Chapter 1: The Necessity of Intercultural Communication

THE NECESSITY OF INTERCULTURAL iStock com/FatCamera COM M U N I CATI O N

The history of our ptanet has been Itq great part the history

of tile mixing of peoples.

Chapter1 w The Necessity oflntercutturatCommumcahon

1

1. Describe why intercultural communicauon is a necessity
2. Define and discuss the nature of communication
3. Define and discuss the nature of culture
4. Explain the different contexts that make up the contextual model of mtercultural communicanon
5. Summarize the five fundamental assumptions of intercultural communicanon
6. Idenufy and &scuss the five academic approaches used in determining ethical behavior
7. Describe why intercultural communication competence is a necessity

n 1804, the number of people on planet Earth was 1 billion. In 1927, 123 yeais later, it was 2 bilhon. By 1960, 33 years later, it was 3 billion. By 1974, 14 years later, it was 4 billion. Currently, there are over 7 and-a-half billion (i.e., 7,600,000,000) people

on planet Earth. One human is born every 8 seconds and dies every 12 seconds, fol a

net gain of one person every 14 seconds. Of the Z6 billion people on the planet, about 1.4 billion, or nearly 20%, are Chinese, and 1.3 billion, just over 17%, are East Indian.

Approximately 330 million, or about 4 5%, reside in the United States; around 3.5% are

the past 200 years, the growth rate,

Indonesian; and just under 3% are Pakistani. Over distribution, and density of the world's population have not been spread equally. Certain regions of the world have grown disproportionately in terms of the number of people, while other regions vary considerably in terms of population density (i.e., number of people per square mile). As seen in these staustics, China and India account for nearly 40% of the,world's population. African countries make up nearly 15% of the world's

population, while Europe constitutes about 11%.2

The purpose of the previous paragraph is to point out that the world's population is

growing disproportionately. Along with that, something else has grown disproportion ately: technology and its decentral{zing role in information dissemination. In 1948, the

painter and writer Wyndham Lewis wrote about a "global village" in his book America

and Cosmic Man. Several years later, his friend Marshall McLuhan also used the teim to describe how technological advances of mass media would eventually disintegrate the natural time and space barriers inherent in human communication. McLuhan predicted that through the elimination of such barriers, people would continue to interact and live on a global scale--but one virtually transformed into a village?

Twenty years into the 21st century, McLuhan's vision of a global village is no lon

ger considered an abstract idea but a near certainty. Technological changes have made

Earth a smaller planet to inhabit. The technological ability of mass media and the

Internet to bring events from across the globe into our homes, businesses, and schools dramatically leduces the distance between people of different cultures and societies.

2 IntercuLtural. Communication

Telecommunication systems, including e-mall, texting, and social networking sites such as Facebook, connect people throughout the world via satellites and fiber optics. Skype links people fiom across the planet in seconds

The essential effect of this technology is its decentralizing role in disseminating refor mation across local, regional, national, and international borders. This means that billions of people acioss the planet now have access to information not available to them only a few yeats ago. Infolmation empowers people. The ease and speed with which people of differing cultureÿ can now communicate is stunning. In 1780--nearly 240 years ago- when John Adams, the second ÿlesident of the United States, corresponded with his

European counterpaits in France, It would take as long as 6 months to send and leceive letters, as they traveled by ship across the Atlantic Ocean. Imagine sending a text message to a filend that takes halfa yea! to arrive! Today, it takes less than a second. Moreover, the sheer fiequency and quantity of messages sent is baffling compaled with only a few years ago. E-mail is now the most pervasive form of communication on the planet But other technologies are also folmatlve, including social networldng (e.g., Facebook), instant/ text messaging, and chat. The Radicatl Group estimates that in 2020 there will be over 300 billion e-malls sent/received per day They estimate that by 2022 there will be over

4 billion e-mail users across the globe.4

Of course, e-mail is only one of the technological advances facilitating commu nication across cultures. 7he Internet and cell phone communication has become a dominant and powmful source of information for billions of people across the planet.

Ananya Bhattacharya writing foi QuartzIndia predicts that by 2022, thele will be over

830 million smartphone users in India. That's almost three times the total number of

people in the United StatesI And while many may think that the United States is the cell phone capital of the world, it actually ranks third. ÿhe top 10 countries with the highest cell phone subscriptions include, in or&t, China, India, United States, Brazil,

Russia, Indonesia, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Japan, and Pakistan) Technology has linked

the world.

Many college students in the United States have a Facebook account or are at least familial with the social networking site. But unlike e-mail or smartphones, social net wolkmg sites such as Facebook ate intentionally designed to establish and maintain rela tionships. Initiating a relationship with someone from across the globe is much easier now than it was only a few years ago. Accoiding to Facebook's own records, as of Maich of 2019, there were over a 1.5 billion active Facebook users.6

Although these technological advances facilitate the initiation and maintenance of cioss-cultmal relationships, the late noted historian and Pulitzer Prize winner Arthur

Schlesmger warned us that histoly tells an ugly story of what happens when people of

diverse cultural, ethnic, iehgious, or linguistic backgrounds conveige in one place. The

hostility of one group of people against another, dzHerent group of people is among the

most instinctive of human dilves. Xenophobia--the fear or contempt of that which is for eign ol unknown, especially of stlangers ol those perceived as foreigners--is believed by many to be an innate biological response to intergroup competition. Indeed, Schlesmger contended that unless a common goal binds diverse people togethei, tubal hostilities will

drive them apart. By replacing the conflict of political ideologies that dominated in the 20th century, ethnic, tehgious, and racial stilfe will continue in the 21st century as the explosive issue7

THE NEED FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

and International competent tensions intercultural around communication. the globe are stalking For example, examples although of the it was need several for effective yeats ago, an international incident with potentially global consequences occmred between intercultural the People's communication. Republic of China The and incident the United began States, on April stressing 1, 2001, the need when for a competent U.S. Navy surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet in lnteinational airspace over the South China Sea. As a result of the collision, the U.S. plane--an EP-3 electronic warfare and surveillance aircraft was damaged and nearly crashed. However, because of heroic

efforts on the part of the clew, the plane landed safely at a Chinese an base The 24 member crew of the U.S. plane was detained by the Chinese military. China and the United In the States days disagreed and weeks as following to the cause the of incident, the collision, contentious each side negotiations blaming the took othei. place between Chinese and U.S. officials over the release of the U S. crew. For their lelease,

China demanded that the United States accept responsibility and apologize for the col lision. The United States refused, arguing that the collision was the fault of the Chinese

States pilot. In to the secure meantime, the crew's public release. pressme On Apiil was 4, the mounting U.S secretary on the of president state expressed of the "regiet" United

over the collision and the disappearance of the Chinese pilot. Although Chinese officials acknowledged the statement as a move in the right direction, they insisted that the United

States apologize for the incident. On April 8, the vice president of the United States and

the secretaiy of state rejected China's demands for an apology but expressed "sorrow" for

the disappearance of the Chinese pilot. They also drafted a letter of sympathy to the pilot's wife. the plesident The Chinese would continued be willing to to demand offer the an Chinese apology. a letter On April expressing 10, U S. regret officials over said the inci- that dent, including a statement admitting that the U.S. aircraft landed in Chinese teriitoty without seeking !ÿermission. The Chinese continued to demand an apology.

Finally, on Apri,! 11, the United States issued a letter to the Chinese foreign minis that ter, asking we are him very to sony convey for their to the loss." Chinese The letter people continued, and to the "We family ale very of Pilot sorry Wang the enter- Wei

mg of China's airspace and the landing did not have verbal clearance." To be sure, the word apology did not appear in the letter. But in their announcement of the letter to the Chinese people, Chinese officials chose to translate the double "very sorry" as "shen&ao one qianyi," is admitting which, in wrongdoing Chinese, means and accepting a deep expression responsibility of apology for it, or Based reglet on not that used letter unless and

the subsequent translation, China agreed to release the U.S. crew. John Pomfret of the States Washington chose Post to say Foreign and what Service China asserted, chose "In to heal." the end, Apparently, it was a matter such delicacies of what the in United com mumcation are common during U.S.-China negotiations. Accoldmg to Bates Gill, who was Institution, then the U S directol negotiators of the often Centei use for words Northeast such Asian as acknowledge Policy Studies that, at when the Btookings tlanslated into Chinese, mean admit or recogmze so that the Chinese can interpret such wordings as an admission of U.S. guilt.8

Intercul.tural. Communication Chapter1 m TheNecessrtyoflntercuttural. Commumcahon

Indeed, national conflicts within our own borders, often ignited by racial, religious, and ethmc tensions, underscore the necessity for skillful intercultural communication. But perhaps more important, the need for competent intercultural communication is felt mtrapersonally, within our own personal,

ships. Consider the situations discussed in

an undergraduate student at a Midwestern university, has faced

social, and professional lives

An Intercultural Conversation

AN INTERCULTURAL CONVERSATION

Situation #1

Jim has Just met Bridget, an exchange student from England They are tal,kmg in Jim's dorm

room

Jim

So, Bridget, are you enjoying your first few days m the UnRed States9

Bridget Yes, but I am a bit paggered, you

Jim

Jim

SRuatlon #2

and box that Jim,

in the past

relation

few days.

[Running after her} Nol Betsy, that's not truel We were just

tal.kmgl I swearl Benefits of intercuttura[ Communication

Later that same day, Jim Is trying to expl,am to Betsy that nothing was happening between him and Bridget when Jahan, an exchange student

from India, enters the room unannounced

know Got pissed Last night Oh sorry are you having probl,ems with someone9 Can I Jim

hel,p?

Bridget Nota'tal,L,oh no,nothmgtraumatlc-

just farty things, you know Nothing to have a dinky flt over

Jim

Jahan Hel,[o, Jim Who is this wlth you9

Oh, hi, Jahan This Is Betsy Betsy, this is Jahan He I.ivesjust down the hal,l,

Betsy HI, Jahan Jahan Is this your gwl.frlend, Jim9

Ah, yeah, right {Jim's gwl,fnend, Jim Betsy, enters the room }

Betsy Hel,to Jim

Hi, Betsyl Hey, this Is Bridget She's from England

Betsy HI, Bridget

Bridget

Hetl,o Nice to meet you Jim and I were just having a bit of rater

course Won't you join use

Betsy You were whatel [Leaves the room }

Ah yeah, she is

Jahan Are you two going to marry9 Have

chll,dren9

Jim Ah, wet[

Betsy Uh we rea[l,y haven't discussed

that

Jahan Oh, I see Is your famll,y not weal,thy enough for her, Jim9 What is your member.

father's occupahon9

Jim What9 What9

Unfortunately, Jim has found himself in some rather awkward situations. The misin terpretations in Situation #1 and Situation #2 are due mostly to cultural and linguistic differences. In Bridget's England, foi example, the word paggered means tired. The col

loqulahsm pissed means to get drunk, fatty refers to something insignificant, a dickyfit is an emotional outburst, and intercourse simply means to have a conversation. Translated in terms Jim can understand, Bridget was tired because she had been drunk the night

simply invited her into the convelsation.

before, but she did not think it significant enough to complain. Upon meeting Betsy, she

The second conversation is a bit'more complicated. The late Dr. Pittu Laungam, the well-known

Indian-born psychologist, wrote extensively about the culture of his native India. In his writings, Laungani asseited that Indians tend to initiate social conversations with complete strangers quite easily. According to Laungani, Indians often ask, without embarrassment, very personal and delicate questions concerning

any offense.9

one's age, marital status, occupation, income, rehglous beliefs, and so on. Laungani professed that Westerners need to learn

that these

questions are not to be taken with

Although the challenges of an increasingly diverse world are

great, the benefits

lishing relationships with lead to a whole host of benefits, including healthier commu

people

greater.

flora different cultures can

are even

Communicating and estab

nities; reduced conflict; and personal growth through increased tol

erance

increased international, national, and local commerce;

(see Table 1.1).

