journal

History, Theory, and Research Strategies

Chapter 1

The Life-Span Perspective

Development — pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span

The Importance of Studying Life- Span Development

• Personal insight

• Explore growth and decline

• Experiences influence development

THE FIELD OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The study of child and adult development is devoted to understanding all aspects of human constancy (attachment) and change from conception through adolescence through seniorhood.

It is part of a larger discipline known as

developmental psychology which includes all changes experienced throughout the lifespan.

Human development research is of both scientific and applied and practical importance.

Studying the lives of children began during

the early part of the twentieth century, but interest in adult development, aging and change

over the life course emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.

• Human development research is also interdisciplinary in that it grows through the combined efforts of people from many fields of study.

• Investigators include: - developmental psychologists - physiologists - social service professionals - public health professionals - educational professionals - family and parenting studies - medicine

Views of Child Development

Theories of child development are the result of centuries of change in Western cultural values, philosophical thinking about children, and scientific progress.

Many early ideas linger on as important forces

in current theory and research.

Views of Child Development: During Medieval Times and Continues Today

• Childhood was not always viewed as a separate phase of the life cycle.

• Preformationism is the view that once infancy was complete, children were considered miniature adults and asked to behave and work as an adult.

• Preformationism can still be seen today among parents or teachers who expect children to behave as adults. The belief that children need self-control in home or school can be seen today in highly rigid and authoritarian environments.

• During medieval times, if not before, an awareness existed of children as vulnerable beings and needing protection of parents and caregivers and even, laws.

Views of Child Development: The Reformation

• 16th century revised image of childhood; children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized.

• As Puritans emigrated from England to the United States,

they believed that child rearing was one of their most important obligations. Harsh, restrictive child-rearing practices were recommended.

• Puritan parents gradually adopted a moderate balance

between discipline and indulgence, severity and permissiveness.

Views of Child Development: Philosophies of the Enlightenment

• The seventeenth-century Enlightenment brought new philosophies of reason and emphasized ideals of human dignity and respect, including more humane conceptions of childhood than those of past centuries.

Views of Child Development: Philosophies of the Enlightenment

John Locke

– John Locke, a leading British philosopher, viewed the child as a tabula rasa, or blank slate. According to this idea, children are, to begin with, nothing at all, and all kinds of experiences can shape their characters.

– Locke regarded development as continuous and championed nurture. His faith in nurture suggests the possibility of many courses of development and of change at later ages due to new experiences.

– Locke’s philosophy characterizes children as passive; this vision has been discarded.

Views of Child Development: Philosophies of the Enlightenment

Jean Jacques Rousseau – Introduced new childhood theory in 18th century.

– Saw children as noble savages naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.

– Believed children’s built-in moral sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be harmed by adult training.

– Introduced the concept of stages, and maturation—a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.

– Viewed development as a discontinuous, a stage process that follows a single, unified course mapped out by nature.

Views of Child Development

Medieval Era Childhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded as separate phase with special needs, protections

16th Century Puritan “child depravity” views 17th Century John Locke “tabula rasa” view; continuous

development 18th Century Jean-Jacques Rousseau “noble savages” view;

natural maturation

Laura Berk, 2016

Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective

- Lifelong–early adulthood not the end of development - Multidimensional – biological, cognitive & social dimensions - Multidirectional – growth & decline characterize development - Plastic – the potential to change the move to decline w/ aging - Contextual – biological, cognitive, social as well as historical and

cultural (age related, history and life events). - Multidisciplinary - the combined efforts of people from many fields

of study - Individualistic - Growth, Maintenance and Regulation – growth and development

takes center stage from childhood through early adulthood, during middle and late adulthood maintenance and regulation of capabilities take center stage to minimize deterioration.

Development is Contextual

Normative age-graded influences

Biological and environmental influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group (cohort – formal education, driving, retirement)

Normative history-graded influences

Biological and environmental influences are associated with history (common for the generation and life changing – WWII, 9/11, internet)

Non-normative life events

Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on a specific person’s life (death of parent, early pregnancy, unexpected career opportunity or a special privilege)

Process or Domains of Development

• Physical development: changes in body size, proportions, appearance and functioning of various body systems; brain development; perceptual and motor capacities; and physical health. • Cognitive development: development of thought processes and

intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language.

• Emotional and social development: development of emotional

communication, self-understanding, ability to manage one’s own feelings, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior.

Processes in Development

Laura Berk, 2016

Domain Changes in Physical • Body size & proportions, appearance

• Functioning of body systems, health • Perceptual & motor capacities

Cognition • Intellectual abilities Emotional and Social

• Emotional communication • Self-understanding, knowledge about

others • Interpersonal skills & relationships • Moral reasoning & behavior

Laura Berk, 2016

Processes or Domains or Areas of Development

Periods of Development

Prenatal Conception to birth Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 2 years Early Childhood 2 to 6 years Middle Childhood 6 to 11 years Adolescence 11 to 18 years Emerging Adulthood 18 to mid- to late 20s

Laura Berk, 2016

Periods of Development

• Each period of the life span has its own stresses, ups and downs, and concerns.

