / The FOLKLORE Method 520

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.2 Write Is Right 521

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 16.1 522 Choosing a Design and Documentation Technique 523

Testing, Maintenance, and Auditing 523 The Testing Process 523

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.3 Cramming for Your Systems Test 525 Maintenance Practices 526 / Auditing 526

Implementing Distributed Systems 526 Client/Server Technology 527 / Cloud Computing 528 / Network Modeling 531

Training Users 534 Training Strategies 534 / Guidelines for Training 535

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.4 You Can Lead a Fish to Water . . . but You Can’t Make It Drink 536

Conversion to a New System 537 Conversion Strategies 537 / Other Conversion Considerations 538 / Organizational Metaphors and Their Relationship to Successful Systems 538

Security Concerns for Traditional and Web-Based Systems 539 Physical Security 539 / Logical Security 540 / Behavioral Security 540 / Special Security Considerations for Ecommerce 541 / Privacy Considerations for Ecommerce 541 / Disaster Recovery Planning 542

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.5 The Sweet Smell of Success 543

Evaluation 544 Evaluation Techniques 544 / The Information System Utility Approach 544

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITY 16.6 Mopping Up with the New System 546

Evaluating Corporate Websites 546

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCE 16.2 547 SUMMARY 547 KEYWORDS AND PHRASES 548 REVIEW QUESTIONS 549 PROBLEMS 550 GROUP PROJECTS 552 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 552

GLOSSARY 553 ACRONYMS 561 INDEX 563

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 22 06/08/19 4:36 PM

NEW TO THIS EDITION The tenth edition of Systems Analysis and Design includes extensive changes inspired by the rapid changes in the IS field over the past four years, and they are included as a response to the thoughtful input of our audience of adopters, students, and academic reviewers. Many new and advanced features are integrated throughout this new edition. In particular:

• Innovative material on using responsive design to enable systems analysts and organiza- tions to participate in open source communities (Chapter 1)

• New coverage of the importance of security considerations right from the outset of a systems project (Chapter 1)

• New material on work-sanctioned social media sites to create productive systems development subcultures and collaborative design (Chapter 2)

• Additional material on cloud computing as a platform choice for a systems development project (Chapter 3)

• Innovative material on listening to user stories to complement other interactive information gathering methods (Chapter 4)

• New material on text analytics software to examine unstructured, soft data from customers’ blogs, wikis, and social media sites to interpret qualitative material (Chapter 5)

• New and expanded content on agile methods including Scrum, Scrum planning poker, the product backlog, sprint cycle, and burndown charts (Chapter 6)

• New coverage on Kanban systems as they apply to software development (Chapter 6) • Innovative coverage of DevOps as a cultural shift in the way to organize rapid systems

development and operations (Chapter 6) • Additional material on designing dashboards for decision makers using infographics

(Chapter 11) • New material on responsive Web design for websites that can be viewed on any device

(Chapter 11) • New material comparing and contrasting skeuomorphic design with flat design for

websites (Chapter 11) • Additional material on innovative guidelines for designing for social media (Chapter 11) • New content on website design including use of navigational elements such as a

hamburger icon and breadcrumb trail (Chapter 12) • New material on the relationship of business intelligence to data warehouses, big data,

and data analytics (Chapter 13) • Additional coverage on database security and risk tradeoffs in securing databases

(Chapter 13) • Innovative material on developing and using blockchains to provide a verifiable

electronic record for tracking any kind of business asset (Chapter 13) • New content on UX design (user experience design) for developing customer-centered

ecommerce website experiences (Chapter 14) • Innovative coverage of designing virtual reality, augmented reality, and intelligent

personal assistants (Chapter 14) • Additional content on using QR codes for improved data entry (Chapter 15) • Additional material on designing improved cloud security, privacy, and stability,

especially for business continuity and disaster recovery (Chapter 16)

PREFACE

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 23 06/08/19 4:36 PM

24 P R E FAC E

DESIGN FEATURES Figures have a stylized look to help students more easily grasp the subject matter.

Conceptual diagrams are used to intro- duce the many tools that systems analysts have at their disposal. This example shows the differences between logical data flow dia- grams and physical data flow diagrams. Con- ceptual diagrams are color coded so students can easily distinguish among them, and their functions are clearly indicated. Many other important tools are illustrated, including use case diagrams, sequence diagrams, and class diagrams.

Computer displays demonstrate important software features that are useful to the analyst. In this edition we introduce UX (user experience) design. Screens are of the utmost importance when we put the user experience first. Actual screen shots show important aspects of design. Analysts are continuously seeking to improve the appear- ance of the screens and web pages they design. Colorful examples help to illustrate why some screen designs are particularly effective.

Paper forms are used throughout to show how to capture user stories, as well as for input and output design and the design of question- naires. Blue ink is always used to show writing or data input, thereby making it easier to identify what was filled in by hand. Although most organizations have computer- ization of manual processes as their goal, much data capture is still done using hand-written paper forms. Improved form design enables ana- lysts to ensure accurate and complete input and output. Better forms also streamline new internal workflows that result from newly automated business-to-consumer (B2C) applica- tions for ecommerce on the Web.

Tables are used when an important list needs special attention or when information needs to be organized or classified. In addition, tables supplement the understanding of the

reader in a way that departs from how material is organized in the narrative portion of the book. Most analysts find tables a useful way to organize numbers and text into a meaningful “snapshot.”

This example of a table from Chap- ter 3 shows how analysts can refine their activity plans for analysis by breaking them down into smaller tasks and then estimating how much time it will take to complete them. This book is built on the idea that systems analysis and design is a

Items and Prices

Customer

Identify Item

D1 Prices

Items to Purchase

Prices

Look Up Prices

Item ID Amount to be PaidCompute Total

Cost of Order

Receipt

Settle Transaction and Issue Receipt

Customer

Payment

Logical Data Flow Diagram

Item Codes and Prices

Customer

Pass Items Over Scanner (Manual)

D1 UPC Price File Temporary Trans. File

Items Brought to Checkout

Item Description and Prices

Look Up Code and

Price in File

UPC Bar Code Calculated

Amount to be PaidCompute Total Cost

Cash Register Receipt

Collect Money and Give Receipt (Manual)

Customer

Cash, Check, or Debit Card

Physical Data Flow Diagram

UPC Code

Items, Prices, and Subtotals

Items and Prices

Conduct interviews Administer questionnaires Read company reports Introduce prototype Observe reactions to prototype

Analyze data flow

Perform cost-benefit analysis Prepare proposal Present proposal

Data gathering

Data flow and decision analysis

Proposal preparation

3 4 4 5 3

3 2 2

Weeks RequiredDetailed ActivityActivity

Break thesedown further, then estimate

time required.

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 24 06/08/19 4:36 PM

P R E FAC E 25

Part I: Systems Analysis

Fundamentals

Part II: Information

Requirements Analysis

Part V: Quality

Assurance and Implementation

Part III: The Analysis

Process

Part IV: The Essentials

of Design

process that integrates the use of many tools with the unique talents of the systems analyst to systematically improve business through the implementation or modification of computerized information systems. Systems analysts can grow in their work by taking on new IT challenges, whether they are posed by designing for multiple platforms, new types of users, or implementing cloud-based systems; and by keeping up to date in their profession through the application of new methods, software, and alternative tools.

A BRIEF TOUR OF THE TENTH EDITION

Systems analysis and design is typically taught in one or two semesters. This book may be used in either situation. The text is appropriate for undergraduate (junior or senior) curricula at a four- year university, graduate school, or community college. The level and length of the course can be varied and supplemented by using real-world projects, HyperCase, the legacy CPU Case online, or other materials available at the Pearson Instructor Resources website.

The text is divided into five major parts: Systems Analysis Fundamentals (Part I), Informa- tion Requirements Analysis (Part II), The Analysis Process (Part III), The Essentials of Design (Part IV), and Quality Assurance and Implementation (Part V).

Part I (Chapters 1–3) stresses the basics students need to know about what an analyst does and introduces the three main methodologies of the systems development life cycle (SDLC), agile approaches, and object-oriented analysis with universal modeling language (UML), along with reasons and situations for when to use them. Part I introduces the three roles of a systems analyst—consultant, supporting expert, and agent of change— along with ethical issues and professional guidelines for serving as a systems consul- tant. The importance of designing security into new systems from the beginning is noted. Material on virtual teams and virtual organizations, and the concept of human– computer interaction (HCI) is introduced as well. The use of open source software (OSS) and how analysts and organizations can participate in open source communities by using responsive design is introduced.

Modify Diagrams and Complete

Specifications

Develop and Document the

System

Draw Use Case Diagrams

Write Use Case Scenarios

Derive Activity Diagrams from Use

Cases

Develop Sequence Diagrams

Draw Statechart Diagrams

Create Class Diagrams

Systems Analysis Phase

Systems Design Phase

Problem Identification Phase

Begin Object-Oriented Analysis and Design

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 25 06/08/19 4:37 PM

26 P R E FAC E

Chapter 2 includes how to initially approach an organization by drawing context-level data flow diagrams, using entity-relationship models, and developing use cases and use case sce- narios. It views the organization as a system through the description of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. Also included is the importance of using employer-sanctioned social media to create a strong workplace culture. Chapter 3 focuses on project management. It intro- duces material on when to use cloud services versus purchasing hardware and software. Project management techniques including time estimation techniques for project management are dis- cussed. Material in Chapter 3 will help students approach projects using the work breakdown structure (WBS). Creating a problem definition, developing a project charter, and determining feasibility are also covered. Chapter 3 guides students in writing and presenting a professional and effective systems proposal that incorporates figures and graphs to communicate with users.

Part II (Chapters 4–6) emphasizes the use of systematic and structured methodologies for performing information require- ments analysis. Attention to analy- sis helps analysts ensure that they are addressing the correct problem before designing a system. Chapter 4 introduces a group of interactive methods, including interviewing, joint application design (JAD), and constructing questionnaires. It expands material on listening to user stories in order to understand organization behaviors and values. Chapter 5 introduces a group of unobtrusive methods for ascertaining information requirements of users. These methods include sampling, investigat- ing hard and archival data, and observation of decision makers’ behavior and their physical environment. New material on the use of text analytics software to examine unstructured data from blogs, wikis, interviews, and social media sites is added. Chapter 6 on agile modeling and prototyping is innovative in its treatment of prototyping as another data-gathering tech- nique that enables the analyst to solve the right problem by getting users involved from the start. Agile approaches have their roots in prototyping, and this chapter begins with prototyp- ing to provide a proper context for understanding, and then takes up the agile approach. The values and principles, activities, resources, practices, processes, and tools associated with agile methodologies are presented. New and expanded coverage of agile methods including Scrum, Scum planning poker, the product backlog, sprint cycle, and burndown charts are included. Kanban systems as they apply to software development are introduced, and innova- tive coverage of DevOps as a cultural shift in the way to organize rapid systems development and operations is covered.

Part III (Chapters 7–10) details the analysis pro- cess. It builds on the previous two parts to move students into analysis of data flows as well as structured and sem- istructured decisions. It provides step-by-step details on how to use structured techniques to draw data flow dia- grams (DFDs). Chapter 7 provides coverage of how to create child diagrams; how to develop both logical and physical data flow diagrams; and how to partition data flow diagrams. Chapter 8 features material on the data repository and vertical balancing of data flow diagrams. Chapter 8 also includes extensive coverage of extensi- ble markup language (XML) and demonstrates how to use data dictionaries to create XML. Chapter 9 includes material on developing process specifications. A discus- sion of both logical and physical process specifications

Plan

Design Configure

Test

DEV OPSPrioritizeCode Monitor Release

Development and

operations work

together to produce

quality apps

method(Parameter)

return

asynchronousSignal( )

::Class Object::Class

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 26 06/08/19 4:37 PM

P R E FAC E 27

shows how to use process specifications for horizontal balancing. Chapter 9 also covers how to diagram structured decisions with the use of structured English, decision tables, and decision trees. In addition, the chapter covers how to choose an appropriate decision analysis method for analyzing structured decisions and creating process specifications.

Part III concludes with Chapter 10 on object-oriented systems analysis and design. This chapter includes an in-depth section on using unified modeling language (UML). There is detailed coverage of the use case model, creating the class model diagram with UML, sequence diagrams, creating gen/spec diagrams, use case scenarios, and activity diagrams. Through sev- eral examples and Consulting Opportunities, this chapter demonstrates how to use an object- oriented approach. Consulting Opportunities, diagrams, and problems enable students to learn and use UML to model systems from an object-oriented perspective. Students learn the appro- priate situations for using an object-oriented approach. This chapter helps students to decide whether to use the SDLC, the agile approach, or object-oriented systems analysis and design to develop a system.

Part IV (Chapters 11–14) covers the essentials of design. It begins with designing output because many practitioners believe systems to be output driven. The design of Web-based forms is cov- ered in detail. Particular attention is paid to relating output method to content, the effect of output on users, and designing good forms and screens. Chapter 11 considers output, including Web displays, audio, and electronic output such as web pages, email, and RSS feeds. Designing a website for ecommerce purposes is emphasized, and the importance of add- ing Web 2.0 technologies and social media to corporate and ecommerce websites is explored. Additional material on designing dashboards using infographics is provided. New material on responsive Web design is included. Flat versus skeuomorphic design is covered, as are innova- tive guidelines for designing for social media. Designing apps for smartphones and tablets is integrated, along with storyboarding, wireframing, and mockups. Output production and XML are covered.

Chapter 12 includes innovative material on designing for smartphones and tablets as well as designing Web-based input forms and other electronic forms design. Also included is computer- assisted forms design. Chapter 12 also features in-depth coverage of website design, new content on how to add navigational elements to websites such as a hamburger menus and breadcrumb trails, and includes guidelines on when designers should add video, audio, and animation to website designs. There is detailed consideration of how to create effective graphics for corporate websites and ways to design effective onscreen navigation for website users.

Coverage of intranet and extranet page design is included. Consideration of database integ- rity constraints and how the user interacts with the computer and how to design an appropriate interface are discussed. The importance of user feedback is also found in Part IV. How to design accurate data entry procedures that take full advantage of computer and human capabilities to assure entry of quality data is emphasized here.

Chapter 13 demonstrates how to use an entity-relationship diagram to determine record keys and provides guidelines for file/database relation design. Students are shown the relevance of database design for the overall usefulness of the system, and how users actually use databases. New material on the relationship between business intelligence (BI) and data warehouses, big data, and data analytics software is added in the context of data warehouses. Additional material on database security and risk tradeoffs in securing databases is added. Innovative material on developing and using blockchains to provide a verifiable electronic record for tracking any kind of business asset is included.

Website logo Feature storyJPEG image

Video subscription

Quick links Main stories

Chat roomsAdvertisements Email contact link

RSS feeds

Banner ads

Links to subWebs

Search engine

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 27 06/08/19 4:37 PM

28 P R E FAC E

Chapter 14 emphasizes human–computer interaction (HCI), especially as it relates to inter- face design, as well as UX design. It discusses the importance of HCI in designing systems that suit individuals and assisting them in achieving personal and organization goals through their use of information technology. The concept of usability is introduced, so that systems analysis students can knowledgeably incorporate HCI practices in their designs. Chapter 14 introduces material on how to design gesture-based (multitouch) interfaces for smartphones and tablets, as well as designing alerts, notices, and queries. Material on designing easy onscreen navigation for website visitors is included. The chapter presents innovative approaches to searching on the Web, highlights material on graphic user interface (GUI) design, and provides innovative approaches to designing dialogues. Chapter 14 articulates specialized design considerations for ecommerce websites. New material on UX design (user experience design) for develop- ing customer-centered ecommerce websites is included. Mashups, new applications created by combining two or more Web-based application programming interfaces, are also covered. Innovative material on designing virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and intelligent personal assistants is included. Chapter 14 includes extensive coverage on how to formulate queries, all within the framework of HCI.

Part V (Chapters 15 and 16) con- cludes the book. Chapter 15 focuses on designing accurate data entry procedures and includes material on managing the supply chain through the effective design of business-to-business (B2B) ecommerce. It includes suggestions for incorporating two-dimensional codes QR codes and bar codes into data entry designs. It also considers the usefulness of RFID for automatic data collection. Chapter 16 emphasizes taking a total quality approach to improving software design and maintenance. In addition, material on system security and fire- walls is included. Testing, auditing, and maintenance of systems are discussed in the context of total quality manage- ment. This chapter helps students under- stand how service-oriented architecture (SOA) and cloud computing combined with ERP are significantly altering the landscape of information systems design. In addition, students learn how to design appropriate training programs for users of the new system, how to recognize the differences among physical conversion strategies, and how to be able to recommend an appropriate one to a client. Chapter 16 also presents techniques for modeling networks, which can be done with popular tools such as Microsoft Visio.

Material on security and privacy in relation to designing ecommerce applications is included. Coverage includes security for firewalls, gateways, public key infrastructure (PKI), secure elec- tronic transaction (SET), secure sockets layer (SSL), virus protection software, URL filtering products, email filtering products, and virtual private networks (VPN) is included. Additional coverage on designing improved cloud security, privacy, and stability, especially for business continuity and disaster recovery, is included.

Important coverage of how the analyst can promote and monitor a corporate website is included in this section, which features Web activity monitoring, website promotion, Web traffic analysis, and audience profiling to ensure the effectiveness of new ecommerce systems. Tech- niques for evaluating the completed information systems project are covered systematically as well.

This tenth edition contains an updated Glossary of terms and a separate list of updated Acronyms used in the book and in the systems analysis and design field.

Web Services Application ServicesDatabase Services

Client Computers

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 28 06/08/19 4:37 PM

P R E FAC E 29

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES Chapters in this tenth edition contain:

• Learning Objectives at the beginning of each chapter • Summaries at the end of each chapter that tie together the salient points of the chapter

and provide an excellent source of review for exams • Keywords and Phrases for each chapter • Review Questions to help with learning key definitions and terms • Problems that help students apply and extend the concepts and tools they are learning

to practical situations • Group Projects that help students work together in a systems team to solve important

problems that are best solved through group interaction • Consulting Opportunities now with more than 50 minicases throughout the book • Mac Appeal columns that inform students about design software available on the Mac

and iPhone • HyperCase Experiences in each chapter simulate organizational experience and focus

learning from HyperCase online

CONSULTING OPPORTUNITIES This tenth edition presents more than 50 Con- sulting Opportunities, addressing significant and emerging topics arising in information systems, including designing systems from an HCI per- spective, ecommerce applications for the Web, cloud computing decisions, and using UML to model information systems from an object- oriented perspective. Consulting Opportunities can be used for motivating thoughtful in-class discussions or assigned as homework or take- home exam questions.

Not all systems work demands extended two- or three-year projects, so many Consulting Opportunities included can be solved in 20 to 30 minutes of group discussion, group writing, or individual writing. These minicases, written in a humorous manner to enliven the material, require students to synthesize what they have learned up to that point in the course, ask students to mature in their professional and ethical judgment, and expect students to articulate the reasoning that led to their systems decisions.

HYPERCASE EXPERIENCES HyperCase Experiences that pose challenging stu- dent exercises are present in each chapter. Hyper- Case 2.10 has organization problems featuring information systems technology. HyperCase rep- resents an original virtual organization that allows students who access it to become immediately immersed in organization life. Students will inter- view people, observe office environments, analyze their prototypes, and review the documentation of their existing systems.

HyperCase 2.10 is Web-based, interactive software that presents an organization called Maple Ridge Engineering (MRE) in a colorful, three- dimensional graphics environment. HyperCase permits professors to begin approaching a systems analysis and design class with exciting multimedia

92 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

“Sometimes the people who have been here for some time are surprised at how much we have actually grown. Yes, I do admit that it isn’t easy to keep track of what each person is up to or even what purchases each department has made in the way of hardware and software. We’re working on it, though. Mr. Evans would like to see more accountability for computer purchases. He wants to make sure we know what we have, where it is, why we have it, who’s using it, and if it’s boosting MRE productivity, or, as he so delicately puts it, ‘to see whether it’s just an expensive toy’ that we can live without.”

HYPERCASE Questions 1. Complete a computer equipment inventory for the Training

and Management Systems Department, describing all the systems you find. Hint: Create an inventory form to simplify your task.

2. Using the software evaluation guidelines given in the chapter, do a brief evaluation of GEMS, a software pack- age used by the Training and Management Systems Department employees. In a paragraph, briefly critique this custom software by comparing it with COTS software such as Microsoft Project.

3. List the intangible costs and benefits of GEMS, as reported by employees of MRE.

4. Briefly describe the two alternatives Mr. Evans is con- sidering for the proposed project tracking and reporting system.

5. What organizational and political factors should Mr. Evans consider in proposing his new system at MRE? (In a brief paragraph, discuss three central conflicts.)

H Y P E R C A S E ® E X P E R I E N C E 3 . 2

FIGURE 3.HC1 The reception room resembles a typical corporation. While you are in this HyperCase screen, click on the small red directory if you want to visit an MRE employee.

Summary The five major project management fundamentals a systems analyst must handle are (1) project initiation— defining a problem, (2) determining project feasibility, (3) activity planning and control, (4) project schedul- ing, and (5) managing systems analysis team members. When faced with questions of how businesses can

M03_KEND5554_10_SE_C03.indd 92 03/10/17 4:03 PM

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 29 06/08/19 4:37 PM

30 P R E FAC E

material. Carefully watching their use of time and managing multiple methods, students use the hypertext characteristics of HyperCase on the Web to create their own individual paths through the organization.

Maple Ridge Engineering is drawn from the actual consulting experiences of the authors of the original version (Raymond Barnes, Richard Baskerville, Julie E. Kendall, and Kenneth E. Kendall). Allen Schmidt joined the project for version 2.0 and has remained with it. Peter Schmidt was the HTML programmer, and Jason Reed created the images for the initial Web version.

Each chapter contains HyperCase Experiences that include assignments (and even some clues) to help students solve difficult organization problems including developing new systems, merging departments, hiring employees, security, ecommerce, and disaster recovery planning they encounter at MRE. HyperCase has been fully tested in classrooms and was an award winner in the Decision Sciences Institute Innovative Instruction competition.

EXPANDED WEB SUPPORT Systems Analysis and Design, tenth edi- tion, features Web-based support for solid but lively pedagogical techniques in the information systems field:

• The website, located at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com, contains a wealth of critical learning and support tools, which keep class discussions exciting.

• HyperCase 2.10 is an award-win- ning, interactive organization game. Students are encouraged to inter- view people in the organization, analyze problems, drill down into and modify data flow diagrams and data dictionaries, react to prototypes, and design new input and output.

• A legacy case, the Central Pacific University (CPU) case is online. In keeping with our belief that a variety of approaches is important, the entire legacy Central Pacific University (CPU) case, accompanied by partially solved Student Exercises, is fully available online. The legacy CPU case makes use of Microsoft Access, Microsoft Visio, and the popular CASE tool Visible Analyst by Visible Systems, Inc., for the sample screen shots and the student exercises. The legacy CPU case takes students through all phases of the systems development life cycle.

EXPANDED INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTAL WEB SUPPORT Extended support for instructors using this edition can be found at the official website located at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com. Resources include:

• Instructor’s Manual—The Instructor’s Manual contains answers to problems, solu- tions to cases, and suggestions for approaching the subject matter.

• PowerPoint Presentations—The PowerPoints feature lecture notes that highlight key text terms and concepts. Professors can customize the presentation by adding their own slides or by editing the existing ones.

• TestGen Testbank File—The TestGen Testbank file is an extensive set of multiple- choice, true/false, and essay-type questions for each chapter of the text. Questions are ranked according to difficulty level and referenced with page numbers from the text. The TestGen Testbank file is available in Microsoft Word format and as the computer- ized Prentice Hall TestGen software, with course management system conversions.

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 30 06/08/19 4:37 PM

http://www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

• TestGen Testbank—Pearson Education’s test-generating software is available from the TestGen website. The software is PC/Mac and Blackboard compatible and preloaded with all the Test Gen Testbank questions. You can manually or randomly view test questions and drag and drop to create a test. You can add or modify test-bank questions as needed.

• Image Library—This collection of the text art is organized by chapter. This collection includes all the figures, tables, and screenshots from the book. These images can be used to enhance class lectures and PowerPoint slides.

• Solutions to the legacy CPU Case and Student Files—These exercises are based on the legacy CPU case, with solutions and examples stored in Visible Analyst files and Microsoft Access files.

• eBook of Systems Analysis and Design, 10th edition, Global Edition available at mypearsonstore.com

P R E FAC E 31

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 31 06/08/19 4:37 PM

Arco Iris de Colores (Rainbow Colors) by Pedro Fuller

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 32 06/08/19 4:37 PM

The field of information systems was changing swiftly as we were writing the tenth edition of Sys- tems Analysis and Design. We are excited that this edition is being published at the right moment for us to capture many of these innovations in systems analysis and design.

One notable change is the practice of UX design for developing customer-centered ecommerce website experiences. In this process, a systems analyst observes the behavior of customers and strives to enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty. The analyst accomplishes this by improving usability and ease of use. UX design is a design culture that chooses to give the user a good experience over maximizing short-term profit. Hand in hand with this approach is the accelerating use of responsive website design (RWD) enabling Web-based information systems to adapt and display correctly on whatever device is used to view content. In addition, cloud computing and software as a service (SaaS) are effectively altering the way analysts need to approach designing systems solutions.

Throughout the book you will learn and apply numerous techniques, methods, tools, and approaches to help visually capture a system. But when the time comes to interpret what is hap- pening in the organization and to develop meaningful information systems from the application of rules to your analysis, your training combines with creativity to produce a system that is in some ways a surprise: it is structured, yet intuitive, multilayered, and complex, in keeping with the character of the organization and uniquely reflective of you and your values as a systems analyst and a human being.

The artist, Pedro Fuller, who created the inspiring oil painting Arco Iris de Colores (Rain- bow Colors) featured on the previous page and throughout the 10th edition, states, “Every piece I complete expresses something unique. I always give careful consideration to the way color and form work together. Some of the themes in my art are spirituality, music, politics, and happiness. Because I value music for its relaxing qualities, there is a visual rhythm in my work through which I try to reach this same calmer, more spiritual place.” Pedro was born in Managua, Nicaragua, and as a teenager moved with his family to Camden, New Jersey. We hope that you as a student will strive to create something unique working with color and form as you learn to design screens, forms, websites, and expressions on social media.

It is, in fact, our own students who deserve recognition for this new edition because of their comments and suggestions for enhancements and their desire for increased depth in timely topics. Students told us that they quickly put to use the new material on agile methods, especially Scrum, UX design, as well as the material on DevOps. We want to thank our coauthor, Allen Schmidt, who worked with us on HyperCase 2.10 for all his support and collaboration over the years. He is an outstanding person. Our appreciation also goes to Peter Schmidt and Jason Reed for their improvements to the early HyperCase. In addition, we want to thank the other two original authors of HyperCase, Richard Baskerville and Raymond Barnes, who contributed so much to our lives and our projects over the years and are exceptional friends.

We would like to thank our tenth edition production team, especially the Pearson Senior Portfolio Manager of IT & MIS, Samantha Lewis, whose good humor and optimistic approach encouraged us to keep working. We are also grateful to Neha Bhargava, extremely capable proj- ect manager for her composed competency and for her enthusiasm in keeping the project going. Freddie C. Domini, our Program Monitor also deserves thanks for helping us succeed in making this a strong, comprehensive, and systematic revision. Their help and intense interest in our book facilitated the completion of this project in an apt and timely manner.

We also appreciate the encouragement and support of the entire Rutgers community, includ- ing Chancellor Phoebe A. Haddon, Dean Jaishankar Ganesh, and our colleagues and staff in the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 33 06/08/19 4:37 PM

34 AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S

School of Business–Camden and throughout all of Rutgers. They have been very enthusiastic about this edition as well as the many translations and versions of Systems Analysis and Design available in Spanish, Chinese, English for the Indian subcontinent, and Indonesian.

All the reviewers for the tenth edition deserve our thanks as well. Their thoughtful feedback and recommendations helped to strengthen the book. They are:

Daniel Asamoah, Wright State University Eralda Caushaj, Lawrence Technological University George Cognet, Delaware Technical Community College Jim Connolly, Canisius College Henry J. Felch, University of Maine at Augusta Brian Jones, Tennessee Tech University Sarah Khan, North Carolina State University Brenda Mak, San Francisco State University Randie Mondoro, Raritan Valley Community College Fay Cobb Payton, North Carolina State University Mary Reed, University of Jamestown Paul A. Seibert, North Greenville University Wayne Spies, Mercy College Laura Trevino, The University of Texas at El Paso Merrill Warkentin, Mississippi State University

Many of our colleagues and friends have encouraged us throughout the process of writing this book. We thank them for their comments on our work. They include: Ayman Abu Hamdieh, Macedonio Alanis, the Ciupeks, Gordon Davis, Tim DiVito, John Drozdal, EgoPo, Rich and Margarita Elias, Matt Germonprez, Nancy V. Gulick, Andy Hamingson, Blake Ives, Colleen Kelly-Lawler, Ken and Jane Laudon, Josh Lawler, Kin Lee, Matt Levy, Lars Mathiassen, Joel and

Julie and Ken Kendall personally thank all of our friends in the theatre and the performing arts. Here are the Kendalls at the 2012 Tony Awards afterparty with Tony-Award winning Actor James Corden (right). Photo by Anita & Steve Shevett.