Healthy Communities

1 Heal,thief communRles

' 2 Increased commerce

3 Reduced confhct

4, Personal. growth through toterance

Joan England argues that genuine community is a condition of togetherness in which England people have contends lowered that their we defenses can no longer and learned define to equality accept and as "sameness" celebrate [hell but, differences. instead, must value our differences--whether they be in race, gender, ethnicity, lifestyle, or ienvdeivni doucaclus pwaotiorknin ogr cporollefecstisvieolnya flm d itshcei pbhennee.f1it0 oHf eeavlethryyo cnoem, nmout njuitsiet st haerier omwand eg ruopu po.f Through open and honest intercultural communication, people can work together to achieve goals that benefit everyone, regardless of group or culture, including the global community in the home, business, or neighborhood. Healthy communities support all community members and strive to understand, appreciate, and acknowledge each

Increased Commerce

Our ability to interact with persons from different cultures, both inside and outside our borders, has immense economic benefits. In 2019, the top 10 countries with which the United States traded--m terms of both imports and exports--were, in order, Mexico, Canada, China, Japan, Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom, France, Taiwan, and India. In just the first three months of 2019, U.S. trade with these countries accounted for over $1 trillion (i.e., $1,000,000,000,000). There are significant cultural differences

among these 10 countries. Hence, only through successful intercultural

can such economic Ootenriÿlÿ 1ÿ,ÿ ÿ,ÿI;ÿ=A 1]

communication

6 IntercuLtural Commumcatton

Reduced Conflict

Conflict is inevitable; we will nevel be able to elase it. We can, however, through coop elative intercultural communication, reduce and manage conflict. Often, conflict stems flora om inability to see another person's point of view, particularly if that person is flora a different culture. We develop blatant negative generalizations and stereotypes about the person, which are often incorrect and lead to mistrust. Such feelings lead to defensive

behavior, which fostms conflict. Jack Gibb is well known for his classic work on defensive and supportive communicatlQn. Gibb points out that messages that carry judgements of tight or wrong, attempt to control others, are not open to different ideas, demonstrate a lack of interest, suggest that one is superior to another, and asseit one's ceitainty, lead to defensive competitive and even destructive conflict. Glbb maintains that communicating messages that are descriptive rathei than judgmental, focus on the issue not the person, demonstrate empathy and equality, and are provisional and flexible, lead to supportive behaviors and reduced conflict. If we can learn to think and act cooperatively with others who may not be similar to us by engaging in supportive rather than defensive communi cation, we can effectively manage and reduce conflict with others)2

Personal Growth Through Tolerance

As you communicate with people from different cultures, you learn more about them and their way of life--including their values, history, and habits--and the substance of their personality. As youi relationship develops, you start to understand them better,

perhaps even empathizing with them. One of the things you will learn (eventually) is

that although yore cultures are dlffelent, you have much in common. As humans, we all have the same basic desires and needs; we just have diffelent ways of achieving them. As we learn that our way is not the only way, we develop a tolerance fol difference. This can be accomplished only when we initiate relationships with people who are different from

• urselves. We could learn fai more about Japanese culture by mitlaring and maintaining a relationship with a Japanese student at our college or university than we could by trav- eling to Japan for a 2- or 3-week vacation. Moreover, although this may sound contradic- tory, the mote we learn about others and other cultures, the more we begin to learn about
• urselves. When we obselve how others conduct their lives, we begin to understand how we conduct om own lives.

Diversity in the United States

One need not travel to faraway countries to understand the need for and experience the benefits of intercultural communication. Largely because of immigration trends, cultural and ethnic diversity m the United States is a fact of life. Immigrants, in record num bets, are clossing U.S. borders. Jynnah Radfbrd and Abby Budman of the Pew Research

Center report that there were nearly 44 million immigiants living in the United States in 2016, making up 13.5% of the nation's population. This number represents a more than

fourfold increase since 1960. At that time, just under 10 million immigrants lived in the United States, accounting for about 5% of the population. Radford and Budman note

that while the growth rate has begun to decline in recent years, the numbei of lmmi

,rants hvinÿ in the United States is projected to double by 2065. Radford and Budman

also note that there has been a significant shift in the countries of origin among the

immigrant population Accoiding to their report, in 1960, 84% of immigrants coming to

the United States were born in Europe or Canada while only 6% were from Mexico and 3.8% from South and East Asia. By 2016, European and Canadian immigrants made up only a small share of the foreignÿborn population, while Mexicans (26.5%) South and East Asians (26.9%) and other Latin Americans (24.5%) immigrants each make up about a quarter of the U.S. immigration population followed by about 8% who were born in

another region.1ÿ

In addition to the rapid growth of diverse populations in the United States, another

trend is emerging: An increasing number of groups are revitalizing their ethnic traditions and promoting their cultural and ethnic uniqueness through language. Language is a vital part of maintaining one's cultural heritage, and many people are protective of their native language. A sensitive issue among many U.S. citizens is the status of the English language. Over the years, many federal lawmakers have proposed legislation making

English the official language of the United States. According to Radford and Budman, the number of immigrants who are proficient in English has significantly &dined since 1980. They teport that immigrants who speak only English at home fell horn 30% in 1980 to 16% in 2016. The number of immigrants who speak English "very well" increased from 27% to 35% over the same time period, however. Among immigrants,

• f the various languages spoken at home, 43% speak Spanish, 16% speak English only,
• speak Chinese, 5% speak Hindi and related languages, 4% speak Filipino, 3% speak French, 3% speak Vietnamese, and 2% speak Arabic?4 In July 2002, in Brown County, Wisconsin--a county with a sizable Hmong and Hispanic community--the county board of commissioners made English the official language of its government and called for

more spending to promote English flu ency. The all-White Blown County board

voted 17 to 8 to approve the measure. "It's

saying this is our official language. This is

what we believe in, and we should encour

age English)' said then-Board Supeivisor John Vander Leest. On the other hand, in August 2004 the Texas bolder town of E1 Cenizo whose population is heavily

Hispanic--adopted Spanish as its offi

cial language. Mayor Rafael Rodriguez

said that he and most of the town's res

idents speak only Spanish. According to

Rodriguez, "In past administrations, the

meetings were done m English and they did not explain anything." The vote means that town business will be conducted in Spanish, which then will be tlanslated into

English for official documents to meet the iequirements of Texas law. Rodiiguez said the city council's intent was not to usurp English or create divisions but to make local government more accessible to the town's residents. "What we are looking for is that the people of the community who attend the meetings and who only speak Spanish be

able to voice their opinions," Rodrmuez sa id)5

PHOTO 1 1 The

7

local government

of New York City provides documents 113 six languages to ensure that Rs diverse residents receive essential.

8 Intercul.tura[ Communication

Although the United States prides itself on being a nation of immigrants, there is a growing sense of uncertainty, fear, and distrust among different cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups. ÿhese feelings create anxiety that can foster separatism rather than unity. Many people are frustrated, confused, and uncertain about these linguistic and definitional issues Only through intercultural communication can such uncertainty be reduced. Only when diverse people come together and interact can they unify rather than separate. Unity is impossible without communication. Intercultural communication is a

necessity.

Va

HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Communication is everywhere. Every day, everywhere, people are communicating. Even when alone, people are bombarded with communication. Communication professor Charles Larson estimated that in 2013 most U.S. citizens were exposed to more than 5,000 persuasive messages every day.]6 Most people would be miserable if they were not allowed to communicate with others. Indeed, solitary confinement is perhaps the worst form of punishment inflicted on humans. Human communicauon--that is, the abil ity to symbolize and use language--separates humans from animals. Communication with others is the essence of what it means to be human. Through communication, peo ple conduct their lives. People define themselves via their communication with others. Communication is the vehicle by which people initiate, maintain, and teiminate their relationships with others. Communication is the means by which people influence and persuade others. ÿhrough communication, local, regional, national, and international conflicts are managed and resolved.

Ironically, however, communication--and particularly one's style of communi cation-can be the source of many interpersonal problems. Marriage counselors and divorce lawyers indicate that a breakdown in communication is one of the most fre

quently cited reasons for relational dissolution in the United States.17 A specific kind of communication--that is, public speaking--is one of the most frequently cited fears, even more feared than death.

This book is about the ubiquitous subject labeled communicatwn. Specifically, this is

a book about intercultural communication--that is, communication between people of different cultures and ethuiclties. Intercultural communication occurs whenever two or more people from different cultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal messages. Throughout the course of this book, you will be introduced to a whole host of concepts and theories that explain the process of people of differing cultural backgrounds

coming together and exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages.

The Nature of Human Communication

Because of its ubiquitous nature, communication is difficult to define. If you were to go to your university library and select 10 different introductory communication texts,

each would probably offer a different definition of communication Although there is no universally agreed-on definition of communication, most communication scholars agree on certain dimensions of communication that describe its nature.

Communication is a process. A process is anything that is ongoing, ever changing, and continuous. A process is not static or at rest; it is always moving. Communication is always developing; it is never still or motionless. That communication is a process means that communication is dynamic. The terms process and dynamic are closely related. Part of what makes communication a process l.s its dynamic nature. Something that is dynamic is considered active or forceful. Because communication is a dynamic process, it is impos sine to capture its essence in a written definition or graphic model. Communication is interactive and transactive because it occurs between people. Communication requires the active participation of two people sending and rece,ving messages at the same time- that is, as we are sending messages we are simultaneously receiving messages (transac tive). That communication is symbolic is another fundamental assumption guiding most commumcation scholars. A symbol is an arbitrarily selected and learned stimulus that represents something else. Symbols can be verbal or nonverbal. They are the vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person. Messages are constructed with verbal and nonverbal symbols. Through symbols, mean ings are transferred between people. Symbols (i.e., words) have no natural relationship

with what they represent (they are arbitrarily selected and learned). For example, the verbal symbols "C-A-T" have no natural connection with cute, fuzzy animals that purr

and like to be scratched. These particular symbols have no meaning in any languages besides English (see Figure 1.1).

Nonverbal symbols are arbitrary as well. Showing some

one your upright middle finger may not communicate much

9

process Anything

ongoing, ever changing, and continuous

dynamic Something considered actwe and forceful

symbol An

arbttraHiy selected and learned stimulus representing something else

in some cultures. Verbal and nonverbal symbols are mean- Chat

ingful only to people who have learned to associate them

(French)

with what they represent. People can allow just about any Neko

symbols they want to represent just about anything they

(Japanese)

want. For example, you and your friends probably commu- Gate nicate with one another using private symbols that no one

(Spanish)

(German) .. else understands. You have your own secret code. You have Katze words, phrases, gestures, and handshakes that only you and

your friends kno% understand, and use. This allows you Paka

to communicate with one another in your own "foreign" language. Most communication ÿs intentional, meaning that it is performed consciously. Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people consciously engage in interac tion with some purpose. Unintentional communication may exist, however. For example,

(Swahfl0

Koshka

(Russian)

you pass a friend in the hallway of your dorm, say hello, and your friend does not respond. Perhaps your friend simply didn't see you and was thinking about the exam he or she just failed and was not intentionally ignoring you. In this book, the type of communi cation that will be discussed is intentional communication. This book takes the position that intentional communication, either verbal or nonverbal, is more informative than unintentional communication. Communication is dependent on the context in which ÿt occurs. Context refers to the cultural, physical, relational, and perceptual environment in which communication occurs. In many ways, the context defines the meaning of any message. With whom and where you interact significantly alters the messages sent. That

context The

cultural, physical, social, and

psychological

environment

10 IntercuLturaL Communication

communication is ubiquitaus simply means it is everywhele, done by everyone, all the

time. Wherevel one goes, some commumcatlon is happening.

commumcatlon The simultaneous encoding, decoding, and interpretation ofverbaLand nonverbal messages between

people

commumcahon apprehenston The fear or anxtety assoctated with either reaL or anticipated commumcatlon with another person or group of persons

Finally, culture shapes communication, and communication is cultme bound. People from diffelent cultures commumcate dlffeiently. ÿ[he verbal and nonverbal symbols we use to communicate with our fiiends and families are suongly influenced by oul culture. Perhaps the most obvious verbal communication diffelence between two cultures is lan guage. Even cÿltures speaking the same language, howevel, have diffelent meanings for different symbols. Fol example, although English is the dominant language spoken in the

United States and England, rÿany words and phrases have different meanings between these two cultures. In England, to "bomb" an examination is to have pelformed very well.

Communication, then, is the ubiquitous, dynamic, rate, active process of encoding

and decoding verbal and nonvelbal messages within a defined cultural, physiological, relational, and peiceptual context. Although many of our messages ale sent intentionally, some others--perhaps our nonverbal messages--can unintentionally influence other

people)8

Human Communication Apprehension

Although communication is difficult to define, we know that people begin to commu nicate at birth and continue communicating thloughout their lives. We also know that many people experience fear and anxiety when communicating with others, particu larly m situations such as public speaking, class presentations, a fiist date, or a job inter view. ÿhe fear oi anxiety people experience when communicating with others is called communication apprehension. In the past 50 years, a substantial body of research has accumulated regarding the nature and prevalence of communication apprehension. ÿhe late Jim McCroskey, considered the father of this concept, believed that nearly eveiyone experiences some kind of communication apprehension sometimes, but roughly one in five adults in the United States suffer from communication apprehension evely time they communicate with others. McCroskey said that experiencing communication apprehen sion Is nolmal; that is, all of us experience it occasionally. McCtoskey argued that there are four types of communication apprehension: traitlike, context based, audience based, and situational. Traitlike communication apprehension is an enduring general personal ity predisposition where an individual experiences communication apprehension most of the time across most communication situations. Of all adults in the United States, 20% experience traitlike communication apprehension. Context-based communication apprehension is restucted to a celtain generalized context, such as public speaking, group meetings, or job interviews Persons with con text-based communication apprehension experience anxiety only m certain contexts. Audience-based communication appiehension is triggered not by the specific context but by the particular person or audience with whom one is communicating. Hence, pelsons with audience-based communication applehenslon may experience anxiety when com municating with strangeis or theiÿ superiors, for example. College students with audi ence-based communication applehension may experience anxiety when communicating with professols but not when communicating with other students. Finally, situation al-based communication apprehension, experienced by virtually everyone, occurs with the combination of a specific context and a specific audience. For example, students may

Chapter1 [] The Necessity oflntercutturaI. Commumcatron 11

feel anxious interacting with professors only when they are alone with the professor in the professol's office. At other times, peihaps in the hallways or in the classroom, interacting with the professor may not be a problem/9 To repeat, virtually everyone experiences com mumcatlon apprehension at some time, if you experience such anxiety, it does not mean you are abnormal or sick

What follows is the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension

(PRCA-24), a scale designed to measure your degree of communication apprehension. Take a few moments and complete the scale m Self-Assessment 1.1.

Personat Report of Communication Apprehension

iPRCA-241

SeLf-report Instrument designed to measure communication apprehensmn

Directions. This Instrument ts composed of 24 statements concerning your feelings about com municating with other people. PLease indicate In the space prowded the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you {1} strongly agree, {2} agree, [3} are undecided, {4} disagree, or {5} strongly disagree with each statement There are no right or wrong answers Many of the statements are similar to other statements Do not be concerned about this. Work quickly, lust record your first Impressions

__.1 I dislike participating m group

discussions

-- 2. GeneraLLy, I am comfortable white \ participating in group dlscusstons

conversation with a new

3 I am tense and nervous whÿ[e

__4 parhcipatlng I tJke to get revolved m group In discussions group __5 discussions Engaging in group dÿscusslons with

new people makes me tense and

nervous.

6. I am calm and reLaxed while

participating In group discussions

__

__ 7 GeneraLLy, I am nervous when

I have to participate in group

discussions

__ 8. UsuaLLy, I am calm and relaxed

whtte parhclpatmg In meetings

__ 9 I am very calm and re[axed when

I am caLLed upon to express an opinion at a meeting __10 I am afraid to express myself at

meetings

__11. Communicating at meetings

usuaLLy makes me uncomfortable

__12. I am very reLaxed when answering questions at a meeting __.13 White partzclpatmg in a

acquaintance, I feet very nervous

__14 I have no fear of speaking up In

conversations

__15 OrdinariLy, I am very tense and

nervous In conversations

__16 OrdinariLy, I am very calm and

reLaxed in conversahons

__17 When conversing with a new

acquaintance, I fee[ very reLaxed

__18 I am afraid to speak up In

conversahons

___19 I have no fear of gwmg a speech

[Contmued]

12 Intercultural Communlcahon

[Continued}

__20 Certain parts of my body feet[ very

tense and rigid while giving a

speech.

I feet relaxed white glvlng a speech My thoughts become confused and jumbt[ed when I am giving a speech.

__23. I face the prospect of giving a

speech with confidence.

__24 Whlt[e gwmg a speech, I get so nervous I forget facts I reatt[y know

Scoring: The PRCA-24 allows you to compute a total score and four subscores The total score represents your degree of tralttike communi cation apprehension. Total scores may range from 24 to 120. McCroskey argued that any score above 72 indicates general commumcatlon

apprehension.

Scores above 80 indicate a very high level of com mumcatlon apprehension. Scores below 59 indicate a very tow level of communication apprehension

Totat PRCA Score:

Step 1 Add what you marked for Items 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 20, 22, and 24.

Step 2 Add what you marked for Items 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, and 23

Step 3. Subtract the score from Step 1 from 84 {I e., 84 minus the score of Step 11. Then add the score of Step 2 to that total. The sum is your PRCA score

The subscores indicate your degree of com mumcatlon apprehension across four common

contexts, group discussions, meetings, inter

personal conversations, and public speaking For these scales, a score above 18 is high, and a score above 23 Is very high.

Subscores for Contexts:

and 6, minus scores for Items 1,3, and 5.

Group Subscore 18 + scores for Items 2, 4,

Meeting Subscore 18 + scores for Items 8, 9, and 10, minus scores for Items 7, 10, and 11

Interpersonal Subscore 18 + scores for Items 14, 16, and 17, minus scores for Items 13, 15,

and 18

Public Speaking Subscore. 18 + scores for Items 19, 21, and 23, minus scores for Items 20, 22, and 24

Source, McCroskey, J C {1982} Introduction to Rhetorical Commumcatlon {4th Ed }, Engtewood CLiffs, N J, Prentice- Hall © 1982 Reproduced by permission of Taylor and Francis Group, LLC, a division of Informa plc

THE NATURE OF CULTURE

Like communication, culture is ubiquitous and has a profound effect on humans. Culture is simultaneously invisible yet pervasive. As we go

conscious

about our daily lives, we are not overtly of our culture's influence on us. How often have you sat in your dorm room or

classroom,

for example, and consciously thought about what it means to be a U.S. citizen?

As you stand in the lunch line, do you say to yourself, "I am acting like a U.S. citizen"? As you sit in your classroom, do you say to yourself, "The professor is really acting like a U.S. citizen"? Yet most of your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are culturally driven. One need only step into a culture different from one's own to feel the immense impact of cukure.

Culture has a direct influence on the physical, relational, and peiceptual contexts. For example, the next time you enter your communication classroom, consider how the room is arranged physically, including where you sit and where the professor teaches, the location of the chalkboard, windows, and so on. Does the professor lecture from behind

a

lectern? Do the students sit facing the professor? Is the chalkboard used? Next, think about your relatzonshi? with the professor and the othel students in your class. Is the rela tionship formal or informal? Do you interact with the professor and students about topics other than class material? Would

you consider the relationship personal

or impersonal?

Finally, think about your perceptual dzspositwn--that is, your attitudes, motivations, and

emotions about the class. Are you happy to be in the class? Do you enjoy attending? Are you nervous when the instructor asks you a question? To a great extent, the answers to these questions are contingent on your culture, The physical arrangement of classrooms, the social relauonship between students and teachers, and the perceptual profiles of the students and teachers vary significantly from culture to culture.

Like communication, culture is difficult to define. To be sure, more than 60 years

ago, two well-known anthropologists, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, found and

examined 300 defimuons of culture, no two of which were the same.2° Perhaps too often,

people think of culture only in terms of the fine arts, geography, or history. Small towns

oÿ rural communities are often accused of having no culture. Yet culture exists every where. There is as much culture in Willard, New Mexico (population 240), as there is in New York, New York (population 8,500,000). The two cultures are just different. Simply

put, culture is people.

Although there may not be a universally accepted definition of culture, there are a num ber of properties of culture that most people would agree describe its essence. In this book,

culture is defined as an accumulated pattern of

values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an

identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems.

Accumulated Pattern of Values, Bel.iefs, and Behaviors

Cultures can be defined by their value and behefsystems and by the actions of their mem bers. People who "exist in the same culture generally share similar values and beliefs (see

Table 1.2). In the United States, for example, individuality is highly valued. An indwid

ual's self-interest takes precedence over group interests. U.S. citizens believe that people are unique. Moreover, U.S. citizens value personal independence. Conversely, in Japan, a collectivistic and relatively homogeneous culture--a sense of groupness and group har mony-is valued. Most Japanese see themselves as members of a group first and as indi viduals second. Where U.S. citizens value independence, Japanese value interdependence.

The values of a particular culture lead to a set of expectations and rules prescribing how

people should behave in that culture. Although many U.S. citizens prefer to think of themselves as unique individuals, most of them behave in similar ways. Observe the

students different

them. Most of your peers follow peers, you are really quite similar to from your

around you in your classes. Although you may prefer to think that you are very

a similar behavioral pattern

your peers attend

to your own. For example, on a day-to-day basis, most of

U.S. citizens

classes, take examinations, go to lunch, study, party, and write papers.

share a similar behavioral profile. Most work

week, receive some form of payment for their work, and pay some of their earnings in

an average of 40 hours a

culture An accumulated pattern of values, behefs, and behaviors shared

by an identifiable group of people

with a common hmtory and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems

14 lntercul.tura[ Communication

IsLam

Hospltahty

CLeanLiness

Land

Kmsh)p

Education'

Famtty Lineage

Supernatural guidance

Karma

IsLam

taxes. Most spend their money on homes and cars, and almost eveiy home in the United States has a television. Although U.S. citizens view themselves as unique individuals, most of them have similai behaviolal patteins.

An IdentifiabLe Group of Peopl.e With a Common History

Because the members of a particulal cultme share similar values, behefs, and behavlols, they

are identifiable as a distinct group. In addition

SeLf-respect and honor

Famtty

to their shaled values, beliefs, and behaviors, the

members of a palticulai cultuie shale a common history. Any cultule's past mextllcably binds it to the present and guides its futme. At the cole of

any cultme are uaditions that ale passed on to future generations. In many cultures, history is a major component of the formal and infmmal education systems. To learn a culture's history is to learn that culture's values. One way childlen in the United States develop their sense of independence, for example, is by learning about the Declaration of Independence, one of this country's most sacred documents. Elementary school children in Iran learn about the historical significance of the political and religious revolution that

took place in their culture m the 1970s and 1980s. Russian children leain about the arts in Russian history--fol example, famous Russian composeis, including Tchaikovsky, Rachmanmoff, and Stravinsky. The art of the past helps Russians remember then cultme and history as they face disruptive social and political crises. Such historical lessons are

the glue that binds people togethei.

Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol Systems

One of the most lmpoi tant elements of any culture Is its communication system. The ver bal and nonverbal symbols with which the members ofa cultme communicate are culture bound. Seeing the difference between the verbal codes of any two cultures is easy. For instance, the dominant verbal code m the United States is English, whmeas the dominant verbal code in Mexico is Spanish But although two cultmes may share the same veibal code, they may have dlamatlcally different verbal styles. Most White U.S. citizens, for example, use a direct, instrumental, pelsonal style when speaking English. Many Native

and may prefer the use of silence ovm wolds.21

Amelicans/American Indians who also speak English use an indirect, impeisonal style

Nonveibal

code systems vaiy significandy across cultules as well. Nonverbal com

municauon includes the use of body language, gestmes, facial expiessions, voice, smell, peisonal and geographical space, time, and artifacts. Body language can communicate a gieat deal about one's culture. When an adult inteiacts with a young child in the United States, for example, it Is not uncommon for the adult to pat the child's head. This non verbal gesture is often seen as a form of endearment and is culturally acceptable. In Thailand, however, where the head is consideled the seat of the soul, such a gestme

g Fÿ It But in China, slurping and making belch- ÿ Chapter1 [] TheNecessrtyoflntercuLturalCommunmatlon is unacceptable. Belching during or after a meal is viewed by most U.S. citizens as

seem obsessed with the smell of the human body and home environment. Think of all the products you used this morning before you left for class that were designed to mask the natural scent of your body, including

soap, toothpaste, mouthwash, deodorant, and cologne and/or perfume. Persons from other cultures often complain that U.S. citi zens tend to smell antiseptic.

Microcutturat Groups

Within most cultures, groups of people--or microcultures--coexlst within the main stream society. Mmrocultures exist within the broader rules and guidelines of the domi nant cultural milieu but are distinct in some way, perhaps racially or linguistically, or via their sexual orientation, age, or even occupation. In some ways, everyone is a member of some microcultural gioup. Microcultures often have histories that differ from the dom inant cultural group. In many cases, microcultural gioups are considered subordinate or treated subordinately in some way, perhaps politically or economically.

one's culture

o-.

8

"6 o o @

PHOTO 1,2

Nonverbal communication,

)nc[udlng body

Language, can commun)cate a

great flea[ about

PHOTOS 1.3A, B ChiLdren earn the values norms, and behavmrs of their culture at an early age

16 IntercuLtural. Commumcatlon

mlcrocutture An tdentfftabte group

of peopte who

share a set of vatues, betlefs, and behaviors and who possess a common history and a verbal and nonverbat symbot system that ts stmRar to but systematmatty varms from the targer, often dominant cu[turat milieu

In the United States, Native American/American Indian tribes might be considered mmrocultures. The Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, also can be considered a microcultural group. Although the Amish are subject to most of the same laws as any other gioup of citizens, they have umque values and communication systems that &fie> enuate them from mainstream American hfe. For example, Amish children are exempt from compulsory attendance in public schools after the eighth grade. Although almost all

Amish speak English, when they interact among themselves, they speak German. During church services, a form of High German is used. Hence, most Amish of Lancaster County speak three languages.

THE STUDY OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Ideally, we now have an understanding of the word communication and the idea of culture. So what happens when people from different cultures come together and communicate with one another? We call that process "intercultural communication." Compaled with many other academic disciplines, the study of intercultural communication is young.

• ne histories of other academic fields such as math, biology, philosophy, and psychology

date back hundreds and, in some cases, thousands of years. But the academic discipline of intercultural communication can be traced back only a few decades--specifically, to

the year 1959 and the publication of Edward T. Hall's book The Silent Language Hall is generally recognized as the founder of the academic discipline we call intercultural communication. Although the term intercultural had been used prior to Hall's work, it is

thought that Hall was the first to use the term intercultural communicationY

Hall held three university degrees (i.e., BA, MA, and PhD) in anthropology. Anthropology is the study of the origin, behavior, and physical, social, and cultural devel opment of humans. Hall earned his doctorate in anthropology m 1942 when the United States was involved in the Second World War. During this period, traditional approaches

in anthropology focused on studying a single culture at a time. So a particular anthropol ogist might focus his or her studies on, say, the Navajo or Hopi Indians of the American

Southwest, as did Hall. Hall often referred to this as a macrolevel approach to culture. Among the many significant influences on Hall's approach to his studies was anthropol ogist Franz Boas. qhe term cultural relatzwsm is often attributed to him. Boas believed, as did Hall, that humans are inherently ethnocentric (i.e., believing

that one's native culture is the standard by which other cultures are observed and judged) and that our observations of other cultures are necessarily biased in favor of our native cultural background. For example, a child raised m Germany, Iran, or China is taught that his or her cultural traditions, values, and customs are the preferred and accepted standards by which one should conduct one's life. Consequently, an individual from a particular culture cannot draw conclusions about some other culture's traditions, values, and customs without some inherent bias. Moreover, Boas believed that any particular culture is an adaptation to and a distinctive product of a unique set of historical, social, and environmental conditions. As these conditions vary, cultures vary accordingly--and, in this sense, there is no correct culture.

Following World War II, the U.S. Congress established the Foreign Service Institute (FSI). FSI is the federal government's primary training institution for officers and sup port personnel of the U.S. foreign affairs community, preparmgAmerican diplomats and other professionals to advance U.S. foreign affairs interests overseas and in Washington.

In the early 1950s, Hall taught at FSI and soon discovered that the traditional ways of teaching about macrolevel culture, from an anthropological perspective, were not effec tive in training FSI personnel how to interact with persons from different cultures. So Hall and others began to rethink how to teach about culture and soon developed a new curriculum that eventually became known as intercultural communication.

In this new curriculum, scholars focused on intercultural communication--that is, how people from different cultures interact with one another--rather than on how members of a particular culture interact within their culture. This new curriculum also emphasized the nonverbal dements of intercultural communication. Hall was especially interested in the study of how cultures manage the nonverbal channels of time (chrone

talcs), space (proxemics), and body language (kinesics). One of Hall's most fascinating

insights was how invisible culture is to its own members--that is, how most people are so unaware of their own cultural ways of hying. This new approach also embraced Boas's

idea of cultural relativism in that cultures should be judged only from within their spe cific cultural context, and cultural traditions, beliefs, and behaviors are to be evaluated on that culture's unique set ofhistormal, social, and environmental conditions

In 1959, Hall published The Silent Language, which sold more than 500,000 copies in its first 10 years and is considered the seminal work in the field. In the book, Hall asserted that culture is commumcation By the late 1960s, we saw the first intercultural communication courses being offered at universities. In 1970, the International Communication Association established a Division of Intercultural Communication. L. S. Harms's 1970 book, Intercultural

Communication, is thought to be the first textbook on the subject. By 1975, the Speech

Communication Association established the DMsion of Intercultural Communication, and

in 1977, the IntemauonalJournal oflnterculturalRelatmns began publication.

A Conte×tua[ Model of Intercultural Communication

Intercultural coÿnmunication occurs whenever a minimum of two persons from differ ent cultures or microcultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal symbols. A central theme throughout this book is that intercultural communication is contextual. A contextual model of intercultural communication is presented in Figure 1.2. According to the model, intercultural communication occurs within and between a variety of inter connected contexts, including cultural, microcultural, environmental, perceptual, and sociorelational contexts.

The term context refers to the setting, situation, cncumstances, background, and over all framework within which communication occurs. For exampie, when you interact with your friends, you interact in some physwal context, such as your dorm room. You also interact within a socmlcontext--that is, friend to friend. You also interact within apsycho logical context--your thoughts and emotions about your friend. The contextual model of intercultural communication attempts to identify the various contexts that define what happens when a person from Culture A communicates with a person from Culture B. As we walk through the contextual model of intercultural communication, please note that

mtercutturat

commurllcatlon Two persons from different cultures or mlcrocu[tures exchangmg verbat and nonverbal. messages

Enwronmental Context Microcultural Context Cultural Context Nonverbal Code

Microcultural Cultural Context

the model is both conceptually and graphically

consistent

The largest, outer circle of the model lep resents the cultural context. All communica tive exchanges between persons occur within some culture ÿlÿne cultural context lepresents an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and

behaviors shared by an identifiable group of

people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems So whenever you and someone from a diffelent culture come together and interact, you are within a cultural context. In this textbook, the cultulal context

is the focus of Chaptei 2.

7he next largest circle in the model is the micÿvcultural context (Figure 1.3). As men tioned earlier, within most cultules separate groups of people coexist. ÿ]xese groups, called microcultures, are in some way different flora the larger cultuial milieu Sometimes the difference is via ethniclty, race, or language Conceptually, miclocultmes exist within a larger culture; notice that in the model, the mlcioculture is within the cultural context. Often, microcultures are ueated &ffeiently by the members of the larger culture. Some people refer to microcultural groups as rninoritygÿvuU or subcultures, but those terms will not be used here. Mlclocultules are the focus of Chapter 3

The next largest cucle in the model is the enwÿvnmental context (Figure 1.4). ÿhis circle represents the physical, geographical location of the interaction. While culture prescribes the overall rules for communication, the physical location indicates when and where the specific rules apply. For example, in the United States, there are lules about

yelling. Depending on the physical location, yelling can be plohibited or encouraged. In a church, yelling is generally prohibited, whereas at a football game, yelling is the preferred method of communicating. ÿhe envilonmental context includes the physi cal geography, architectme, landscape design, and even climate of a particular culture

Chapter 1 m The Necessltyof lntercu[turat Communication 19

/ / \ t J # ....Environmentat Contextÿ/ \ \ / i 1 --ÿ Cultural Context / .Microcultural Context J / tural and cultural contexts. Conceptually, this is / because one's cultule and membeiship in micro

mental

In

context is discussed in

Chapter 4.

Figure 1.5, the two circles within the envl

ronmental context repiesent the perceptual context(s). ÿhe perceptual context refers to the individual characteristics of each interactant, including cognitions, attitudes, disposi tions, and motivations. Specifically, the perceptual context refers to how an individual gathers, stores, and retrieves information. Humans gather information via their senses- that is, through sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell. We then store the reformation in our memories and retrieve it foi later use. Although the ability to gather, store, and retrieve infolmauon is fundamentally human, it is also affected by culture. Many of the attitudes, beliefs, and values you hold were taught to you by your culture. For example, what smells good to you is cultmal. The music you listen to is also largely a cultural by-product. Moreovei, how an individual develops attitudes about others, including stereotypes, var ies from cultuie to culture. ÿhe perceptual context is the emphasis of Chapter 5.

The circles connecting the perceptual contexts in the model form the sociorelational context (Figure 1.6). ÿhis iefers to the lelationship between the interactants. Whenever two people come together and interact, they establish a relationship. Within this

PrerCeptual ontext of Person om Culture B

20 Intercultural. Communication

Perceptual Context of Person From Culture A Nonverbal Code

Environmental Context Microcultural Context

Cultural Context

relationship, each person assumes a role. Right now, you are assuming the role of student; the person teaching your communication class is assuming the role of teacher. So, m a very real sense, you are having a relationship with your teacher--that is, a student

teacher relationship. Roles prescribe how people should behave. Most of the people with

whom you interact are related to you via your role as student. ÿhe reason you interact with so many professors is because you are a student. What you interact about--that is, the topic of your interaction--is also defined by your role as student; you and your pro fessors interact about courses. How you interact with your professor--that is, the style of talk (e.g., polite language)--is also prescribed by your role as student. ÿlhe language and

style of your talk with your professor is probably very different from the language and style of talk you use when you go back to your dorm room and interact with your friends.

Probably the 10 people with whom you most recently interacted were directly related to you via your role as student. When you go back to your hometown during semester break and step into the role of son/daughter or brother/sister, you are assuming a different role, and your interaction changes accordingly. Your interaction varies as a function of what role you are assuming.

Roles vary from culture to culture. Although m 3ust about every culture there are stu

dent and teacher role relationships, how those roles are defined varies significantly. What

it means to be a student in the United States is very different from what it means in Japan. In Japan, for example, many students go to school 6 days a week. Japanese teachers are

highly respected and play an influential role in the Japanese student's hfe. What it means

to be a mother or father also varies considerably from one culture to another. In the Masai

culture of Kenya, a woman is defined by her fertility. To be defined as a mother in Masal culture, a woman must endure circumcision (i.e., clitoridectomy), an arranged marriage, and wife beating.24 Conceptually, people (i.e., perceptual contexts) are connected to one another via their relationships. ÿIhe model shows this connection via the soclorelational context (see Figure 1.6). ÿne sociorelational context links the two perceptual contexts. One's roles prescribe the types of verbal and nonverbal symbols that ale exchanged. In this book, the sociorelatlonal context and role relationships are the focus of Chapter 6.

Chapter 1 [] The Necessity of Intercultural Commumcatlon 21

All our relationships are defined by the verbal and nonverbal messages we send to our relational partners. What differentiates one relationship from another is the verbal and nonverbal things we do with each other. For example, what differentiates your rela

tionship with your teacher from your relationship with your best friend Is the verbal and

nonverbal things you do with each other. Notice that in the contextual model, the socio relational context is graphically represented by two circles labeled nonverbal and verbal code (see Figure 1.6). Again, the verbal and nonverbal messages define the relationship,

and the relationship connects the perceptual contexts.

Ihe nonverbal circle is the larger of the two and is represented by a continuous line. The verbal circle is smaller and is represented as a series of dashes in the shape of a circle. ÿhe non verbal message circle is larger than the verbal message circle because the majority of our com municative behavior is nonverbal. Whether we are using words or not, we are communicating nonverbally through eye contact, body stance, and space. In addition, our nonverbal behavior is ongoing; we cannot not behave. The verbal message circle is formed by a series of dashes to represent the digital quahty of verbal communication.25 By digital, we mean that, unlike our nonverbal communication, our verbal communication is made up of words that have recog

nizable and discrete beginning and ending points. A word is like a digÿt. We can start and stop talking with words. However, our nonverbal behavior goes on continuously. Chapter 7 concentrates on verbal communication codes, and Chapter 8 addresses nonverbal codes.

he general theme of this book, as represented in the model, is that intercultural com munication is defined by the interdependence of these various contexts. ÿhe perceptual contexts combine to create the soclorelational context, which is defined by the verbal and nonverbal messages sent. The sociorelational context is influenced by the environmental context and defined by the microcultural and cultural contexts. These contexts combine in a complex formula to create the phenomenon of intercultural communication.

Intercultural Communication and Uncertainty

When we interact with someone from a different culture, we are faced with a lot of uncertainty. We may riot know anything about the person's culture, values, habits, behav ior, dress, and soÿon. We may not know what to say or do in such circumstances. ÿhls uncertainty about the other person may make us feel nervous and anxious. ÿfhe late Charles Berger, well known communication theorist contends that the task of interacting with someone from a different culture who may look, act, and communicate differently presents the intelcultural communicator with some complex predictive and explanatory problems. To some extent, to effectively interact with someone from a different culture, we must be able to predict how our interaction partner is likely to behave and, based on those predictions, select our appropriate verbal and nonverbal messages?6

Berger theorizes that whenever we come together and interact with a stranger, our pri mary concern is to reduce uncertainty, especially when the other person is someone with whom we will interact again Often, when we are faced with high levels of uncertainty, we experience anxiety. In high-uncertainty situations, our primary goal is to reduce uncer

tainty and increase the piedictability of the other. ÿIhis can be accomplished via specific verbal and nonverbal communication strategies such as question asking and appropriate nonverbal expressiveness. Initial interaction with someone, or interacting with someone from a &fferent culture, may produce heightened anxiety 27

intercultural communication apprehension The fear or an×lety associated with either real. or anhclpated mterachon with persons from a different culture

Intercultural communlcauon experts William Gudykunst and Young Klm have argued that when we interact with people flora &ffeient cultures, we tend to view them as strangers. Strangeis are unknown people who are members of diffelent gloups. Anyone entering a relatwely unknown oi unfamlliai environment falls undei the lubrlc of "stranger." Interaction with people from different cultures tends to revolve the high est degree of "strangerness" and the lowest degree of famiharity. Thus, there Is gleatei uncertainty in initial interaction with strangers than with people with whom we are familiar. Accordlhg to Gudykunst and Klm, actual or anticipated intelacuon with mem bers of different groups (e.g., cultures or ethnic groups different flora our own) leads to anxiety.28 If we are too anxious about interacting with strangeis, we tend to avoid them. Communicanon researchers Jim Neuhep and Jim McCroskey state that this type of com munication anxiety can be labeled intercultural communication apprehension--that is, the fear or anxiety associated with either real or anucipated interaction with people from different groups, especially &ffetent cultural or ethnic groups 29

Intercutturat Communication Apprehension

Successfully interacting with someone from a &ffeient culture requires a degree of com mumcation competence. According to Brian Spitzberg, most models of communication competence include cognitive, affecuve, and behavioral components. The cognitwe com

ponent includes iefers one's to motivation how much to one approach knows or about avoid communication. communication The The affective behavioral component compo nent refers to the skills one has to interact competently. An interculturally competent communicator is motivated to communicate, knowledgeable about how to communicate, and skilled in communicating. In addition, an intercultmally competent communicator is sensitive to the expectations of the context in which commumcation occurs. Competent commumcators interact effectively by adapting messages appropriately to the context. Competent communicators understand the iules, norms, and expectations of the rela tionship and do not sigmficantly violate them. Commumcatols are effective to the degree that their goals are accomplished successfully,g° According to Neuhep and McCroskey, a peison's affecuve olientation towaid inter cultural communication involves the individual's degree of motivation to approach or avoid a given intercultural context or person. Commumcauon studies indicate that at least 20% of the U.S. adult population experience high levels of fear or anxiety even when communicating with members of their own cultme. Other studies indicate that 99% of U.S. cluzens experience communication apprehensmn at some time in their lives, perhaps during a job lntervmw, a first date, and so on. One outcome of commumcation apprehen sion is to avoid communication. When people feel anxious about communicating with others, they tend to avoid such situations. Gwen that intercultural communication may be mine anxmty producing than other forms of commumcatlon, the number of people suffering from intercultural communica

uon apprehension is likely considerable. Identifying such individuals may be the first step

toward more effective and successful intercultural communication. Self-Assessment 1.2 is an instrument called the Personal Report of Intercultural Commumcation Apprehension (PRICA). This scale was developed by communicauon reseaichers Neuhep and McCroskey. PRICA is similai to the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension

nnÿ ^ ,ÿ/.\ ......... IÿA ÿ11 .... *-hiÿ c-banter. The &fference between these two scales

Chapter 1 [] The Necessity of Intercul.turaI. Communlcatlon

is that PRICA assesses your degree of apprehension about communicating with someone from a culture &fferent from yours. After completing each scale, you can compaie your scores from both instruments.

23

Directions: This instrument is composed of 14 statements concerning your feehngs about com municating with people from other cultures PLease indicate m the space provided the degree to which each statement apphes to you by marking whether you (11 strongly agree, [2} agree, [3) are undecided, [41 disagree, or [5] strongly disagree with each statement. There are no right or wrong answers Work qufckty, and record your first impressions

1. GeneraLLy, I am comfortabl.e

__. 2. I am tense and nervous whfte Interacting with a group of people from different cultures.

interacting in group discussions with people from different cultures

__ 3. I hke to get InvoLved in group

dÿseussmns with others who are from different cultures

__ 4 Engaging in a groupdJscussmn

with people from d6ferent cultures Enakes me tense and nervous

5 I am calm and relaxed when

interacting wRh a group of people who are from different cultures

__

__ 6 WhiLe partlclpahng In a

__ 7 I have no fear of speaking up m a conversation with a person from a different culture conversahon with a person from a dÿfferent culture, I feet very nervous

__. 8 OrdinariLy, I am verytense and

nervous In conversations with a

person from a different culture.

OrdinariLy, I am very calm and relaxed in conversations with a person from a different culture __10. White conversing with a person

from a different culture, I feet very

relaxed.

__11 I'm afraid to speak up In

conversahons with a person from a

different culture

__12 I face the prospect of Interacting

wRh people from different cultures wfth confidence __13 My thoughts become confused and jumbled when interacting wRh people from different cultures

__14 Communicating with people from different cultures makes me feet uncomfortable

Scoring: To score the Instrument, reverse your original response for Items 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, and 14 For example, for each of these Items 1 = 5,

2 = 4, 3 = 3, 4 = 2, and 5 = 1. If your original score

for Item 2was 1, change It toa 5 If your orig inal score for Item 4 was a 2, change it to a 4, and so on After reversing the score for these seven items, sumaLt141tems Scores cannot be higher than 70 or Lower than 14 Higher scores (e g, 50-701 indicate high intercuLturaL com munication apprehension Lower scores (eg, 14-28) indicate Low intercuLturaL commumcatlon

apprehension.

Source Neuhep, J W, & McCroskey, J C 11997} The DeveLopment of Intercultural. and Interethnlc Commumcahon

Apprehension ScaLes Commumcatton Research Reports, 14, 145-156

24 IntercuLturaL Communication

The PRICA instrument is composed of 14 statements concerning your feelings about communication with people from other cultures. Please Indicate in the space provided the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, agiee, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree with each statement.

There are no right or wrong answers, and many of the statements are designed to be sim ilar m other statements. Do not be concerned about this. Work quick]), and record your first impressions. Responding to these statements as honestly as possible is very import ant; otherwise, your score will not be valid.

To the degree that you answered the items honestly, your score is a fairly reliable and valid assessment of your motivation m approach or avoid intercultural communi cation. Spitzberg argues that as your motivation increases, so does your confidence. As confidence increases, intercultural communication competence also is likely to increase. People who are nervous and tense about interacting with people from different cultures are less likely to approach intercultural communication situations and probably are not confident about encountering new people from different cultures.31

FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

A central premise of this book is that intercultural communication is a complex com bination of the cultural, mlcrocultural, environmental, perceptual, and sociorelational contexts between two people who are encoding and decoding verbal and nonverbal mes sages. Because of the complexity of this process, a fundamental assumption about inter cultural communication is that during intercultural communication the message sent is usually not the message received

Assumption # 1 Durmg intercultural communication, the message sent # usually not the message received Whenever people from different cultures come together and exchange messages, they bring with them a whole host of thoughts, values, emotions, and behaviors that were planted and cultivated by cukure. As we have said, intercultural communication is a symbolic activity in which the thoughts and ideas of one person are encoded into a verbal or nonverbal message format and then transmitted through some channel to another person who must decode it, interpret It, and respond to it. This process of encoding, decoding, and interpreting

ethne,'entrlsm The tendency to place one s own group {cultural, ethmc, or rehgmus} in a positron of centrality and highest worth, while creating negative attitudes and behawers toward other groups

is filled with cukural noise. Noted intercukural communication scholar Gudykunst has asserted that during intercultural communication culture acts as a filter through which all messages, both verbal and nonverbal, must pass. To this extent, all Intercultural exchanges are necessarily, to a greater or lesser extent, charged with ethnocentrism. Hence, during intercultural communication, the message sent is not the message received.32 Ethnocentrism refers to the idea that one's own culture is the center of everything and all other groups (or cultures) are scaled and rated with reference to it. Sociologist W. G. Sumner argued that ethnocentrism nourishes a group's pride and vanity while looking on outsiders, or out-groups, with contempt.33 Although culture may mediate the extent to which we experience ethnocentrism, it is thought to be universal. One of the effects of ethnocentrism is that it clouds our perception of others. We have a tendency to judge

Chapter I [] The Necesstty of Intercultural. Communication

• thers, and their communication, based on the standards set by our own culture. Neuhep and McCroskey have argued that the concept of ethnocentrism is essentially descrip- tive and not necessarily pejorative. Ethnocentrism may serve a valuable function when
• ne's In-group is under attack or threatened. Moreover, ethnocentrism forms the basis for patriotism, group loyalty, and the willingness to sacrifice for one's own group. To be sure, however, ethnocentrism can be problematic. In not looking past their own culture, peo- ple see little importance in understanding other cultures. At high levels, ethnocentrism is an obstacle to effective intercultural communication24

Neuhep and McCroskey have developed the GENE (Generalized Ethnocentrism)

Scale, which is designed to measure ethnocentrism. This scale and the directions for completing it are presented in Self-Assessment 1.3.

Assumptton #2 Intercultural communicauon is pr*mardy a nonverbal act between people. Some foreign language teachers might have us believe that competency in a foreign language is tantamount to effective and successful intercultural communication in the culture that speaks that language. To be sure, proficiency in a foreign language expedites the intercultural communication experience, but intercultural communication is primarily and fundamentally a nonverbal process. The expression of intimacy, power, and status among communicators is typically accomplished nonverbaily through parahnguistlc cues, proxemlcs, haptics, oculesics, and olfactics. In Korea, for example,

• ne's hierarchical position is displayed via vocal tone and pitch. When a subordinate is
• ffered an important piece of paper, such as a graded exam from a respected professor, he
• r she grasps it with both hands (not just one) and accompanies this action with a slight nod of the head and indirect eye contact--all nonverbal signs of deference.
  • The well-known anthropologist Hall has argued that people from different cultures
• live in diffeient sensory worlds. Hall claims that people from different cultures engage in a selective screening of sensory information that ulnmatdy leads to different perceptions
• f experienceY Regarding olfacucs (smell), most cultures establish norms for acceptable and unacceptable scents associated with the human body. When people fail to/it into the realm of olfactic cultural acceptability, their odor alerts others that something IS wrong with theie physical, emotional, or mental health. In the United States, we are
• bsessed with masking ceitain smells, especially those of the human body. In Western and Westernized cultures, body odor is regarded as unpleasant and distasteful, and great effort is expended in its removal. As we will see in Chapter 8, our nonvelbal messages complement, augment, accent, substitute for, and repeat our verbal messages.

25

GENE (Generalized Ethnocentnsml

Scale Self-report instrument demgned to measure generahzed ethnocentrism

Directions: The GENE ScaLe is composed of 22 statements concerning your fee[ings about your

tcou tlthuere [ eafnt do fo ethaecrh c )utleturnre, sm Idn mthaet es pthaec ed pergorve)ed etod

[Continued]

[Continued}

which the statement apphes to you by marking whether you 15} strongly agree, 14] agree, [3} are neutral, [2] disagree, or 111 strongly disagree with the statement There are no right orwrong answers Some of the statemeRts are similar

Remember, everyone experiences some degree

of ethnocentrism Fortunately, as we will see m Chapter 5, ethnocentrism can be managed and reduced Be honesti Work qulckty and record your first response

1 Most other cultures are backward

compared to my culture

__

__ 2 My culture should be the rote

model for other cultures.

__ 3 People from other cultures act

strange when they come into my culture

Lifestyles in other cultures are just as valid as those in my culture

__ 5 Other cultures should tryto be

more Like my culture

6 rm not interested in the values and

customs of other cultures

__

Lot from people of other cultures __8. Most people from other cultures just don't know what's good for them __7. People In my culture could learn a

I respect the values and customs of other cultures __10. Other cultures are smart to look up

to our culture

__11 Most people would be happier if

they lived Like people In my culture

__12 I have many friends from other

__13, People In my culture have just

about the best LifestyLes of anywhere

15 I'm very interested in the values as valid as those In my culture, ___14 LifestyLes in other cultures are not

and customs of other cultures,

16 I apply my values when judging

people who are different

17 I see people who are similar to me

as virtuous

__18 I do not cooperate with people who

are different

__20 I do not trust people who are know what is good for them __19 Most peopte In my culture just don't

different

__21 I dIslike interacting with people from different cultures ___22 I have Little respect for the values

and customs of other cultures.

Scoring: To determine your ethnocentrism score, complete the following steps Step 1 Add your responses to Items 4, 7, and 9

Step 2. Add your responses to Items 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, and 22 [note that not all items are used in scoring}

cultures

Step 3 Subtract the sum from Step 1 from 18 {I e, 18 minus Step 1 sum}

Step 4, Add the results of Step 2 and Step 3 This sum is your generalized ethnocentrism score. Higher scores indicate hgher ethnocentrism Scores above 55 are considered high ethnocentrism

Source Originally catted Ethnocentrism Scale, from Neul.lep, J W, & McCroskey, J C {1997] The Development of a U S and

Generahzed Ethnocentrism Scale Communlcatmn Research Reports, 14, 385-398 Co-created by Neul.lep and McCroskey Permlssmn granted by Neuhep and on McCroskey's websRe [http//www jamescmccroskey com/measures/]

r

Chapter1 m TheNecessJtyoflntercultural.Communlcatlon 27

Assumption #3 Intercultural commumcation necessarily involves a clash of commumcator

a highly valued commodity. People ale routinely evaluated

style. In the Umted States, talk is

by their speech. Yet silence--that is, knowing when not to speak is a fundamental

prerequisite fol hngmstic and cultural competence ÿ6 The use and interpretation of silence varies dramaucally across cultures In many collectivastic cultures, such as Japan and Korea, silence can cany more meaniiag than words, especmlly m the maintenance of intimate relationships. In fact, the Japanese and some Native American/American Indian tribes m the United States beheve that the expression of relational inumacy Is best accomplished nonverbally. They believe that having to put one's thoughts and emotions

into words somehow cheapens and discounts them

In the United States, we value, and employ, a dnect and personal style of verbal com municauon. Personal pronouns are an essential ingredient m the composiuon of just about any utterance Om mottos include "Get to the point," "Don't beat around the bush," "Tell at like at is," and "Speak your mind." Many cultures, howevei, prefer an in& rect and impersonal communication style. In these cultures, there as no need to articulate every message. True understanding is ,mphcit, coming not from words but from actions "One in the should environment, use the where eyes and speakers ears, not provide the mouth," only hints and or "Disaster insinuations. emanates The from Chinese careless say, talk." The Chinese consider the wisest and most trustworthy pmson to be the one who listens, watches, and restricts his or her verbal communicatmn?7

Assumption #ÿ Imtial intercultural commumcation ÿs a group phenomenon experienced by individuals Whenever we interact with a person from a different culture, especially

early in our relationship with ham or her, we carry with us assumptions and ampressions of that other person. The specific verbal and nonverbal messages we exchange are usually tailored for the person based on those assumptions and impressions. Often, these are based on chatacterisucs of the other person by virtue of has or her membership in gloups

related to culture, race, sex, age, or occupation, for example.

but a

tendency to see others not as individuals with unique thoughts, ideas, and goals, rather as "an Asian American" or "a woman" or "an old person"

In other words, we have

or "a cab driver." In other the person belongs. The

words, we do not see the person--we see the groups to which problem with this is that group data may not be a reliable source on which to construct om messages. Because someone belongs to a specific racial, ethnic, sex, or age group does not necessarily mean that he or she takes on the thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes assocmted wath that group. Thus, the potentml for miscommunication is great. So during initial intercultural commumcadon, we have to be mindful that while the person wath whom we are interacting is fiom a different cultural group, he or she is also an individual. Once we further develop a relatmnship with that peison, we will start to see the lelationship as interpersonal rather than intercultural. We will &scuss this more in Chapter 9?8

Assumption #5 Intercultural commumcation b a cycle of stress, adaptation, and gmwth.

As mentioned earlier m thas chapter, when we come together with a pmson flora a different

culture we may feel uncertain, Hence, sometimes anteicultural

apprehensive, and anxious. Such feelings are stressful.

communication is stressful. The good news is that we can learn and adapt to such stress and eventually grow. During antercultural communication, we have to be mindful that the communication strategaes we use with persons wath whom

28 Intercultural Communlcatmn

we are famlhar may not be effective with pelsons from other cultures. Thus, we have to learn to adapt and adjust our communication style. We have to recognize that we will make mistakes, learn from them, adapt, and move on. From these experiences, we grow as humans. A good beginning point is to recognize that people from different cultures are different--not better or worse, but simply different. Once we are able to do this, we can adjust and adapt our verbal and nonverbal messages accordingly and become competent

Tommy I'm not doing vegetarian, either I have to have meat, but not dog interactants.39

THE ETHICS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

A recurring theme throughout this book is ethics Ethics involve judgments about what

is right and wrong in the course of human conduct. Ethics set a standard by which judgments ethics and of morals, right and we wlong will neat ate the decided. two terms Although lnterchangeably. some scholars Ethics disunguish become between salient voluntary, (i.e., particularly and impact relevant) others. whenever Ethics human should behavior not be confused and decision-making with, nor are they are conscious, necessal

ily linked to, ieliglon. While most religions profess and advocate strict ethical standards,

ethics apply to nonreligious people as well as religious people. One need not be religious to act ethically. Moleover, ethics not synonymous with whatever is legal. While legal

codes integrate ethical standards

are into

they may not necessarily be ethical. for more than a hundred years.4°

laws that guide and control the behavior of citizens,

For example, slavery was legal in the United States

If we define culture as an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors held

by an identifiable group of people, and if we assume that cultures are different from one

another, then intercultural communication takes on a necessary ethical dynamic because communication is a conscious, voluntary act that influences others. Consider the follow ing situation.

AN INTERCULTURAL CONVERSATION

WHERE SHOULD WE EAT DINNER?

Tommy is from the Chicago suburbs He ts studying abroad in Seout, South Korea His host national friend, Kwan, Is a native South Korean student and is servmg as his mentor They are joined by another feLLow student, Dmesh, their friend from India

Tommy Hey, guys, I'm starved Where

should we eat dinner9

I know a great place not far from Kwan here where they serve bosmtang You guys should try it Tommy Bosmtang9 What's that9 Kwan It's dog meat soup A tot of people eat Jtm the summer Tommy Seriously9

Kwan Yeah, for sure

Chapter 1 [] The Necessltyof Intercultural Commumcahon

Tommy No way Dmesh No, I can't now You need to adapt, ya know when m Rome9 Do as we doI Kwan If I were m the Umted States now, you'd probabLy make me eat some thing I don't like Kwan Listen, you guys, you are m Korea Dinesh YTeaomh, mwyo9uld you make me eat beef, Tommy Sure, you should eat beefl It's natu

Tommy No way am I eating dog Dmesh Me neRher I don't eat any meat

anyway Is there a vegetarian restaurant nearby9

Kwan Why don't you just try bosmtang and see what you think? You'lL probably

hke it

Tommy No way, man Not me Dmesh I can't My parents would be very

disappointed In me if I did

rat, and it's fuU of iron and protein It's good for you

The Intercultural Conversation is a simple example of the ethics involved in commu

nicating with people from different cultures. Although we may not think about it much,

conducted around and with food. In the United States, for example, Thanksgiving people express and create meaning through the shared food they eat. In any culture, food serves a communicative function. Many important cultural and social rituals are

is

a food-centered holiday Meals are a central feature of birthday parties, weddings, and funerals. First dates often occur in restaurants. Sporting events (e.g., the Supei Bow1) are regularly thought of as much

as eating events as sporting ones. In her research on the food and eating habits in South Asian cultures, Jennifer B. Saunders observes that m

many, the preparation, serving, and consumption of food are often enacted in heightened

contexts that create symbolic meanings for both the performers

and the audience. Saunders main

defined. She notes that the act of eating reveals participants' ethics and character. Each

bite of food, she argues, communicates how that person understands himself or herself tains that in Indian culture, the substance and symbol of the food one eats are clearly

and how the food will contribute to his or her moral and emotional state.41

In 2018, on average, a U.S. citizen ate 222 pounds of beef. U.S. citizens like to eat beef. On the othm hand, many Hindus regard cows as sacred and abstain from eating

beef. And while U.S. citizens enjoy eating beef, most are disgusted by the thought of

eating a horse, dog, or cat. Yet in parts of South Korea, people still eat dog. Writing for USA Today, George Petras notes that South Koreans eat more than 1 million dogs each year. Approximately 2.5 million dogs are raised in South Korean dog farms each year

of South Koreans do not eat dog; that 48% of South Koleans have never eaten dog,

and about 1 million are killed and eaten. Petras is careful to point out that the majority

39% have, but do not currently eat dog, and that 13% eat dog. Those who currently eat dog meat believe it revives energy. Dog meat is served in a meat soup, or what is called bosintang42

29

So Tommy, Kwan, and Dinesh are faced with an ethical dilemma within the social/ commumcative ritual of eating a meal. All three young men have their own cultural ethics guiding then eating habits. Kwan wants Tommy and Dinesh to eat dog meat soup. Neither wants to eat it. Dmesh wants to eat vegetarian. Tommy admits that if they were in his native culture, he would try to sway them to eat beef. Who is right?

Which Five Approaches Behav/,mrs Are to Determining Ethicat

A cenual question about intercultural ethics is whether the same ethical principles apply

to all cultures, a concept sometimes referred to as metaethics, oi whethei unique ethical

standards apply to each cultule individually, sometimes referred to as cultural relativism. Theie is no easy answei to this question. For example, if we argue horn a cultmally relativistic perspective, then we must be willing to tolelate behaviors that many of us would find ciuel, such as dowry deaths. In India, marriages are often arranged between the parents of the future bitde and groom. In most maiital anangements, the bride's family is required to pay a dowry--that is, a

gift of some sort or financial grant to be paid to the groom's family. If the bride's family cannot meet the dowry ariangements, or if the groom's family sees the given dowry as unacceptable, the young women often ate either murdered or driven to suicide by contin uous halassment and torture by husbands and m-laws in an effort to coerce an increased dowiy. According to India's National Crime Recolds Bureau, 7,634 women died in 2015 --20 every day--due to dowry harassment. Legislation outlawing dowiies in India was

enacted in

would condone the practice of dowry deaths. Thele is likely not a single anthropologist

but such laws ale typically ignored. ÿhe point here is that few persons

who, aftel immeismg himself or helself in

1961,

Indian culture, would come away and justify

or excuse such a custom under the guise of cultural lelativismJ3

On the othei hand, are there universal standards that everyone on the planet must obey? And who decides on these standards? Historically, scholars from across a variety of academic fields have iecognlzed five approaches to determining which behaviors ale eth ical: the utilitaiian approach, the rights approach, the fairness or social justice appioach, the common good approach, and the virtues approach.44

The Utilitarian Approach

]ÿe utilitarian approach, sometimes called utihtauanlsm, posits that ethical actions are those that provide the gieatest balance of good

over evil. Some act is deemed ethical if It provides the gieatest good for the greatest numbei (of people). To apply such an approach,

one must first identify the courses of action actions in terms of who benefits or who is duces the gieatest benefit and least harm.

available, determine who is affected by such haimed, and then select the action that pio

7his apploach is called utilitaliamsm because

it emphasizes the consequences of actions on the well-being--that is, the utihty--of all

peisons directly ol indirectly benefiting from or harmed by the act.45

The Rights Approach

The rights approach focuses on an individual's right to choose for herself or himself. Advocates of a lights approach maintain that humans are distinct from othel living

Chapterl [] TheNecessftyoflnterculturalCommumcatlon

that such free will leads to

dignity. Moreover,

their free choices respected, and it is a violation

manipulate) in ways they do not freely choose

humans have a basic moral right to have

beings on the planet because they have the free will to choose their course of action and the right to the truth, the right to pliyacy, the right not to be injured, and the right to

of

rights include

human dignity to use people (e.g., hurt,

what is agreed on. From this peispective, all humans have the light to be respected and treated as flee, rational, and capable of making theil own decisions. Thus, in this view, acts are ethical to the extent that they lespect the rights of others Acts are wlong to the extent that they violate the rights of others.46

Other fundamental human

The Fawness or Social Justice Approach

The fairness or social justice approach is based on the Aristotehan dictum that "equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally." In this case, the ethical question is whethm an act treats everyone in the same way or whethel it shows favoiltism and/ or discrimination--that is, heats some unequally. Advocates of this apploach main tain that favoritism benefits some people without a justifiable reason. Discrimination burdens people who should be treated equally. Hence, an act that shows favoritism and/or discrimination is unethical. This approach requires that people be tieated with

consistency.47

The Common Good Approach

The common good approach is based on the idea that community life is, in and of itself, good and that people within the community and their subsequent actions should contribute to the community good. This approach has a more societal orienta tion than does utilitarianism in that it emphasizes that one's actions affect everyone's welfare, including a oSciety s system of just laws, public safety, affordable health care, an effective education system, a clean envilonment, and even public recleation areas. Thus, an ethical act is one that ensures that such social policies ale not violated,

especially those that may inmdinately affect vulnerable membels of the society. This approach differs ]:rom the rights approach in that, while respecting and championing the rights of societal membeis to follow their individual goals, the common good approach also challenges societal membeis to lecognize and advance the goals shared by the community.48

The Virtues Approach

The viltues approach asserts the idea that there ale certain ideals, principles, or standalds (i.e., virtues) toward which every individual should strive to 'reach his or her highest potential. Individuals realize such virtues through conscious reflection on what kinds of people they have the potential to become. Virtues such as truth, beaut34 honesty, coui

age, compassion,

generosity, tolerance, love, fidehty, integrity, fairness, self-control, and

prudence are encouraged. Actions manifested in such vii

tues are considered ethical. In

dealing with an ethical problem using the virtue approach, individuals should ask them

selves, "What kind

ofpelson should I be? What will promote the development ofchaiac tel within me and my community?''49

31

32 IntercuRurat Communlcahon

Ethicat Principtes of Eastern Cuttures

Although the five approaches to ethics listed previously are applicable to a large group of

people and an array of different cultures, all of them have their loots in Western ideol

ogy and philosophy and may not be applicable to all cultures. To be sure, Robert Shuter

asserts that many of the fundamental tenets of the those five approaches are, in fact, not a pait of the ethics that guide many Eastern cultules.5° For example, Shuter states that implicit in most of these classical approaches is the tenet that human acts are considered

ethical to the extent that they cootnbute to the happiness and general well-being of the individual--that truthfulness, equality, choice, and fairness are paramount in defining an ethical act. Moreover, Shuter argues that these perspectives place the flee will of the individual at the centel of ethics, above all else. Such focus assumes that humans are nat urally reasonable and intellectual. But as Shuter points out, the ethical principles of some major Eastern ethical codes do not follow the same assumptions. Two traditions, includ ing Confucianism and Hinduism, have very diffeient perspectives on what is ethical.

Confucianism

Confucianism prescribes an ethical and philosophical scheme of living developed from the writings of Confucius. Cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Viemam. Unlike many of the Western approaches to ethics that stress free choice and equality, Confucianism prescribes a set of rituals and conventional social habits to guide humans to applopnate and ethical acts. he wisest of humans is competent at ritual and practicing ritual in all circumstances. By definition, rituals restrict, rather than flee, human action. In addition, where many of the Western approaches elevate humans above all else, Confucianism prescribes social rituals designed so that the natural world, social institutions, and humans all flourish interdependently.51

In Confuciamsm, there are five basic virtues: ren (benevolence/akruism), yi 6ntegnty/ sense of rightness), k (rite and propriety), ch, (moral understanding), and shin (trust).52

Within these five virtues is the lecurrmg theme that humans are defined by their obe dience to their place in the social hierarchy of relationships. By definition, social hierar

chies rank order people and prescribe rules for proper conduct within each level of the hierarchy. In Confucianism, the five principal lelationships are (1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, husband and wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling, and (5) friend and friend. Peace and harmony can be achieved only if people know, understand, and pracuce their proper place in socmty.53 Some scholars maintain that Confucianism fosters inequality. Yeanml You states that Confucianism has fostered gender biases by promoting the belief that a son is preferred over a daughter and a man is inherently supe nor to a woman in society. A woman who is as talented and educated as a man faces great discrimination in society because of the portrayal of a man as supeuor to a woman, which is deeply rooted in Confucianism.54

Hinduism

Hinduism is the third-largest religion after Christianity and Islam, with more than 1 billion followers. Hindmsm is not monotheistic (i.e., purporting behef in a single god).

Hindus believe that gods or divinities can take many forms, but all form one univer sal spirit called Brahman The three most lmpoltant representations of Brahman are Brahma, the creator of the universe; Vishnu, the preserver or protector of the universe; and Shlva, the destroyer of the universe. Therefore, they ale polytheistic. Hinduism is practice based rather .than faith based, which means that practices- which are often social--are more important than beliefs. Jeff Spmner-Halev writes this:

Hinduism Is concerned with leginmizmg hleraichical social lelationships and

mollifying deities, not with faith or belief. A Hindu may be a theist, pantheist,

atheist, communist and believe whatever he likes, but what makes him into a Hindu are the ritual practices he performs and the rules to which he adheres, in short, what he does.55

good behavior and creates suffering through bad behavior. Eventually, the soul will achieve

Hindus believe in the reincarnation of the soul, which is rebirth after death. One's physical body is mortal, but one's soul is immortal. Hindus believe that when they die, their soul enters a new body and the cycle continues. They also believe the conditions of one's present life are due to Karma, or the accumulated good or bad behaviors and deeds one commits in past lives. A practicing Hindu can improve his or her conditions through

Moksha, or salvation, and stop the cycle of rebirths to become a part of the absolute soul. The four main objectives or aims of life include Dharma, or righteousness; Artha, or wealth; Kama, or desire; and Moksha, or salvation. Hinduism practices a social-ordering hierarchical system (i.e., a caste) in which peo ple are ranked. Hinduism prescribes strict rules and legulations about how one is to act within one's caste level. In some cases, the lower caste may not be allowed even to inter act with the higher caste. In India's caste system, there are foul levels: (1) Brahmins- the learned, educated elites, and priests; (2) Kshatriyas--the nobles and warriors; (3) Valshyas--the traders, businessmen, and farmers; and (4) Sudras--those who serve the needs of the upper-caste members. The Sudras are further divided into the touchables

and untouchables. The touchables take on positions considered demeaning and polluting

by the upper caste, such as barbers, hairdressers, or cleaners. The untouchable Sudras are

considered spiritually polluting and perform jobs such as garbage collecting. Hinduism prescribes that one is born into a caste level, and it is virtually impossible to move from one caste level to the next--that is, from lower to higher levels. In traditional Hindu soci ety, men and women are clearly not equal. The birth of a son is seen as a blessing, while the birth of a daughter is met with misgivings--she is a financial burden to the family.56 So we can see from the Intercultural Conversation box in this section that Tommy, Kwan, and Dinesh have themselves an ethical dilemma. ÿhe answer to where they will lunch is not an easy one since each comes from a very different set ofethmal standards.

THE GOAL: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

nicator. Intercultural communication competence is defined ÿ rhÿ A ..... ÿ .... k;ÿk .....

The fundamental goal of this book is to help you become a competent intercultural commu

mtercu[tura[ commumcatmn competence The

abfl=ty to adapt

one s verbat and nonverbat messages to the appropriate

33

34 IntercuLturaL Communicahon

effectively adapt youi velbal and nonverbal messages to the appioptxate cultmal contexts When you communicate with someone from a different cultme, to be interculturally com send. petent This you process will have requires to adjust that and you modify have the some kinds knowledge of verbal about and nonveibal the person's messages culture with you whom you are communicating, that you are motivated to communicate with him or her, and that you have the appropriate verbal and nonverbal sÿdls to encode and decode messages.

Inteiculturally competent people successfully and effectively adapt their verbal and

nonvelbal messages to the appropriate cultural context. Inteicultural competence var ies from situation to situation. That is, a particular American may be quite competent while interacting with Chinese people and relatively incompetent when lntelacting with Geimans. Verbal and nonverbal appiopriateness and effectiveness are two lmpoltant

qlouisa lcitoiensfo ormf i ntote tihceu lrtuulreasl ,c noomrmpest, eanncde e. xApceccotardnicnige st oo fB tihiaen c Sulptmltzabl mcogn,t eaxptp.5r8o pFroiar teex baemhpalve-, when greeting a Japanese person in Japan, one is expected to bow. The rules associated with bowing are detelmmed by one's status (e.g., age, sex, occupation, education). The typically person of does lower not status make duect bows eye lower contact. and longer Effective than behaviors the person are with those higher that successfully status and pelform to bow correctly, and accomplish yore behavior the rules will and be perceived norms 59 as Foi effective example, and to the competent. extent you As we ate have able seen throughout this book, the applopriateness and effectiveness ofveibal and nonverbal messages valy considerably acloss cultures. Behaviors considered appropriate in one cul tree may not be appmpliate in another culture.

An Integrated Modet and Measure of

IntercuLturaL Communication Competence

For the past 10 years or so, Lily Arasaramam and her colleagues have been developing an integrated model and measure of mteicultmal communication competence. Like oth ers, Atasaramam maintains that being a competent intercultmal communicator involves

hnowing about other cultmes, having an approach tendency, and applying appropriate and effective communicatmn behawors. Arasaramam believes that effective and appro priate communicator behavior enacting can be best the behavior judged and and determined the other pelson from the with perspectives whom intercultural of both com- the munication occms. Moreover, Arasaramam contends that a person who is competent in one type of lntmcukural exchange probably possesses chalacteustms that enable him ol her to communicate competently in other intercultural exchanges as well.6°

In 1elated reseaLch, Aiasaramam and Marya Doerfel discovered that those who were ldenufied as competent lntercultmal communicators possessed five qualities in common:

(a) empathy, (b) lnteicultulal experience/training, (c) appioach tendencies, (d) a global attitude, and (e) listening skills. Arasalamam and Doelfel auived at these five character lstics via interviews with persons from 15 different countries who were asked to describe a competent intercultural communicator. Arasaramam and Doeifel interviewed per sons from the United States, Bahamas, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burkma Faso, China, Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Japan, Malaysia, Nigelia, Norway, and the Philippines.61 Specifically, they wanted to identify those traits in competent intercultural lntmactants that transcend the cultural context and cultural identity.

Chapter1 m The Necessity oflntercul.turatCommunlcatlon

35

Hanna Ktecka

During my semester abroad In ItaLy, I discov ered many simttarlttes and differences between American and Itahan culture As I engaged In

intercuLturaL communication, I expermnced var ious degrees of stress, adaptatton, and accep

tance of what tt meant to be ItaLian

From the start, I Learned that everyday mter actmns, Like ordering a cappuccmo at a Local busthng raft, were very stressful experiences When I wandered into Car4 MicheLangeLo for the first hme one morning, I made the mtstake of waiting m hne'behmd a crowd of people

I qutckty Learned that m ItaLy, hnes often do not exJst This crowd of people was a swarm of other

patrons al.so attempting to get thew morning cof

fee fix, and there was no systemattc way for me to get to the front This sJtuatmn gave me severe anxiety ItatJans were entering this caf6 and would force thew way through the others congregated around the counter They proceeded to yeLL what

they wanted to the owner, Marco, whfte hover

mg nearby, LoudLy conversing wtth other patrons while they waited for their daily espresso In the United States, we watt m Lines so reguLarLy that it Is something we no Longer think about We hke orga

mzahon, and Lines are an integral part of this sys

tematic and predmtabLe process, especiaLLy when ordering something to eat The disorder at the cafd caused me confuston and stress The act of getting coffee, something

that was so simple for me to do m America, was

prowng to be very dÿfflcutt in ItaLy Over tÿme, as I frequented this LittLe car6, I adapted my communl cahon strategies to match those used by ItaLians If I wanted something to drink or eat, I had to be

persistent and sometimes tough--at Least from

anAmencanstandpomt By the end of my stay In

FLorence, this unwavering attitude became inher ent In my actmns and communication, It aLLowed

me to be a competent intercuLturaL communicator

Empathy, of course, involves the extent to which one can infer the cognitions and motivations of another. Complete empathy is probably impossible. Here, empathy also includes the ability to sense, accurately perceive, and appropriately lespond to one's per sonal, interpersonal, and social envilonment. Apploach tendencies involve the individual's interest in and effoit to talk, understand, and extend help This includes the anticipation of or actual engagement in intercultural communication. Intercultural experience and training involves the actual study of intelcultural communication. Respondents in the study repotted that taking a course in intercultmal communication led to competence. Regarding the listening aspect, competent intercultural communicators are perceived as such because they aÿe willing to spend time listening and learning, and they know

InterculturaL Communication

about cultural matters and are good at relating to dlffelent cultures. The global attitude

dmÿenslon describes indwiduals who are open to others, are bettei at communicating,

show interest in differences and are aware of them, and have a level of exposure to these

from

differences that makes them able to discern them. For example, are they speaking their own cultural perspective or trying to communicate m the other's cultural mode or speaking in a cultural mode that Is neutral or not specific to either culture? Based on

these five characteristics, Arasaratnam developed a scale designed to measure one's inter

cultulal commumcation competence.62

Directions: The loLl,owing Items may or may not describe how you think, feel,, and behave when interacting wÿth peopl,e from different cultures. In the space to the l,eft of each Item, indicate the degree to which you {5} strongl.y agree, {4} agree, (3} are neutral., (2} disagree, or (1} strongl,y dis agree with the statement There are no right or wrong answers It's best to record your Initial, response and not think too much about it.

__1, I often fred it difficult to

differenUate between slmll,ar

Africans, etc } cultures (e.g., Asians, Europeans,

__2. I feel, a sense of bel,ongmg to

a group of people based on re[aUonship {ÿ e, famll,y, friends) instead of cut,ruraL identity {I e, people from my cul,ture, peopl,e from other cul,turesL

I find it easier to categorize peopl,e based on their cultural, IdenUty than their personaUty

I often notice slmil,arlties In personality between people who belong to compl,etety different

cultures.

If I were to put people in groups, I woul,d group them by their cut,lure rather than by their personality.

6. I feet that peopl,e from other cul,tures have many val,uabl,e things to teach me. 7 I feel. more comfortabl,e with peopl.e from my own cul.ture than with people from other cut,lures. 8, I feet cl,oser to peopl.e with whom I have a good retatlonshp, regardl.ess of whether they belong to my cul,ture or not.

__ 9 I usual,l.y feel, closer to peopl.e who

are from my own cul,ture because I can relate to them better.

__10 I feel, more comfortabl,e with people

who are open to peopl,e from other cultures than with people who are not

11 Most of my cl,ose friends are from

other cul,tures

12, I usuatl,y change the way I communicate depending on whom I am communicating wÿth. 13 When I interact with someone from a different cul,ture, I usua[l,y try to adopt some of his or her ways 14 Most of my friends are from my own eul,ture 15 I usual,l,y l,ook for opportunities to interact with people from other cul,tures

Scoring: Reverse your responses for Items 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, and 14 For these six items, If your original.

response was a 5, reverse it to a 1; if your ong!

nat, score was a 4, reverse It to a 2, if your original, score was a 3, leave it a 3; if your original sc'ore was a 2, reverse it to a 4; and If your original, score was

a 1, reverse ÿt to a 5 After reversing your scores for these items, sum at[ 15 Items Your score must range between 15 and 75 Higher scores [above 55} indicate more mtercul.tura[ communication competence. Lower scores (bel,ow 35} indicate l,ess mtercul,tural, commumcatlon competence

Source Arasaratnam, L 12009, May} The Development of a New Instrument of tntercultura{ Commumcatlon Journal of Intercultural Commumcatlon, 20 PubUshed by Elsevier URL http//www Immÿ se/intercuttura¿/

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