• Older adults have different views than children or adolescents.

• How does satisfaction in life relate to age?

Conceptions of Age

• Chronological age — number of years elapsed since person’s birth

• Biological age — age in terms of biological health

• Psychological age — individual’s adaptive capacities

• Social age — social roles and expectations related to person’s age

Laura Berk, 2016

Developmental Issues

Nature and Nurture

Extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture

Stability and Change

Degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change

Continuity- Discontinuity

Extent development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)

Nature or Nurture as More Important? The nature–nurture controversy asks whether genetic or

environmental factors are more important underlying causes of development.

• Nature means inborn biological givens—the hereditary

information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception that signals the body to grow and affects all our characteristics and skills.

• Nurture means the complex forces of the physical and

social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth.

Nature or Nurture

All theories grant at least some role to both nature and nurture but they vary in the emphasis placed on each.

Nature or Nurture?

Do children acquire language because their parents

tutor them from an early age?

What accounts for the vast individual differences in height, weight, physical coordination, intelligence, personality, and social skills?

Nature or Nurture? • Theorists who emphasize environment point to early experiences

as establishing a lifelong pattern of behavior.

• While some argue that powerful negative events in the first few years cannot be overcome later, others believe change is possible if new experiences support it.

• Some theorists emphasize stability—that children who are high or low in a characteristic will remain so at later ages (trait theories). These theorists typically stress the importance of heredity, or nature.

• Investigators often disagree sharply on the question of stability or change.

Nature or Nurture: A Balanced Point of View

• Modern theories tend to recognize the merits of both sides, recognizing the merits of differing theories.

• Researchers have moved away from asking which is more important, heredity or environment. Instead, they want to know how nature and nurture work together to influence change.

Continuity and Discontinuity in Development

Laura Berk, 2010

Continuous or Discontinuous Development?

Continuous development is a

process that consists of Gradually adding on

more of the same types of skills

that were there to begin with.

Infants and children can not perform with as much information and precision as adults, skills develop by adding on precision.

Laura Berk, 2016

Continuous or Discontinuous Development?

Infants and children have a unique way of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are very different from adults.

Discontinuous development

is a process in which New ways of

understanding and responding to

the world emerge at particular periods.

Laura Berk, 2016

Theories of Development • Theory — A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements

that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. • Theories are tools that provide organizing frameworks for our

observations. They guide and give meaning to observations, help us understand development, and tell us what to do in our practical efforts. A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification.

• A theory in the field of Human Development is considered to

be an orderly integrated set of statements that: describes, explains and predicts behavior. • Hypotheses — assertions or predictions, often derived from

theories that can be tested

Theories of Development

• Scientific method:

– Conceptualize a problem to be studied

– Collect research information/data

– Analyze data

– Draw conclusions

Theories of Development

Human Development Lifespan Development

Developmental Psychology Lifespan Psychology

Psychoanalytic Theories

• Development depends primarily on the unconscious mind

– Heavily couched in emotion

– Behavior is a surface characteristic

– Important to analyze symbolic meanings of behavior

– Early experiences important in development

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

• Id, ego, and superego create personality

• Repression

• Anxiety and defense mechanisms

• Five stages of psychosexual development

Freudian Stages

Id • Largest portion of the mind • Unconscious, present at birth • Source of biological needs & desires

Ego • Conscious, rational part of personality • Emerges in early infancy • Redirects id impulses acceptably

Superego • The conscience • Develops from ages 3 to 6, from • interactions with caregivers

Laura Berk, 2016

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

• Eight stages of development

– Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved

– Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy development

Basic trust v. mistrust Birth–1 year Autonomy v. shame and doubt 1–3 years Initiative v. guilt 3–6 years Industry v. inferiority 6–11 years Identity v. role confusion Adolescence Intimacy v. isolation Emerging adulthood Generativity v. stagnation Adulthood Integrity v. despair Old age

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Laura Berk, 2016

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories

• Contributions include – Emphasis on early experiences, family

relationships, and the unconscious mind

• Criticisms include – Difficulty in testing, negativity, cultural and

gender bias, sexual underpinnings

Cognitive Theories

• Children actively construct understanding

• Piaget’s cognitive development theory

• Four stages of development — age-related

• Based on logical thinking and skills

• Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory

• Children actively construct their knowledge

• Emphasizes culture and social interactions

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Period of Development Description

Sensorimotor Birth–2 years • Infants “think” by acting on the world. • As a result, they invent ways of solving

sensorimotor problems. Preoperational 2–7 years • Preschoolers use symbols, develop

language and make-believe play. • Thinking still lacks the logic of later

stages. Concrete operational

7–11 years • Reasoning becomes logical and better- organized.