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 34 06/08/19 4:37 PM

AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S 35

Bobbie Porter, Caryn Schmidt, Marc and Jill Schniederjans, Gabriel Stelian-Shanks, the Vargos, Merrill Warkentin, Brian Warner, Jeff and Bonnie Weil, Arlene and Paul Wolfling, Brett Young, and all of our friends and colleagues in The Drama League, The Actors Fund, the American Theatre Wing, Azuka Theatre, The KPMG Foundation, The New York Marriott Marquis, the Association for Information Systems, the Decision Sciences Institute, IFIP Working Group 8.2, and all those involved in the PhD Project, which serves minority doctoral students in information systems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR THE GLOBAL EDITION

Pearson would like to thank and acknowledge the following people for their contributions to the Global Edition.

Contributor Sahil Raj, Punjabi University

Reviewers Petter Dessne, University of Borås Floriana Grasso, University of Liverpool Kamran Munir, University of the West of England Elias Pimenidis, University of the West of England

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 35 06/08/19 4:37 PM

This page is intentionally left blank.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

AND

DESIGN

A01_KEND1452_10_GE_FM.indd 37 06/08/19 4:37 PM

This page is intentionally left blank.

Systems, Roles, and Development Methodologies

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Understand the need for systems analysis and design in organizations.

2. Realize what the many roles of a systems analyst are.

3. Comprehend the fundamentals of three development methodologies: the systems development life cycle (SDLC), the agile approach including Scrum, and object-oriented systems analysis and design.

Organizations have long recognized the importance of managing key resources such as people and raw materials. Information has now moved to its rightful place as a key resource. Decision makers understand that information is not just a by-product of conducting busi- ness; rather, it fuels business and can be the critical factor in determining the success or failure of a business.

To maximize the usefulness of information, a business must manage it correctly, just as it manages other resources. Managers need to understand that costs are associated with the production, distribution, security, storage, and retrieval of all information. Although information is all around us, it is not free, and its strategic use for positioning a business competitively should not be taken for granted.

The ready availability of networked computers, along with access to the Internet and the Web, has created an information explosion throughout society in general and business in particular. Managing computer-generated information differs in significant ways from handling manually produced data. There is usually a greater quantity of computer informa- tion to administer. Costs of organizing and maintaining it can increase at alarming rates, and users often treat it less skeptically than information obtained in different ways. This chapter examines the fundamentals of different kinds of information systems, the varied roles of systems analysts, and the phases in the systems development life cycle (SDLC) as they relate to human–computer interaction (HCI) factors; it also introduces computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools.

PART I SYSTEMS ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTALS

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 39 09/07/19 3:08 PM

40 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

Need for Systems Analysis and Design Systems analysis and design, as performed by systems analysts, is used to understand what people need to be able to systematically analyze data input or data flow, process or transform data, store data, and output information in the context of a particular organization or enterprise. Systems analysts seek to identify and solve the right problems by performing a thorough analysis of the client’s system. Furthermore, systems analysis and design is used to analyze, design, and imple- ment improvements to the computerized information systems that support users and the functions of businesses.

Security is critical to the functioning of organizational information systems, and security is a challenge for everyone involved in systems development. Information systems present mul- tiple vulnerabilities, and the idea of perfect security is a fantasy. Rather, organizations make trade-offs, weighing the value of the data they are storing with the risk that they will experience a security breach. As a systems developer, it is important that you design new systems with an awareness of what you can do to design security into a system from the very beginning. Devel- oping privacy controls and security by design, from the outset of systems design, is much more desirable and effective than adding it to older, legacy systems. Of course, you should always examine systems you are updating or improving for ways to address vulnerabilities and improve training for security issues.

Developing a system without proper planning leads to great user dissatisfaction and fre- quently causes the system to fall into disuse. Systems analysis and design lends structure to the analysis and design of information systems, a costly endeavor that might otherwise have been done in a haphazard way. It can be thought of as a series of processes systematically undertaken to improve a business through the use of computerized information systems. Systems analysis and design involves working with current and eventual users of information systems to support them in working with technologies in an organizational setting.

User involvement throughout a systems project is critical to the successful development of computerized information systems. Systems analysts, whose roles in the organization are discussed next, are the other essential component in developing useful information systems.

Users are moving to the forefront as software development teams become more international in their composition. This means that there is more emphasis on working with software users; on performing analysis of their business, problems, and objectives; and on communicating the analysis and design of the planned system to all involved.

Roles of a Systems Analyst A systems analyst systematically assesses how users interact with technology and how businesses function by examining the inputting and processing of data and the outputting of information with the intent of improving organization processes. Many improvements involve better support of users’ work tasks and business functions through the use of computerized information systems. This definition emphasizes a systematic, methodical approach to analyzing—and potentially improving—what is occurring in the specific context experienced by users and created by a business.

Our definition of a systems analyst is necessarily broad. An analyst must be able to work with people of all descriptions and be experienced in working with computers. An analyst plays many roles, sometimes balancing several at the same time. The three primary roles of a systems analyst are consultant, supporting expert, and agent of change.

Systems Analyst as Consultant A systems analyst frequently acts as a systems consultant to humans and their businesses and, thus, may be hired specifically to address information systems issues within a business. Such hiring can be an advantage because outside consultants bring with them a fresh perspective that people in an organization do not possess. It also means that outside analysts are at a disadvantage because an outsider can never know the true organization culture. As an outside consultant, you will rely heavily on the systematic methods discussed throughout this text to analyze and design appropriate information systems for users working in a particular business. In addition, you will rely on information systems users to help you understand the organizational culture from others’ viewpoints.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 40 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 41

Systems Analyst as Supporting Expert Another role that you may be required to play is that of supporting expert within a business for which you are regularly employed in some systems capacity. In this role, an analyst draws on professional expertise concerning computer hardware and software and their uses in the business. This work is often not a full-blown systems project and may entail only a small modification or a decision affecting a single department.

As the supporting expert, you are not managing the project; you are merely serving as a resource for those who are managing it. If you are a systems analyst employed by a manufacturing or service organization, many of your daily activities may be encompassed by this role.

Systems Analyst as Agent of Change The most comprehensive and responsible role that the systems analyst takes on is that of an agent of change, whether internal or external to the business. As an analyst, you are an agent of change whenever you perform any of the activities in the systems development life cycle (discussed in the next section) and are present and interacting with users and the business for an extended period (from two weeks to more than a year).

Your presence in the business changes it. As a systems analyst, you must recognize this fact and use it as a starting point for your analysis. Hence, you must interact with users and

C O N S U L T I N G O P P O R T U N I T Y 1 . 1

Healthy Hiring: Ecommerce Help Wanted

too. We are always communicating in some way, through formal presentations, drawing diagrams, or interviewing users. If they understand decision making, it will make their job easier. Also, Marathon is interested in integrating ecommerce into the entire business. We need someone who at least grasps the strategic importance of the Web; page design is such a small part of it.”

Ginger interjects again with a healthy dose of practicality, saying, “Leave that to management. I still say the new person should be a good coder.” Then she ponders aloud, “I wonder how important unified modeling language (UML) will be?”

After listening patiently to everyone’s wish list, one of the senior analysts, Cal Siem, speaks up, joking, “We’d better see if Superman is available!”

As the group shares a laugh, Al sees an opportunity to try for some consensus, saying, “We’ve had a chance to hear a number of different qualifications. Let’s each take a moment and make a list of the qualifications we personally think are essential for the new ecom- merce development person to possess. We’ll share them and con- tinue discussing until we can describe the person in enough detail to turn a description over to the human resources group for processing.”

What qualifications should the systems analysis team be looking for when hiring their new ecommerce development team member? Is it more important to know specific languages or to have an aptitude for picking up languages and software packages quickly? How important is it that the person being hired has some basic business understanding? Should all team members possess identical competencies and skills? What personality or character traits are desirable in a systems analyst who will be working in ecommerce development?

“You’ll be happy to know that we made a strong case to man- agement that we should hire a new systems analyst to specialize in ecommerce development,” says Al Falfa, a systems analyst for the multioutlet international chain Marathon Vitamin Shops. He is meet- ing with his large team of systems analysts to decide on the quali- fications that their new team member should possess. Al continues, saying, “In fact, they were so excited by the possibility of our team helping to move Marathon into an ecommerce strategy that they’ve said we should start our search now and not wait until the fall.”

Ginger Rute, another analyst, agrees, saying, “The demand for website developers is still outstripping the supply. We should move quickly. I think our new person should be knowledgeable in system modeling, JavaScript, C++, Rational Rose, and be familiar with Ajax, just to name a few.”

Al looks surprised at Ginger’s long list of skills but then replies, “Well, that’s certainly one way we could go. But I would also like to see a person with some business savvy. Most of the people coming out of school will have solid coding skills, but they should know about accounting, inventory, and distribution of goods and services too.”

The newest member of the systems analysis group, Vita Ming, finally breaks into the discussion. She says, “One of the reasons I chose to come to work with all of you was that I thought we all got along quite well together. Because I had some other opportunities, I looked very carefully at what the atmosphere was here. From what I’ve seen, we’re a friendly group. Let’s be sure to hire someone who has a good personality and who fits in well with us.”

Al concurs, continuing, “Vita’s right. The new person should be able to communicate well with us, and with business clients

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 41 09/07/19 3:08 PM

42 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

management (if they are not one and the same) from the very beginning of your project. Without their help, you cannot understand what they need to support their work in the organization, and real change cannot take place.

Qualities of a Systems Analyst From the foregoing descriptions of the roles the systems analyst plays, it is easy to see that a successful systems analyst must possess a wide range of qualities. Above all, an analyst is a problem solver. He or she is a person who views the analysis of problems as a challenge and who enjoys devising workable solutions. When necessary, an analyst must be able to systematically tackle the situation at hand through a skillful application of tools, techniques, and experience.

An analyst must also be a communicator capable of relating meaningfully to other people over extended periods of time. Systems analysts need to be able to understand humans’ needs when interacting with technology, and they need enough computer experience to code, to understand the capabilities of computers, to glean information requirements from users, and to communicate what is needed to coders. Analysts also need to possess strong personal and professional ethics to help them shape their client relationships.

A systems analyst must be a self-disciplined, self-motivated individual who is able to manage and coordinate other people as well as innumerable project resources. Systems analysis is a demanding career, but, in compensation, it is an ever changing and always challenging one.

The Systems Development Life Cycle Throughout this chapter, we refer to the systematic approach analysts take to the analysis and design of information systems. Much of this is embodied in the three approaches we describe in this book. The first approach is called the systems development life cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is a phased approach to analysis and design based on the assumption that systems are best developed through the use of a specific cycle of analyst and user activities. It has also been called the waterfall method because the system analysis completes the first phase, then moves down to the next, and so on, like water flowing steadily downward from one rock to another.

Analysts disagree on exactly how many phases there are in the SDLC, but they gener- ally laud its organized approach. Here we have divided the cycle into seven phases, as shown in Figure 1.1. Although each phase is presented discretely, it is never accomplished as a separate step. Instead, several activities may occur simultaneously, and activities may be repeated.

6 5

Developing and documenting software

2 Determining human information requirements

Analyzing system needs

Designing the recommended system

Testing and maintaining the system

Implementing and evaluating the system

Identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives

FIGURE 1.1 The seven phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC).

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 42 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 43

Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives In this first phase of the SDLC, an analyst is concerned with correctly identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives. This stage is critical to the success of the rest of the project because no one wants to waste time addressing the wrong problem.

The first phase requires that the analyst look honestly at what is occurring in a business. Then, together with other organization members, the analyst pinpoints problems. Others often bring up these problems, and they are the reason the analyst was initially called. Opportunities are situations that the analyst believes can be improved through the use of computerized information systems. Seizing opportunities may allow the business to gain a competitive edge or set an industry standard.

Identifying objectives is also an important component of the first phase. The analyst must first discover what the business is trying to do. Then the analyst will be able to see whether some aspect of information systems applications can help the business reach its objectives by addressing specific problems or opportunities.

The people involved in the first phase are the users, analysts, and systems managers coordinat- ing the project. Activities in this phase consist of interviewing user management, summarizing the knowledge obtained, estimating the scope of the project, and documenting the results. The output of this phase is a feasibility report that contains a problem definition and summarizes the objectives. Management must then make a decision on whether to proceed with the proposed project. If the user group does not have sufficient funds in its budget or if it wishes to tackle unrelated problems, or if the problems do not require a computer system, a different solution may be recommended, and the systems project does not proceed any further.

Determining Human Information Requirements In the next phase, the analyst determines the human needs of the users involved, using a variety of tools to understand how users interact in the work context with their current information systems. The analyst uses interactive methods such as interviewing, sampling and investigating hard data, and using questionnaires; unobtrusive methods, such as observing decision makers’ behavior and their office environments; and all-encompassing methods, such as prototyping.

The analyst will use these methods to pose and answer many questions concerning human–computer interaction (HCI), including questions such as, “What are the users’ physi- cal strengths and limitations?” In other words, “What needs to be done to make the system audible, legible, and safe?” “How can the new system be designed to be easy to use, learn, and remember?” “How can the system be made pleasing or even fun to use?” “How can the system support a user’s individual work tasks and make them more productive in new ways?”

In the information requirements phase of the SDLC, the analyst is striving to understand what information users need to perform their jobs. At this point, the analyst is examining how to make the system useful to the people involved. How can the system better support individ- ual tasks that need to be done? What new tasks are enabled by the new system that users were unable to do without it? How can the new system extend a user’s capabilities beyond what the old system provided? How can the analyst create a system that is rewarding for workers to use?

The people involved in this phase are the analysts and users, typically operations managers and operations workers. The systems analyst needs to know the details of current system functions: the who (the people who are involved), what (the business activity), where (the environment in which the work takes place), when (the timing), and how (how the current procedures are performed) of the business under study. The analyst must then ask why the business uses the current system. There may be good reasons for doing business using the current methods, and these should be con- sidered when designing any new system.

Agile development is an outgrowth of the object-oriented approach (OOA) to systems devel- opment that includes a method of development (including generating information requirements) as well as software tools. In this text, it is paired with prototyping in Chapter 6. (There is more about OOAs in Chapter 10.)

If the reason for current operations is that “it’s always been done that way,” however, the analyst may wish to improve on the procedures. At the completion of this phase, the analyst should under- stand how users accomplish their work when interacting with a computer and begin to know how to

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 43 09/07/19 3:08 PM

44 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

make the new system more useful and usable. The analyst should also know how the business func- tions and have complete information on the people, goals, data, and procedures involved.

Analyzing System Needs The next phase that the systems analyst undertakes involves analyzing system needs. Again, special tools and techniques help the analyst make requirement determinations. Tools such as data flow diagrams (DFDs) chart the input, processes, and output of the business’s func- tions, and activity diagrams or sequence diagrams show the sequence of events, illustrat- ing systems in a structured, graphic form. From data flow, sequence, or other diagrams, a data dictionary is developed that lists all the data items used in the system, as well as their specifications.

During this phase the systems analyst also analyzes the structured decisions made. Struc- tured decisions are those for which the conditions, condition alternatives, actions, and action rules can be determined. Three major tools are used when analyzing structured decisions: structured English, decision tables, and decision trees.

FIGURE 1.MAC Running Windows on a Mac using virtualization called VM Fusion. (Screen shot reprinted with permission from Apple Inc. and Bare Bones Software)

At home and in our visits to university campuses and businesses around the world, we’ve noticed that students and organizations are increasingly showing an interest in Macs. Therefore, we thought it would add a little bit of interest to show some of the Mac options available to a systems designer. Today, about one out of seven personal computers purchased in the United States is a Mac. Macs are quality Intel-based machines that run under a competent operating system and can also run Windows, so in effect, everything that can be done on a PC can be done on a Mac. One way to run Windows is to boot directly into Windows (once it’s installed); another is to use virtualization, using software such as Fusion by VMware, which is shown in Figure 1.MAC.

Adopters of Macs have cited many reasons for using Macs, including better security built into the Mac operating system, intelligent backup using the built-in Time Machine, the multitude of applications already included, the reliability of setup and networking, and the ability to sync Macs with other Macs and iPhones. The most compelling reason, we think, is the design itself.

M A C A P P E A L

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 44 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 45

At this point in the SDLC, the systems analyst prepares a systems proposal that summarizes what has been discovered about the users, usability, and usefulness of current systems; provides cost-benefit analyses of alternatives; and makes recommendations on what (if anything) should be done. If one of the recommendations is acceptable to management, the analyst proceeds along that course. Each systems problem is unique, and there is never just one correct solution. The manner in which a recommendation or solution is formulated depends on the individual qualities and professional training of each analyst and the analyst’s interaction with users in the context of their work environment.

Designing the Recommended System In the design phase of the SDLC, the systems analyst uses the information collected earlier to accomplish the logical design of the information system. The analyst designs procedures for users to help them accurately enter data so that data going into the information system are correct. In addition, the analyst provides for users to complete effective input to the informa- tion system by using techniques of good form and web page or screen design.

Part of the logical design of the information system is devising the HCI. The interface connects the user with the system and is extremely important. The user interface is designed with the help of users to make sure the system is audible, legible, and safe, as well as attractive and enjoyable to use. Examples of physical user interfaces include a keyboard (to type in ques- tions and answers), onscreen menus (to elicit user commands), and a variety of graphic user interfaces (GUIs) that use a mouse or touch screen.

The design phase also includes designing databases that will store much of the data needed by decision makers in the organization. Users benefit from a well-organized database that is logical to them and corresponds to the way they view their work. In this phase, the analyst also works with users to design output (either onscreen or printed) that meets their information needs.

Developing and Documenting Software In the fifth phase of the SDLC, the analyst works with coders to develop any original software that is needed. During this phase the analyst works with users to develop effective docu- mentation for software, including procedure manuals, online help, and websites featuring frequently asked questions (FAQs) or Read Me files shipped with new software. Because users are involved from the beginning, documentation should address the questions they have raised and solved jointly with the analyst. Documentation tells users how to use software and what to do if software problems occur.

Coders have a key role in this phase because they design, code, and remove syntactical errors from computer programs. To ensure quality, a coder may conduct either a design or a code walkthrough, explaining complex portions of the software to a team of other coders.

Testing and Maintaining the System Before an information system can be used, it must be tested. It is much less costly to catch problems before rather than after the system is signed over to users. Coders alone complete some of the testing, and some testing is done by systems analysts in conjunction with coders. A series of tests to pinpoint problems is run, first with sample data and eventually with actual data from the current system. Test plans often are created early in the SDLC and are refined as the project progresses.

Maintenance of the system and its documentation begins in this phase and is carried out routinely throughout the life of the information system. Much of the coder’s routine work consists of maintenance, and businesses spend a great deal of money on maintenance. Some maintenance, such as program updates, can be done automatically via a vendor site on the Web. Many of the systematic procedures the analyst employs throughout the SDLC can help ensure that maintenance is kept to a minimum.

Implementing and Evaluating the System In this last phase of systems development, the analyst helps implement the information system. This phase involves training users to handle the system. Vendors do some training, but oversight

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 45 09/07/19 3:08 PM

46 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

of training is the responsibility of the systems analyst. In addition, the analyst needs to plan for a smooth conversion from the old system to the new one. This process includes converting files from old formats to new ones or building a database, installing equipment, and bringing the new system into production.

Evaluation is included as part of this final phase of the SDLC, but in fact evaluation takes place during every phase. A key criterion that must be satisfied is whether the intended users are indeed using the system. It should be noted that systems work is often cyclical. When an analyst finishes one phase of systems development and proceeds to the next, the discovery of a problem may force the analyst to return to the previous phase and modify the work done there.

The Impact of Maintenance After the system is installed, it must be maintained, meaning that the computer applications must be modified and kept up to date. Estimates of the time spent by departments on maintenance have ranged from 48 percent to 60 percent of the total time spent developing systems. Very little time remains for new systems development. As the number of programs written increases, so does the amount of maintenance they require.

Maintenance is performed for two reasons. The first of these is to correct software errors. No matter how thoroughly a system is tested, bugs or errors creep into computer applications. Bugs in commercial PC software are often documented as “known anomalies,” and they are corrected when new versions of the software are released or in an interim release. In custom software (also called bespoke software), bugs must be corrected as they are detected.

The other reason for performing system maintenance is to enhance the software’s capa- bilities in response to changing organizational needs, generally involving one of the following three situations:

1. Users often request additional features after they become familiar with the computer system and its capabilities.

2. The business changes over time. 3. Hardware and software are changing at an accelerated pace.

Figure 1.2 illustrates the amount of resources—usually time and money—spent on sys- tems development and maintenance. The area under the curve represents the total dollar amount spent. You can see that, over time, the total cost of maintenance is likely to exceed that of systems development. At a certain point it becomes more feasible to perform a new systems study because the cost of continued maintenance is clearly greater than the cost of creating an entirely new information system.

In summary, maintenance is an ongoing process over the life cycle of an information system. After the information system is installed, maintenance usually takes the form of correcting previously undetected software errors. Once these are corrected, the system approaches a steady state, providing dependable service to its users. Maintenance during this period may consist of removing a few previously undetected bugs and updating the

Amount of Resources Consumed, Time and

Money

Systems Development

Postinstallation Bugs

Minor Changes Due to Bugs and Enhancements

Major Changes in Both Business and Technology

Time

Installation Day

FIGURE 1.2 Resource consumption over the system life.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 46 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 47

system with a few minor enhancements. As time goes on and the business and technology change, however, the maintenance effort increases dramatically.

Using CASE Tools Analysts who adopt the SDLC approach often benefit from productivity tools, called computer- aided software engineering (CASE) tools, created explicitly to improve their routine work through the use of automated support. Analysts rely on CASE tools to increase productivity, communicate more effectively with users, and integrate the work that they do on the system from the beginning to the end of the life cycle.

All the information about the project is stored in an encyclopedia called the CASE reposi- tory, a large collection of records, elements, diagrams, screens, reports, and other information (see Figure 1.3). Analysis reports may be produced using the repository information to show where the design is incomplete or contains errors.

Visible Analyst (VA) is one example of a CASE tool that enables systems analysts to do graphical planning, analysis, and design in order to build complex client/server applications and databases. Visible Analyst and software products such as Microsoft Visio or OmniGraffle

ADD CUSTOMER

NUMBER XXXXXX

NAME XXXXXXXXXXXX STREET XXXXXXXXXXXX CITY XXXXXXXXXXXX STATE XX ZIP XXXXX-XXXX

SALES ANALYSIS REPORT ITEM

DESCRIPTION TOTAL SALES

XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX

ZZ,ZZ9 ZZ,ZZ9 ZZ,ZZ9 ZZ,ZZ9 ZZ,ZZ9 ZZ,ZZ9

Screen and Report Design

System Diagrams and Models

DO WHILE NOT End of file Read Item record IF Item is low in stock

Print Purchase Order Update Item record

ENDIF ENDDO

Data Dictionary and Process Logic

Project Management

System Requirements

• Add new customers • Identify fast- and slow-selling

items • Enter customer orders • Look up customer credit

balance • Maintain adequate inventory

Deliverables

• Add customer screen • Item Analysis Report • Customer order entry screen • Customer inquiry screen • Vendor purchase order

program • Seasonal forecasting

Number + Description + Cost + Price + Quantity on hand + Quantity on order + Reorder point + Monthly sales + Year to date sales

Item =

FIGURE 1.3 The repository concept.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 47 09/07/19 3:08 PM

48 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

allow users to draw and modify diagrams easily. However, VA is a full-fledged CASE tool with a repository and other features, whereas the other two are not.

Analysts and users alike report that CASE tools afford them a means of communica- tion about the system during its conceptualization. Through the use of automated sup- port featuring onscreen output, clients can readily see how data f lows and other system concepts are depicted, and they can then request corrections or changes that would have taken too much time with older tools. CASE tools also help support the modeling of an organization’s functional requirements, assist analysts and users in drawing the boundaries for a given project, and help them visualize how the project meshes with other parts of the organization.

The Agile Approach Although this text tends to focus on SDLC, the most widely used approach in practice, at times an analyst will recognize that his or her organization could benefit from an alterna- tive approach. Perhaps a systems project using a structured approach has recently failed, or perhaps the organization subcultures, composed of several different user groups, seem more in step with an alternative method. We cannot do justice to these methods in a small space; each deserves and has inspired its own books and research. By mentioning these approaches here, however, we hope to help you become aware that under certain circumstances, your organization may want to consider an alternative or a supplement to structured analysis and design and to the SDLC.

The agile approach is a software development approach based on values, principles, and core practices. The four values are communication, simplicity, feedback, and courage. We recommend that systems analysts adopt these values in all projects they undertake, not just when adopting the agile approach.

In order to finish a project, adjustments often need to be made in project management. In Chapter 6, we will see that a agile methods can ensure successful completion of a project by adjusting the important resources of time, cost, quality, and scope. When these four con- trol variables are properly included in the planning, there is a state of balance between the resources and the activities needed to complete the project.

Taking development practices to the extreme is most noticeable when one pursues practices that are unique to agile development. In Chapter 6 we discuss four core agile practices: short releases, the 40-hour workweek, hosting an onsite customer, and using pair programming. At first glance these practices appear extreme, but as you will see, we can learn some important lessons from incorporating many of the values and practices of the agile approach into systems analysis and design projects.

We also explore an agile method called Scrum, which is named after a starting position in the sport of rugby. Scrum’s success has much to do with its extremely quick releases. A typical sprint cycle will last between two and four weeks. At the end of that period, the team is expected to produce a potentially releasable product. That means that applications or web- sites are constantly changing. Each iteration boasts a new set of features produced during the sprint cycle. Scrum is also unique because team members choose what they want to work on as a team. Scrum is discussed further in Chapter 6. Let’s return to discussing the agile approach in general.

Activities and behaviors shape the way development team members and customers act during the development of an agile project. Two words that characterize a project done with an agile approach are interactive and incremental. Figure 1.4 illustrates the five distinct stages of the agile approach: exploration, planning, iterations to the first release, productionizing, and maintenance. Notice the three red arrows that loop back into the “Iterations” box and symbolize incremental changes created through repeated testing and feedback that eventually lead to a stable but evolving system. Also note that multiple looping arrows feed back into the productionizing phase. These symbolize that the pace of iterations is increased after a product is released. The red arrow is shown leaving the maintenance stage and returning to the plan- ning stage, illustrating a continuous feedback loop involving customers and the development team as they agree to alter the evolving system.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 48 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 49

Exploration During exploration, you explore your environment, asserting your conviction that the problem can and should be approached with agile development, assemble the team, and assess team member skills. This stage takes anywhere from a few weeks (if you already know your team members and technology) to a few months (if everything is new). You also will be actively examining potential technologies needed to build the new system. During this stage you should practice estimating the time needed for a variety of tasks. In exploration, customers also are experimenting with writing user stories. The goal is to get the customer to refine a story enough so that you can competently estimate the amount of time it will take to build the solution into the system you are planning. This stage is all about adopting a playful and curious attitude toward the work environment, its problems, technologies, and people.

Planning The next stage of the agile development process is called planning. In contrast to the first stage, planning may take only a few days to accomplish. In this stage, you and your customers agree on a date anywhere from two months to half a year from the current date to deliver solutions to their most pressing business problems (you will be addressing the smallest, most valuable set of stories). If your exploration activities were sufficient, this stage should be very short.

The entire agile planning process has been characterized using the idea of a planning game, as devised by Kent Beck, the father of Extreme Programming. The planning game spells out rules that can help formulate the agile development team’s relationship with their business customers. Although the rules form an idea of how you want each party to act during development, they are not meant as a replacement for a relationship. They are a basis for building and maintaining a relationship.

Using the metaphor of a game, we talk in terms of the goal of the game, the strategy to pursue, the pieces to move, and the players involved. The goal of the game is to maximize the value of the system produced by the agile team. To arrive at the value, you have to deduct costs of development, and the time, expense, and uncertainty taken on so that the development project can go forward.

The strategy pursued by the agile development team is always one of limiting uncertainty (downplaying risk). To do that they design the simplest solution possible, put the system into production as soon as possible, get feedback from the business customer about what’s

Planning

Exploration

Maintenance

Iterations to the First Release

Productionizing

. . . and increase

the pace of

iterations after

the product is

released.

Agile methods involvethe customer in manyiterations prior tothe first release . . .

FIGURE 1.4 The five stages of the agile modeling development process show that frequent iterations are essential for successful system development.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 49 09/07/19 3:08 PM

50 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

working, and adapt their design from there. Story cards become the pieces in the planning game that briefly describe the task, provide notes, and provide an area for task tracking.

The two main players in the planning game are the development team and the business customer. Deciding which business group in particular will be the business customer is not always easy because the agile process is an unusually demanding role for the customer to play. Customers decide what the development team should tackle first. Their decisions will set priorities and check functionalities throughout the process.

Iterations to the First Release The third stage in the agile development process is composed of iterations to the first release. Typi- cally these iterations (cycles of testing, feedback, and change) are about three weeks in duration. You will be pushing yourself to sketch out the entire architecture of the system, even though it is just in outline or skeletal form. One goal is to run customer-written function tests at the end of each iteration. During the iterations stage you should also question whether the schedule needs to be altered or whether you are tackling too many stories. Make small rituals out of each successful iter- ation, involving customers as well as developers. Always celebrate your progress, even if it is small, because this is part of the culture of motivating everyone to work extremely hard on the project.

Productionizing Several activities occur during the productionizing phase. In this phase the feedback cycle speeds up so that rather than receiving feedback for an iteration every three weeks, software revisions are being turned around in one week. You may institute daily briefings so everyone knows what everyone else is doing. The product is released in this phase, but it may be improved by adding other features. Getting a system into production is an exciting event. Make time to celebrate with your teammates and mark the occasion. One of the keys to the agile approach, which we heartily embrace, is that it is supposed to be fun to develop systems!

Maintenance Once a system has been released, it needs to be kept running smoothly. New features may be added, riskier customer suggestions may be considered, and team members may be rotated on or off the team. The attitude you take at this point in the development process is more conservative than at any other time. You are now in a “keeper of the flame” mode rather than the playful one you experienced during exploration.

Object-Oriented Systems Analysis and Design Object-oriented (O-O) systems analysis and design is an approach intended to facilitate the development of systems that must change rapidly in response to dynamic business environ- ments. Chapter 10 helps you understand what O-O systems analysis and design is, how it differs from the structured approach of the SDLC, and when it may be appropriate to use an OOA.

Object-oriented techniques often work well in situations in which complicated infor- mation systems are undergoing continuous maintenance, adaptation, and redesign. Object- oriented approaches use the industry standard for modeling O-O systems, called unified modeling language (UML), to break down a system into a use case model.

Object-oriented programming differs from traditional procedural programming in that it examines objects that are part of a system. Each object is a computer representation of some actual thing or event. Objects may be customers, items, orders, and so on. Objects are repre- sented by and grouped into classes that are optimal for reuse and maintainability. A class defines the set of shared attributes and behaviors found in each object in the class.

Object-Oriented Similarities to SDLC The phases in UML are similar to those in the SDLC. Because these two methods share rigid and exacting modeling, they happen at a slower, more deliberate pace than the phases of agile modeling. An analyst goes through problem and identification phases, an analysis phase, and a design phase, as shown in Figure 1.5.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 50 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 51

Although the specifics are discussed in Chapters 2 and 10, the following steps provide a brief description of the UML process.

DEFINE THE USE CASE MODEL In this phase, the analyst identifies the actors and the major events initiated by the actors. Often the analyst starts by drawing a diagram with stick figures representing the actors and arrows showing how the actors relate. This is called a use case diagram (Chapter 2), and it represents the standard flow of events in the system. Then an analyst typically writes up a use case scenario (Chapter 2), which describes in words the steps that are normally performed.

DURING THE SYSTEMS ANALYSIS PHASE, BEGIN DRAWING UML DIAGRAMS In the second phase (Chapter 10), the analyst draws activity diagrams, which illustrate all the major activities in the use case. In addition, the analyst creates one or more sequence diagrams for each use case that show the sequence of activities and their timing. This is an opportunity to go back and review the use cases, rethink them, and modify them if necessary.

CONTINUING IN THE ANALYSIS PHASE, DEVELOP CLASS DIAGRAMS The nouns in the use cases are objects that can potentially be grouped into classes. For example, every automobile is an object that shares characteristics with other automobiles. Together they make up a class.

STILL IN THE ANALYSIS PHASE, DRAW STATECHART DIAGRAMS The class diagrams are used to draw statechart diagrams, which help in understanding complex processes that cannot be fully derived by the sequence diagrams. The statechart diagrams are extremely useful in modifying class diagrams, so the iterative process of UML modeling continues.

BEGIN SYSTEMS DESIGN BY MODIFYING THE UML DIAGRAMS THEN COMPLETE THE SPECIFICATIONS Systems design means modifying the existing system, and that implies modifying the diagrams drawn in the previous phase. These diagrams can be used to derive classes, their attributes, and methods (methods are simply operations). An analyst will need to write class specifications for each class, including the attributes, methods, and their descriptions. The analyst also will develop method

Modify Diagrams and Complete

Specifications

Develop and Document the

System

Draw Use Case Diagrams

Write Use Case Scenarios

Derive Activity Diagrams from Use

Cases

Develop Sequence Diagrams

Draw Statechart Diagrams

Create Class Diagrams

Systems Analysis Phase

Systems Design Phase

Problem Identification Phase

Begin Object-Oriented Analysis and Design

FIGURE 1.5 The steps in the UML development process.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 51 09/07/19 3:08 PM

52 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

specifications that detail the input and output requirements for each method, along with a detailed description of the internal processing of the method.

DEVELOP AND DOCUMENT THE SYSTEM UML is, of course, a modeling language. An analyst may create wonderful models, but if the system isn’t developed, there is not much point in building models. Documentation is critical. The more complete the information you provide to the development team through documentation and UML diagrams is, the faster the development and the more solid the final production system.

Object-oriented methodologies often focus on small, quick iterations of development, sometimes called the spiral model. Analysis is performed on a small part of the system, usually starting with a high-priority item or perhaps the item that has the greatest risk. This is followed by design and implementation. The cycle is repeated with analysis of the next part, design, and some implementation, and this is repeated until the project is complete. Reworking diagrams and the components themselves is normal. UML is a powerful modeling tool that can greatly improve the quality of your systems analysis and design and the final product.

Choosing Which Systems Development Method to Use The differences among the three approaches described here are not as large as they seem at the outset. In all three approaches, the analyst needs to understand the organization first (Chapter 2). Then the analyst or project team needs to budget time and resources and develop a project proposal (Chapter 3). Next, they need to interview organization members and gather detailed data using questionnaires (Chapter 4) and sample data from existing reports and by observing how business is currently transacted (Chapter 5). The three approaches have all of these activities in common.

Even the methods themselves have similarities. The SDLC and OOAs both require extensive planning and diagramming. The agile approach and the OOA both allow subsystems to be built one at a time until the entire system is complete. The agile and SDLC approaches are both concerned with the way data logically moves through the system.

So given a choice to develop a system using an SDLC approach, an agile approach, or an object-oriented approach, which would you choose? Figure 1.6 provides a set of guidelines to help you choose which method to use when developing your next system.

Choose When

Agile Methodologies

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Approach

Object-Oriented Methodologies

• the customer is satisfied with incremental improvements

• applications need to be developed quickly in response to a dynamic environment

• there is a project champion of agile methods in the organization

• a rescue takes place (the system failed and there is no time to figure out what went wrong)

• executives and analysts agree with the principles of agile methodologies

• the problems modeled lend themselves to classes

• an organization supports the UML learning

• systems can be added gradually, one subsystem at a time

• reuse of previously written software is a possibility

• it is acceptable to tackle the difficult problems first

• systems have been developed and documented using SDLC

• it is important to document each step of the way

• communication of how new systems work is important

• upper-level management feels more comfortable or safe using SDLC

• there are adequate resources and time to complete the full SDLC

FIGURE 1.6 How to decide which development method to use.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 52 09/07/19 3:08 PM

C H A P T E R 1 • SYST E M S , R O L E S , A N D D E V E LO P M E N T M E T H O D O LO G I E S 53

Developing Open Source Software An alternative to traditional software development in which proprietary code is hidden from the users is called open source software (OSS). With OSS, many users and coders can study, share, and modify the code, or computer instructions. Rules of this community include the idea that any program modifications must be shared with all the people on the project and that all licenses must be adhered to.

Development of OSS also has been characterized as a philosophy rather than simply as the process of creating new software. Those involved in OSS communities often view it as a way to help societies change. Widely known open source projects include Apache for developing a web server, the browser called Mozilla Firefox, and Linux, which is a Unix-like open source operat- ing system.

However, it would be an oversimplification to think of OSS as a monolithic movement, and it does little to reveal what type of users or user analysts are developing OSS proj- ects and on what basis. To help us understand the open source movement, researchers have recently categorized open source communities into four community types—ad hoc, stan- dardized, organized, and commercial—along six different dimensions: general structure, environment, goals, methods, user community, and licensing. Some researchers argue that OSS is at a crossroads and that the commercial and community open source groups need to understand where they converge and where the potential for conflict exists.

Why Organizations Participate in Open Source Communities? Organizations participate in open source communities for a variety of reasons. One is the rapidity with which new software can be developed and tested. It is faster to have a committed group of expert developers develop, test, and debug code than it is to have one isolated team working on software development. This cross-fertilization can be a boon to creativity.

Another reason to participate is the benefit of having many good minds working on innova- tive applications. Yet another reason for participating in an open source community might be the potential for keeping down development costs.

Organizations might seek to participate in an open source community due to a desire to bolster their own self-image and to contribute something worthwhile to the larger software development community. They may want to contribute generously or altruistically to a higher good beyond developing profitable proprietary software, and doing so may make them appear as “good guys” to the external public.

Organizations may ask or even require that their software developers become involved in one or more open source projects or communities, but individual developers must interact with the community in a meaningful and knowledgeable way first to prove themselves worthy members of the group based on their merits and then to strike up and maintain relationships that are mutually beneficial.

Organizations and the design teams within them interact with Open Communities. Com- panies are taking advantage of an entire range of options that help them strike a harmonious equilibrium so that their contributions to the open community and their differentiation from the open community become clear strategically. Reasons for contribution to and differentia- tion from include cost, managing resources, and the time it takes to bring a new product to the market.

The Role of the Analyst in Open Source Software As an analyst you may find yourself, at the request of your chief employer, participating in an open source community. One widely known open source community is that surrounding the Linux kernel. This is a large, mostly virtual community of developers who all have different levels or types of participation and who all have different reasons for being involved. Other well-known open source projects include Mozilla Firefox, Android, Apache projects, and many more. Even NASA, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, has a lively open source community (see http://ti.arc.nasa.gov/opensource/).

One reason your company may ask you to participate in an open source community is curiosity about what the software benefits to the organization might be. This may be a result of a sort of bandwagon effect, for when it becomes known that competitors are already

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 53 09/07/19 3:08 PM

http://ti.arc.nasa.gov/opensource/

54 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

participating, your organization may want to get involved. With competitors actively par- ticipating in an open community, an organization may calculate that it is something that should at least be investigated seriously, not dismissed summarily. Another reason your company might ask you to participate as a developer in an open community is to achieve what researchers have labeled “responsive design.” Responsive design means that while you are participating in the open source community, you are at the same time employed by an organization that wants to leverage your participation in the open source community to incorporate OSS designs into proprietary products, processes, knowledge, and IT artifacts that it is developing and that it hopes to eventually sell as a product that is differentiated from what the open source community has produced. Through a process of responsive design the IT artifact is imbued with both community and organization structures, knowl- edge, and practices.

Summary Systems analysis and design is a systematic approach to identifying problems, opportunities, and objec- tives; to analyzing human- and computer-generated information flows in organizations; and to designing computerized information systems to solve problems. Systems analysts are required to take on many roles in the course of their work. Some of these roles are (1) an outside consultant to business, (2) a supporting expert within a business, and (3) an agent of change in both internal and external situations. It is important that you design new systems with an awareness of what you can do to design security into a system from the very beginning.

Analysts possess a wide range of skills. First and foremost, an analyst is a problem solver, someone who enjoys the challenge of analyzing a problem and devising a workable solution. Systems analysts require communication skills that enable them to relate meaningfully to many different kinds of people on a daily basis, as well as computer skills. Understanding and relating well to users is critical to their success.

“Welcome to Maple Ridge Engineering, what we call MRE. We hope you’ll enjoy serving as a systems consultant for us. Although I’ve worked here five years in different capacities, I’ve just been reassigned to serve as an administrative aide to Mr. Evans, the head of the new Training and Management Systems Department. We’re certainly a diverse group. As you make your way through the company, be sure to use all your skills, both technical and people oriented, to understand who we are and to identify the problems and conflicts that you think should be solved regarding our information systems.”

“To bring you up to date, let me say that Maple Ridge Engi- neering is a medium-sized medical engineering company. Last year, our revenues exceeded $287 million. We employ about 335 people. There are about 150 administrative employees as well as management and clerical staff like myself; approximately 75 professional employees, including engineers, physicians, and systems analysts; and about 110 trade employees, such as draft- ers and technicians.”

“There are four offices. You will visit us through HyperCase in our home office in Maple Ridge, Tennessee. We have three other branches in the southern United States as well: Atlanta, Georgia;

Charlotte, North Carolina; and New Orleans, Louisiana. We’d love to have you visit when you’re in the area.”

“For now, you should explore HyperCase using either Firefox, Safari, or Microsoft Internet Explorer.”

“To learn more about Maple Ridge Engineering as a company or to find out how to interview our employees, who will use the sys- tems you design, and how to observe their offices in our company, you may want to start by going to the website www.pearsonglobal editions.com. Then click on the link labeled HyperCase. At the HyperCase display screen, click on Start, and you will be in the reception room for Maple Ridge Engineering. From this point, you can start consulting right away.”

This website contains useful information about the project as well as files that can be downloaded to your computer. There is a set of Visible Analyst (VA) data files, and there is another set of Visio data files that match HyperCase. They contain a partially con- structed series of data flow diagrams, entity-relationship diagrams, UML diagrams, and repository information. The HyperCase web- site also contains additional exercises that may be assigned. Hyper- Case is designed to be explored, and you should not overlook any object or clue on a web page.

H Y P E R C A S E E X P E R I E N C E 1

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 54 09/07/19 3:08 PM

www.pearsonglobaleditions.com

C H A P T E R 1 • SyST E m S , R o l E S , A n d d E v E lo P m E n T m E T H o d o lo g i E S 55

Analysts proceed systematically. The framework for their systematic approach is provided in what is called the systems development life cycle (SDLC). This life cycle can be divided into seven sequen- tial phases, although in reality the phases are interrelated and are often accomplished simultaneously. The seven phases are identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives; determining human informa- tion requirements; analyzing system needs; designing the recommended system; developing and docu- menting software; testing and maintaining the system; and implementing and evaluating the system.

The agile approach is a software development approach based on values, principles, and core prac- tices. Systems that are designed using agile methods can be developed rapidly. Scrum is an agile method that emphasizes short releases and allows teams to choose what they want to work on. Stages in the agile development process are exploration, planning, iterations to the first release, productionizing, and maintenance.

A third approach to systems development is called object-oriented analysis design. These techniques are based on object-oriented programming concepts that have become codified in UML, a standardized modeling language in which objects that are created include not only code about data but also instructions about the operations to be performed on the data. Key diagrams help analyze, design, and communicate UML-developed systems. These systems are usually developed as components, and reworking the com- ponents many times is typical in object-oriented analysis and design.

Analysts will have increasing opportunities to participate in open source development communities, often through their primary organization. Organizations participate in development of open source for many reasons. One of the well-known open source communities maintains the Linux kernel and is supported by the Linux Foundation.

Keywords and Phrases agent of change agile approach agile methods Ajax bespoke software computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) CASE tools exploration phase human–computer interaction (HCI) iterations to the first release phase Linux kernel maintenance phase object-oriented systems analysis and design

open source communities open source software (OSS) planning game planning phase productionizing phase prototyping Scrum security systems analysis and design systems analyst systems consultant systems development life cycle (SDLC) unified modeling language (UML)

Review Questions 1. Why does a lack of proper training often result in the failure of a new system? 2. Why has the importance of the user in systems development changed? 3. List three roles that a systems analyst is called upon to play. Provide a definition for each one. 4. List the three primary roles of the systems analyst. 5. List and briefly define the seven phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC). 6. Why is human–computer interaction (HCI) important for systems analysis? 7. What are the four values of the agile approach? 8. What is the meaning of the phrase the planning game? 9. Discuss the importance of the maintenance phase in designing new systems.

10. What is Scrum? 11. Describe a situation in which an analyst would use object-oriented systems analysis and design rather

than the systems development life cycle. 12. What are class diagrams in the object-oriented approach (OOA)? 13. What are the conditions for choosing a systems development method? 14. What is the role of a systems analyst in the iterations and the productionizing phase of the agile

approach? 15. List two reasons an organization may want its analysts to participate in an open source

community.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 55 22/07/19 4:56 PM

56 PA RT 1 • SYST E M S A N A LYS I S F U N DA M E N TA L S

Selected Bibliography Beck, K., and C. Andres. Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, 2d ed. Boston, MA: Addison-

Wesley, 2004. Coad, P., and E. Yourdon. Object-Oriented Analysis, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. Davis, G. B., and M. H. Olson. Management Information Systems: Conceptual Foundation, Structure, and

Development, 2d ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1985. Germonprez, M., and B. Warner. “Commercial Participation in Open Innovation Communities.” In Managing

Open Innovation Technologies, ed. E. Lundström, J. S. Z, M. Wiberg, S. Hrastinski, M. Edenius, and P. J. Ägerfalk. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2012.

Germonprez, M., J. E. Kendall, K. E. Kendall, L. Mathiassen, B. Young, and B. Warner. “A Theory of Respon- sive Design: A Field Study of Corporate Engagement with Open Source Communities.” Information Systems Research 28, 1 (2017): 64–83.

Kendall, J. E., K. E. Kendall, and S. Kong. “Improving Quality Through the Use of Agile Methods in Systems Development: People and Values in the Quest for Quality.” In Measuring Information Systems Delivery Quality, 201–222, ed. E. W. Duggan and H. Reichgelt. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing, 2006.

Kendall, K. E., S. Kong, and J. E. Kendall. “The Impact of Agile Methodologies on the Quality of Informa- tion Systems: Factors Shaping Strategic Adoption of Agile Practices.” International Journal of Strate- gic Decision Sciences 1, 1 (2010): 41–56.

Laudon, K. C., and J. P. Laudon. Management Information Systems, 15th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson, 2018. Lee, G., and R. Cole. “From a Firm-Based to a Community-Based Model of Knowledge Creation: The Case

of the Linux Kernel Development.” Organization Science 14 (2003): 663–649. Visible Enterprise Products. www.visible.com/Products/index.htm. Last accessed August 16, 2017. Yourdon, E. Modern Structured Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. Zhang, P., J. Carey, D. Te’eni, and M. Tremaine. “Integrating Human–Computer Interaction Development

into the Systems Development Life Cycle: A Methodology.” Communications of the Association for Information Systems 15 (2005): 512–543.

M01_KEND1452_10_GE_C01.indd 56 09/07/19 3:08 PM

http://www.visible.com/Products/index.htm