• Thinking is not yet abstract. Formal operational

11 years + • Abstract thinking enables use of hypotheses, inferences.

• Adolescents no longer rely on real- world circumstances for logic problems.

Laura Berk, 2016

Information-Processing Approach

• Brain is compared to computer’s hardware

• Cognition is viewed as computer software

• Individuals acquire increasingly complex information

• Thinking: perceive, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information

Evaluating Cognitive Theories

• Contributions include – Active construction of understanding, importance of developmental changes, detailed descriptions

• Criticisms include – Lack of individual variation, information processing approach lacks clarity, and emphasis on unconscious processes

Social Cognitive Theories

• Bandura

– Emphasizes observational learning – Role of the model in the learning process

– Focus on reciprocal interactions among behavior, cognition, and environment (any one can influence the others)

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model

Person/cognition refers to the characteristics of a person (introverted/extraverted and cognitions-thinking/planning) that mediate connections between environment and behavior.

Laura Berk, 2010

Behavioral Theories

• Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning – Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to

produce response

• Watson’s Conditioning of ‘little Albert’ – Involuntary responses are learned

• Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Consequences, rewards and punishment, shape

behavior

Classical Conditioning Stimulus–Response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and

punishments Social-Cognitive Approach

Modeling Self-efficacy

Behaviorism & Social Learning

Laura Berk, 2016

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

• Contributions include – Emphasis on scientific research, person and cognitive

factors, environmental determinants, and observational learning

• Criticisms include – Lack of focus on cognition, too little attention to

developmental changes, and overemphasis on environmental determinants

Ethological Theory Animal Behavior to Explain Human Behavior

• Behavior is

– Strongly influenced by biology and tied to evolution

– Tied to evolution

– Characterized by critical or sensitive periods throughout our lifespan – Konrad Lorenz & attachment or imprinting (behavior of geese)

– Emphasized in environmental contexts

• Bowlby’s Attachment Theory – attachment to a caregiver in the first year of life has important consequences throughout the lifespan – positive and secure. Feel confident to explore the world.

Evaluating Ethological Theory

• Contributions include – Emphasis on biology and evolution, sensitive periods of development, and careful observations

• Criticisms include – Emphasis on biological foundations, inadequate attention to cognition, emphasis on animal behavior

Ecological Theory

• Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced by five environmental systems – Microsystem, where the individual lives – Mesosystem, relationships between the microsystems – Exosystem, experiences in other social setting – Macrosystem, the culture or patterns of behavior, beliefs that are

passed from on generation to the next

– Chronosystem, patterns of environmental events over the life span that influence (parents divorce – traumatic for children and changes family interaction + or -, women in the work force…)

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Laura Berk, 2010

Ecological Systems Theory

Laura Berk, 2016

Sociocultural Contexts

• Key dimensions include

– Cross-cultural studies — comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures

– Ethnicity — range of characteristics rooted in cultural heritage

– Gender — psychological and sociocultural dimension of being female or male

Evaluating Ecological Theory

• Contributions include – Emphasis on macro and micro dimensions and

socio-historical influences

• Criticisms include – Lacks emphasis on biological foundations and

inadequate attention to cognitive processes

Family Contexts

• Children in non-poor environments were more likely than those in poor homes to

– Get responses to their speech

– Have toys or interesting activities

– Have more books of their own

– See their father daily

Methods for Collecting Data

• Standardized tests • Advantages and disadvantages • Cross-cultural concerns • Physiological measures

– MRIs and blood tests • Case study • Life-history record

Research Designs

• Descriptive research

• Correlational research – Correlation coefficient and range – Correlation does not equal causation

• Experimental research – Independent and dependent variables – Experimental and control groups

Time Span of Research • Cross-Sectional Approach — individuals of

different ages are compared at one time

• Longitudinal Approach — same individuals studied over period of time

• Sequential Approach — combined cross- sectional, longitudinal design

• Cohorts and their effects

Principles of Experimental Research

The Principles are: Radomization – when the researcher faces a situation to exercise choice, random method for selecting participates to groups must be used Replication – design should have built-in replications in order to compare outcomes Local Control – using best available method instruments

Research Ethics

• Informed consent • Confidentiality • Debriefing • Deception

• Cultural and ethnic bias – ‘Ethnic gloss’ and over-generalizing of the research

findings to entire cultural and ethnic groups

The End

Berk, L. (2004). Development through the lifespan (Third Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon Berk, Laura E., (2016). Infants, Children, and Adolescents. Boston, MA: Pearson. EIGHTH EDITION

Santrock, J. W. (2007). A topical approach to Life-span development (Third Ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill