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Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 1

Theoretical Criminology:

An Introductory Overview

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Introduction

Crime is a reality of modern life

Criminal Justice is concerned with the actual practice of law enforcement

Criminology is focused on the process of making and breaking laws

Origins and Evolution of Criminology

Attention to crime can be traced back to Babylon and the Code of Hammurabi

Family-revenge model of justice

Hobbes’ social contract

Social contract involves sacrifice of personal freedom in exchange for governmental protection

Classical School of Criminology

Exemplified by the writings of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham

Grounded in the concept of deterrence and places emphasis on free will

Focused on dimensions of punishment (certainty, severity, and celerity)

Significant Aspects

Two important developments in regard to criminological thought

Crime was no longer thought to be a product of religion, superstition or myth

Crime was seen as a result of free will

Positivism

Emerged in Europe during the 19th century

Emphasized the application of the scientific method

Stressed the identification of patterns and consistencies in observable facts

Determinism

Takes the position that human behavior is caused by factors specific to the individual

These factors include biological, psychological and environmental issues

Lombroso is the most notable figure associated with determinism

The Chicago School

Helped positivism replace the classical approach to crime during the 1920s

Conducted a series of studies that demonstrated that crime is a product of social ecology, specifically the disorganization of urban life

Nature of Theory

What exactly is theory?

Theory is a part of everyday life and an attempt to make sense and order out of otherwise unexplainable events

Observable phenomena are specified as either a cause or effect and positioned in a relationship statement

Cause and Effects (1 of 2)

Are termed variables

These statements are presented as hypotheses and are formed to explain/predict how one factor or multiple factors relate to the phenomena being explored

Cause and Effects (2 of 2)

These relationships form specific theories of crime

Are developed according to the logic of variable analysis

Analytic strategy specifies causal elements as independent and dependent variables

Variables

In criminology, crime is the foremost dependent variable (d v)

Variable analysis process seeks to account for variation in crime

When crime is the dv, further scrutiny reveals that theorists are referring to criminality or the crime rate

Criminality versus the Crime Rate

Criminality denotes the extent/frequency of offending by a societal group

Crime Rate denotes level of crime in a specific locale (i.e. Phoenix)

Correlation

Speaks to the covariance of variables

The direction and strength in fluctuation of the d v(s)

Directional correlation refers to either a positive or negative relationship

Operationalization

In order to analyze theoretical propositions, independent and dependent variables are re-specified

Variables move from a categorical/conceptual level to a measurable level (this process is known as operationalization)

Determination of Causation (1 of 2)

The strength/direction of correlations serve the objective of determining causation

Causation is whether an independent variable prompts change in a dependent variable, and if so, in what manner

Determination of Causation (2 of 2)

To have confidence in observed causal relationships, there must be specificity and accuracy in the measurement process

Researchers refer to this as operationalization!

Assessing Theory (1 of 2)

What makes a theory scientific?

Characterizing theory as scientific means that inferential claims about relationships must be falsified

Assessing Theory (2 of 2)

Research entails gathering data according to the operationalization process so that theory is framed systematically for cause and effect

If observations are inconsistent with premise, theory is falsified

Observations that are consistent are more credible, but not necessarily true

Elements of Causation

Causation in the context of scientific theory requires 4 main elements

Logical Bias

Temporal Ordering

Correlation

Lack of Spuriousness

Influence of Social Perspectives on Theories of Crime

Criminological theories discuss crime at different levels of social realities/interactions

Micro-Level Theory focuses on individual and small group behavior

Macro-Level Theory looks to the structural properties of society (social inequality, culture, demographics, etc.)

Perspectives of Social Life and the development of Theory

Three perspectives of social life contribute to the creation of crime and deviance theories

Functionalism

Social Conflict

Symbolic Interactionism

Why Theory Matters

Theory is vital to criminology for several reasons:

Provides a scientific orientation to the phenomena of crime

It grounds styles of inquiry systematically

Helps identify cause and effect relationships

Evidence-Based Practice (1 of 2)

Evidence-based practice has emerged in recent years and signals a systematic betterment of practice through research knowledge

Evidence-Based Practice (2 of 2)

For a program to be considered evidence-based, three criteria must be met:

Previous implementation/delivery

Scientific Evaluation Finding Effectiveness

Successful Replication

Theory and Policy

A direct connection exists between theory and policy

Theoretically-based research often sheds light on a better way of doing things

Typically, justice system practices and programs are shaped by the logic of theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 2

Classical and

Neoclassical Criminology

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The Classical School

Classical Theory is one of the oldest explanations of crime

Derived from the ideas and writing of early Greek philosophy

Formally originated in the 18th century

Classical Theory of Criminology

Began in 1764 with ‘Of Crime and Punishments’ by Cesare Beccaria

This book drew from the concepts of the enlightenment movement in Europe

Theory focused on social harm prevention as opposed to moral retribution of law

Deterrence

Beccaria looked at deterrence as the central purpose of criminal justice

The prevalence of crime in society was thought to reflect irrational and ineffective law

Legal reform implementing a more fair and rational justice system, which would deter people from crime, was thought to be the answer to the crime problem

Fundamental Assumptions

Beccaria’s perspective is rooted in several fundamental assumptions

People are generally good but need negative motivation

Behavior is calculated

Crime control is an attainable goal

Bentham

Another well known figure in the development of the classical perspective

Developed the principle of utility based on the assumption that people pursue pleasure and avoid pain

Individuals calculate pleasure or pain according to intensity, duration, certainty and extent

Classical Criminology Assumptions

Several assumptions underlie classical criminology

People have free will

People exhibit hedonism

People have rationality

Deterrence Theory

Martinson (1974) questioned the viability of positivist explanations of criminality

He also suggested that the idea behind deterrence should be reconsidered

This questioning included a postmodern rejection of causal determinism

How Deterrence Works

To understand deterrence one must accept basic classical ideas about human nature

Much of the problem with crime is that it “feels good”

Crime must be controlled by negative means

Deterrence Effectiveness (1 of 2)

Beccaria argues that the effectiveness of deterrence will depend on three characteristics related to punishment administration

Certainty

Celerity (speed of punishment)

Severity (painfulness of outcome)

Deterrence Effectiveness (2 of 2)

Of the three characteristics, maximizing swiftness and certainness is more important for deterrence than severity

If severity is disproportionate, irrationality brutality may occur and the effect on crime will be counterproductive

Relativity

A less extreme problem with severity has to do with relativity

Deterrence functions through criminal law, which makes assumptions about which crimes are to be punished more severely

Sentencing is based on severity and not on characteristics of the crime

Limitations of Deterrence (1 of 2)

Cost-benefit conceptualization of deterrence theory is known as the economic model or objective deterrence

Cost/benefit calculations are based on a number of factors

At times some offenders do not engage in rational decision making

Limitations of Deterrence (2 of 2)

Deterrence theory assumptions are often faulty in practice

The diverse stratified and pluralistic nature of our society make deterrence less than straightforward

Different socioeconomic groups might opt out of different crimes due to cost/benefits

Variability of Severity

Variability of true severity has an intangible element

E G: Approval of peer groups and concepts such as direct and indirect punishments affect deterrence

Boundedness of Decision Making (1 of 2)

Scholars recrafted deterrence to include the role of variability and perception in individual decision making

This is known as bounded choice/perceptual deterrence theory

Decisions to engage in criminal behavior are influenced by an individual’s perception of punishment

Boundedness of Decision Making (2 of 2)

Deterrence occurs when perceptions of likely punishment cause would be offenders to refrain from committing criminal acts (despite motivation and willingness)

Modern analysis of deterrence has divided deterrence into two specific types (specific and general)

Specific Deterrence

Offender is inhibited from repeating criminal behavior by unpleasant experiences

Involves the direct experience of punishment

General Deterrence

Punishing other offenders has an effect on would be offenders

Involves the indirect or vicarious experience of punishment through seeing others receive unpleasant outcomes for their actions

Research on Deterrence Theories

As a theory, the validity of deterrence as a scientific explanation depends on the ability to conduct empirical research and testing hypotheses

Research to study deterrence is typically very difficult to accomplish

Difficulties (1 of 2)

Part of the difficulty with deterrence theory is determining fully measurable concepts and fully specified/testable hypotheses

Fundamental difficulty is that deterrence is not observable, it can only be inferred from observable events

Difficulties (2 of 2)

As deterrence cannot be “seen” the majority of research has been conducted on the failures of deterrence

Observing people committing crime is a failure of deterrence

We do not really observe people not committing crime

Methods to Determine Validity of Deterrence Theory

Anecdotal Studies

Crime Rate Analysis

Natural/Field Experiments

Self-Report Surveys

Appeal of Deterrence (1 of 2)

Overall, the appeal of the theory is not entirely based on scientific progress

Theory is more ideological than utilitarian

Agrees with the values we hold about human nature, law and morality

Appeal of Deterrence (2 of 2)

Classical theory works, “well enough,” re: empirical research and policy evaluations

Does not work better than most positivist theoretical competitors

The variability of criminal punishments will always limit this theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 3

Biosocial Theories of Crime

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Introduction

Explaining how and why some people become criminal can be a challenging endeavor

Biosocial theories of crime focus on identifying and understanding unique qualities or characteristics of individuals and show how the presence or absence of some chemical hormone or physical structure is related to criminal activity

Biosocial Criminology

4 factors play a role in shaping a person’s behavior

Biological Factors such as hormone levels

Genetic Factors

The brain

The environment

Positivist School of Thought

The foundation for biosocial theories comes from positivism

Positivism is an approach to the study of human behavior that seeks to identify the underlying causes of that behavior using the principles and tools of the scientific method

Positivist Thinking in Biological Criminology

Based on three core assumptions

All people are biologically unique and different from all other people

Differences in individual makeup account for differences in individual behavior

Criminal behavior is a result of different constructions and characteristics of individuals

Early Biological Research (1 of 3)

Early biosocial research identified different characteristics of criminals’ faces and heads

Phrenology or the idea that different parts of the brain controlled different types of activities and thinking was also important

Early Biological Research (2 of 3)

Some of the core characteristics discussed by Lombroso involving atavism include:

Large Forehead

Protruding lips

Large Jaw

Long Arms

Early Biological Research (3 of 3)

Some of the core characteristics discussed by Lombroso involving atavism include:

Pouchlike Cheeks

Eyes or Ears that stand out from the head

Reference work of Ferri and Garafalo

Early Biological Theories

Probably the most well known was Lombroso and his ideas of atavism

Criminals were thought to be “throwbacks,” to a lower form of human beings

Certain physical characteristics were thought to relate to criminal activity

Contemporary Biosocial Theories

Today’s biosocial theories as noted earlier focus on 4 factors and the roles each play in criminality

These factors are biological, genetic, the brain, and the environment

Biological Factors (1 of 2)

One of the more commonsense approaches that has developed to explain crime is a focus on hormones

Research on men has focused on high levels of testosterone

Estrogen levels in women have also been thought to be related to criminality

Biological Factors (2 of 2)

Biological factors and their relationship to crime are affected by social influences

Diet, nutritional intake, and diet during pregnancy are other important factors that relate to future criminality

Much research remains to be done in this area

Genetic Factors: Behavior Genetics

Theories that argue that an individual’s behavioral genetics are important for criminality emphasize that behavior is inherited and runs through families

The central theory behind this is that genes play a role in crime, and are passed through families just like diseases

Genetic Factors and Criminality

The impact of genetic factors on criminality can be studied in two different ways

Through behavior genetic analysis

Molecular genetic analysis

Molecular Genetics

Behavioral genetic research has shown antisocial behavior to be heritable

The bulk of evidence suggests that antisocial behavior such as aggression and criminality carry heritability coefficients of .5

Different chromosomal patterns, such as XXY, have been shown to lead to increased involvement in crime

The Brain (1 of 2)

How do hormones and genetics have an effect on behavior?

The answer is that they effect the brain in the same way

Chemicals known as neurotransmitters allow hormones and genetic factors to affect behavior

The Brain (2 of 2)

One of the strongest links between brain development and criminality centers around alcohol, specifically prenatal exposure to alcohol

Research has shown that pregnant women who drank as little as 3 times per week during pregnancy were more likely to have children with conduct disorders

The Environment (1 of 2)

The final piece necessary to explain criminal behavior from a biosocial perspective is the environment

Biosocial criminologists tend to view the environment in a different light than more traditional sociological explanations

The Environment (2 of 2)

The role of the environment is not exclusive to biological functions like hormones

Most genetic research points to the environment as being closely related to crime

Environmental factors typically act in a complementary or moderating role

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (1 of 3)

Crime as an inherited trait has been commonly argued as part of several theories with some suggesting that it is deterministic inheritance

Others suggest inheritance predisposes individuals to a greater likelihood of being criminal

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (2 of 3)

Biological influences like hormones and genes make crime more or less probable

Many feel that by placing the blame on the environment for crime means that the blame is taken off the criminal

Policy Implications of Biosocial Criminology (3 of 3)

The policy implications of biosocial criminology is that we need to identify what is wrong with genes, body, or brain and find a way to cure the problem

Behavioral problems are typically multifaceted and stem from a combination of different influences

Conclusion (1 of 3)

Biological explanations for crime and criminality have been around in multiple forms for several centuries

Earlier biological theories differ from the more recent biological theories

Conclusion (2 of 3)

Two ways in which older versions and recent versions differ

Content of earlier theories was based on shape, size and distinguishing features of the body

Early biological theories believed that certain traits defined a person as criminal

Conclusion (3 of 3)

The deterministic view arose out of fairly simple logic and thinking, and today we recognize that there are many different characteristics of people, environments and other influences that prevent individuals from controlling their own behavior.

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth edition

Chapter 4

Psychological Theories of Crime

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Introduction

Concerns about psychological issues in our society are closely tied to concerns about criminality and violence

Considering crime as a mental or psychological issue is logical

A number of facts about known criminals exist that support psychological links to crime

Facts that relate Psychology to Crime

Typically prison inmates have lower than average I q s

There are significantly high rates of mental illness among convicted criminals compared to the general population

Psychological explanations of crime support some of the most popular views and are reinforced by the media

Psychoanalytic Theory (1 of 2)

A psychoanalytic perspective on crime offers explanations based on the ideas of Freudian psychology and its theory of personality

People commit crime due to the three parts of their personality (id, ego, super ego) being in conflict with one another as a result of early life trauma/deprivation

Psychoanalytic Theory (2 of 2)

One way in which psychoanalytic theory stands apart from most other theories is its assumption that people are born with antisocial predispositions

Freudian psychology proposes that personality is comprised of 3 primary parts

Three Parts of Personality

I D: The part of the personality that represents the set of instincts and drives the need or demand for instant gratification

Superego: Represents opposite forces and serves as social consciousness or authority of a person

Ego: Attempts to balance the drives of the id and the superego

Crime in Psychoanalytic Perspective

People are not appropriately socialized, the id drives people to do as the please

People are oversocialized with the superego dominating their personality and establishing behavioral patterns

People who repress their guilt may eventually experience a breakthrough of repressed guilt/id and explode by acting out

Personality Theories

A commonly held belief is that criminals just seem to think differently than other people

A criminal personality refers to a conceptually broad term that describes the totality of an individual’s behavioral and emotional characteristics

Criminal Personality (1 of 2)

Among the more influential personality approaches to explaining crime is the idea of a criminal personality

Yochelson and Samenow are the primary theorists behind this approach and believe that criminal ways of thinking are something with which individuals are born with

Criminal Personality (2 of 2)

This theory argues that the criminal personality is not a deterministic approach to crime but serves to predispose individuals to criminal behavior

Criminal thought patterns are thought to be errors of criminal thinking and there are said to be 52 different criminal thinking errors

Lifestyle Perspective (1 of 3)

A similar approach to the criminal personality is White and Walters (1989), lifestyle perspective

Crime, in theory, arises from how individuals live their lives including the social environment they are in, the choices they make about their behaviors, and the thinking patterns they use to make choices in their everyday lives

Lifestyle Perspective (2 of 3)

The lifestyle perspective is centered on thought processes, specifically the beliefs that the individual holds and uses to interpret and make sense of his or her environment and situations

Lifestyle Perspective (3 of 3)

Belief systems are generated by four critical/inter-related factors

irresponsibility

self-indulgence

interpersonal intrusiveness

patterns of social rule breaking

Dual Systems Theory (1 of 2)

A nascent line of research, dual systems theory, suggests that involvement in risky behavior must be understood as the outcome result of two neuropsychological systems within the body

Dual Systems Theory (2 of 2)

Dual systems theory states that risky behavior results when sensation-seeking behavior is high or impulsivity levels are low

Sensation-seeking behaviors are thought to originate in the parts of the brain that mature faster than the parts of the brain used to control and inhibit such behavior

Self-Control/Self-Regulation (1 of 2)

A fourth version of personality theory highlights the relationship between self-control/self-regulation and criminal behavior

This perspective is discussed more in Chapter 8

Self-Control/Self-Regulation (21 of 2)

A long line of research suggests that a correlation exists between a person’s level of self-control and their offending behavior

Mental Capacity

The argument that criminals have a mental illness is an often cited explanation for their behavior

Mental illnesses are typically thought of as misdirected and error-ridden ways of thinking and perceiving the world

Estimates suggest that between 20-60% of prison inmates have some form of mental illness

Mental Illness and Crime

Two most common mental illnesses associated with crime are

Schizophrenia

Antisocial Personality Disorders

Schizophrenia

Manifests itself in several different ways, varying in degree of severity

People with schizophrenia are withdrawn and apathetic in their behavior and affect

Has been linked to a variety of crimes including violent and property offenses

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Is also referred to as psychopathy and sociopathy

Individuals with this disorder experience a significant lack of development of moral order or ethics

Individuals diagnosed with this disorder are likely to engage in a wide range of criminal behavior

Affective Disorders

A growing portion of research indicates that additional mental disorders of the affective variety (i.e. depression) may be linked with crime and delinquency

Research shows that juvenile delinquents are more likely than non- delinquents to suffer from substance use and affective disorders

Intelligence

A long standing/popular belief about crime is that criminals have lower I Q scores than non-criminals

Important topics to be aware in this area include:

Mental Capacity and Eugenics

Developmental Life Course (D L C) (1 of 2)

These types of theories emphasize that there are different issues at the core of why persons do, and then later do not engage in criminal behavior

D L C theories look at behavioral trajectories over time for individuals and groups to explain how and why involvement in crime varies through an individual’s life

Developmental Life Course (D L C) (2 of 2)

At its core, D L C criminology is concerned with 3 primary issues

Development of offending behavior

Identification of risk factors unique to individuals at various ages

Effects of experienced events on how individual offending behavior does/does not develop

Additional D L C Theories

Catalano and Hawkins

LeBlanc

Thornberry and Krohn

Sampson and Laub

Moffitt

Conclusion

Psychological theories for explaining crime and criminals are popular because they seem to make sense intrinsically and argue that criminals are distinct from the rest of society

Proponents of these theories are optimistic about the possibility of addressing society’s crime problems

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth edition

Chapter 5

The Social Ecology of Crime

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104

Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 2)

Contains several assumptions that distinguish it from other perspectives discussed in the text

Social disorganization attempts to explain why some communities have higher crime rates than others (not individually based)

Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 2)

This theory assumes that social organization, schools, churches, businesses, etc., when functioning normally enable a community to deal with crime

Crime is not due to defective people, but rather social organizations that have failed

Intellectual Origins

During the early 1900s in Chicago, Park and Burgess began their work on social ecology

Social ecology holds that people struggle for survival in a community of mutual dependence

Important Principles

Two principles are of particular importance to Social Disorganization Theory

People compete for resources

People exist in a world of mutual dependence

Location of Crime (1 of 2)

Shaw and McKay (1942), developed the connection between social disorganization and crime

Looked at how crime was spread across Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s

They found that crime was concentrated in slum areas, which tended to be located in the center of the city

Location of Crime (2 of 2)

The pattern appeared to be consistent over time regardless of ethnic composition

Based on this information, the question then became, why does place matter?

The city of Chicago was divided into 5 zones that radiated out from the city’s center or core

Zones

The Zones were as follows:

Inner City (Central Business District)

Transitional Zone (Area of high crime)

Working Class Zone

Residential Zone

Commuter Zone (Suburbs)

Zone II

The most important zone to the theory is the transitional zone

Homes in the area are older and of poorer condition

People living in this zone have little tangible incentive to make their communities better

Social Disorganization and Causes

Shaw and McKay concluded that Social Disorganization is endemic to Zone II

The community in this area cannot function as its residents would desire

They expend personal effort to improve the living conditions of this type of neighborhood that is against the common sense of individuals in this area

Conditions for Social Disorganization (1 of 2)

According to Shaw and McKay, 3 factors create natural conditions for social disorganization

Residential Instability

Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity

Poverty

Conditions for Social Disorganization (2 of 2)

Each of the aforementioned signs of disorganization undermines the ability of residents to work in concert and prevent crime from occurring

Residential Instability

Communities with a lot of residential turnover have high levels of crime

Effective formal and informal community organizations require a relatively stable population

People do not tend to form close ties with people they will only know for a short while

Racial/Ethnic Heterogeneity

Shaw and McKay found that communities where many different ethnic groups live in close proximity have higher crime rates

Communication was found to decrease under these conditions, which made the community less effective at being able to organize/control the neighborhood

Poverty

Communities with high poverty tend to lack the resources needed for effective community organization

Concentrated poverty weakens the tax base, which supports community institutions (schools)

Residents are focused on personal survival and not other activities

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 4)

After Shaw and McKay the theory languished for many years

Other theories become more popular

Crime was seen as a byproduct of culture and not explicitly the domain of poor communities

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 4)

Disorganization also fell out of favor due to limitations with data

Weakness of community networks (an important factor of disorganization) was hard to measure using typical community level data

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (3 of 4)

The primary data that disorganization theorists were able to show were maps with dots denoting where crime was taking place

Development of Social Disorganization Theory (4 of 4)

In 1974, Kasorda and Janowitz talked of communities with informal ties, which helped the theory come back into fashion

Kornheiser (1978), attacked critiques and focused on informal social bonds

Revived Social Disorganization Theory (1 of 2)

Work by Sampson et al. (1997), created the concept of Collective Efficacy

Collective efficacy is the idea that residents band together to protect the best interests of their communities

Revived Social Disorganization Theory (2 of 2)

Social Capital is related to collective efficacy and is based on the idea that informal networks within the community help prevent crime

Policy Implications (1 of 3)

On one level, disorganization theory suggests straightforward policy

Community organizations with informal control mechanisms need to be promoted

H O As and neighborhood watches are examples of these types of community organizations

Policy Implications (2 of 3)

Shaw and McKay’s Chicago Area Project is an example of an early social program based on Social Disorganization Theory

Project staff and social workers were used to help create and maintain community organizations

Policy Implications (3 of 3)

An interesting finding from this study was that once financial support was cut back, these communities began to have more issues

Policy Implementation

Why have these types of policies been so difficult to implement?

Issues such as residential mobility, incarceration (which hurts communities) and improvements that ‘price out’ poor residents are some of the key issues here

Routine Activities Theory

Based on the work of Hawley (1950) suggesting that there was a natural rhythm of human life

Cohen and Felson (1979), three components were necessary for a crime to occur

Motivated Offender

Suitable Target

Lack of Proper Guardianship

Role of Social Changes

Social Changes are often relevant for facilitating/impeding situations in which offenders are poorly defended/worthwhile targets

Changes such as more women working (leaving homes unguarded during the day) have affected crime rates

Empirical Research/Criticisms

A criticism of Routine Activities Theory is that it is difficult to test

Many look at routine activities as a victim blaming theory and are thus highly critical of it

Readers should be aware of the inherent ideology embedded within any type of theory

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth edition

Chapter 6

Learning and Cultural Transmission Theories of Crime

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132

Introduction

Learning and cultural transmission theories generally assume that criminal behavior is similar to other forms of human behavior in certain respects

Crime is viewed as a result of social interaction

Criminal and noncriminal behaviors are learned through the socialization process

Learning Theories

Learning theories contend that criminal behavior is learned from others

The learning process involves the internalization of values, norms, and behaviors that vary across groups

According to social learning theory, negative outcomes are related to life experiences

Differential Association Theory

Created by Sutherland

Emphasized the role of socialization in the development of human behavior and interaction

Socialization

Refers to a process of human interaction on both one-on-one and group levels, wherein behavior is learned

From Others

Reflective of society’s cultural and subcultural values

This perspective emphasizes two primary influences

Agents of Socialization (who does the socializing)

Content of Socialization

Reference the 9 formal propositions of differential association in the text

136

Akers’ Social Learning Theory (1 of 2)

A criticism of Differential Association Theory is that it failed to explain HOW people learn to commit crime

Akers and Burgess revised the theory by incorporating reinforcement, punishment and observational learning into differential association

The people with whom we spend the majority of our time with shape our reality

Definitions (part of Social Learning) refer to how we define certain situations

137

Akers’ Social Learning Theory (2 of 2)

The continuation of behavior is consequence-based

If one wants a behavior to persist, learning theory postulates that the behavior must be rewarded when it occurs

Concepts such as positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment come into play here

Imitation occurs when behavior is observed in others and is later mimicked

Akers’ Social Structure Social Learning

S S S L was created by expanding social learning theory to incorporate key concepts from macro-level and structural criminology

The basic proposition of this theory is that variations in social structure, culture and locations of individuals and groups in the social system account for differences in crime rates in neighborhoods and cities

Cultural Transmission Theories (1 of 2)

Focus on ideas that form values and beliefs that differ from conventional ideas

Value systems that differ from conventional standards largely define subcultures

Values, beliefs and norms of deviant subcultures predispose people to crime and provide a rationalization for criminal behavior

Rise of Subcultural Perspective

Subcultural perspectives arose as the dominant perspective in the 1950s

Cultural transmission theories are based on the idea that people internalize values and beliefs

Cultural variation and the power of conformity are fundamental assumptions of this theory

Cultural Norms and Legal Process (1 of 2)

The study of subculture is necessarily integrated with the study of legal process

Law typically denotes the ideas/beliefs of the conventional or dominant culture

An additional defining characteristic of subculture is cultural conflict

Cultural Norms and Legal Process (2 of 2)

The differentiation between subculture and population segment is important to make

Because American society is so multifaceted and groups often disagree about appropriate standards, criminal law function as a type of glue that holds society together

Cohen’s Middle-Class Measuring Rod

Most discussions on subculture theory begin with the work of Albert Cohen

The seminal work done by Cohen was written in 1955, and is titled, Delinquent Boys: The Subculture of the Gang

Five Major Causal Factors (1 of 2)

Cohen developed a general theory that focuses on five major sub-factors that contribute to culture

Prevalence

Origins

Process

Purpose

Problem

Five Major Causal Factors (2 of 2)

The overall learning process of lower class boys leaves them ill-prepared to compete in a world gauged by a “middle-class, measuring rod.”

Deficiencies of lower-class youth are most noticeable in the classroom

Cloward and Ohlin Gang Typology

Created in 1960, this theory is often paired with Cohen’s, because it is often viewed as a strain theory

The hypothesis of this theory is that lower class teenagers realize they have little chance for success by conventional standards and thus resort to membership in delinquent gangs

Miller’s Focal Concerns

Miller’s theory is a pure cultural theory for explaining gang delinquency

While the middle class has values, the lower class has defining focal concerns (trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy)

The rise of the subcultural perspective was aided by the circumstances of social transition

Demise of the Subcultural Perspective (1 of 2)

As bandwagon shifts to the political left transpired, labeling theory replaced cultural transmission as the primary approach to explaining crime

The main thrust of labeling theory was that crime and delinquency were definitions and labels that were assigned to people/events by operatives of the criminal justice system

While historical developments set into motion a chain of events that moved criminological theory away from subculture, theory was further affected by paradigm shifts in social science research methodology

Demise of the Subcultural Perspective (2 of 2)

Rise of positivism was a deathblow to subcultural theory

Issues with statistical clarity, greatly hurt this theory

Subcultures of Violence and Rerise of Cultural Perspective

Part of the reason cultural transmission theory survived was due to the work of Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967)

Homicide was viewed as an acceptance of a value system that endorsed violence

Subcultures of violence were identified throughout the social strata

Street Codes

Criminologists have recognized the importance of street codes and subcultural values in more recent times

Anderson’s, Code of the Streets, is defined in comparison to the decent moral codes of the inner city

Recent research has attempted to test Anderson’s Code of the Streets

Studies typically find that neighborhoods in which adolescents reside, the characteristics of their families, and experiences with racial discrimination all contribute to the street code

Street Codes and Conclusion

Adoption of the street code, in turn, increases adolescents’ likelihood of committing and being a victim of violence

Stewart’s contributions are unique in that they examine both the effects of living in a disadvantaged neighborhood (macro-level factors), and individual adoption of the street code (micro-level factors)

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 7

Strain Theories of Crime

Introduction

Strain theories are among the older theories in criminology, and it is impressive that they still hold today

Theory was originally formed by Merton in the 1930s and has been consistently reformulated

While the theory has waned on/off through the years, it is consistently one of the most tested theories in the literature today

What do Strain Theories Assume?

Strain theories believe that people would not naturally commit crime if not for unfortunate external circumstances that push them toward criminal behavior

People are generally law abiding, however sometimes obstacles prevent them from accomplishing their goals

Merton’s Theory and Its Variants

Merton was the first to closely look at the American culture, or the American dream

The underlying belief system of placing monetary/financial success above the “proper” ways to achieve success causes problems

Aspects of American Culture Relevant to Crime

Goals, or what we are socialized to want

Means or rules we are expected to follow while striving to achieve these goals

The American Dream

Tells people what they should want out of life and how to go about getting it

The problem in Merton’s belief is that the goals of American society are emphasized at the expense of having people follow rules

Being successful is important, no matter what the means of achieving it are

The American Social Structure

Merton examined what the impediments of the American Dream, might be

Based on socioeconomic conditions, it is often IMPOSSIBLE for some people to be successful

The reality of inequality is the biggest impediment to the American Dream

Responses to Strain

When faced with an obstacle to achieving individual desires or goals, anomie or strain occurs

People have to determine how to respond to/cope with it

Ways of Coping with Strain (1 of 2)

According to Merton, there are five ways people can cope with strain

Conformity: Using typical means to be successful

Innovation: Rejection of legal means to achieve success

Ritualism: Exerting effort, for purely dogmatic reasons

Ways of Coping with Strain (2 of 2)

According to Merton, there are five ways people can cope with strain

Retreatism: Escaping mainstream society (drug/alcohol abuse)

Rebellion: Rejecting mainstream goals and replacing them with different means (revolutionaries)

Later Work on Merton’s Theory

Merton’s theory did not receive much attention past its initial conceptualization (1938)

This was due to political/ideological reasons, not scientific ones

Cloward and Ohlin’s (1960) work on criminal subcultures extended Merton's theory

Empirical Support

Merton’s theory and those that come after it suggest a certain image of criminal offenders

Critics of the theory cite the lack of empirical research (especially prior to 1960) as a drawback to the theory

Issues with self-report surveys have greatly hampered the theory’s testability

Agnew’s General Strain Theory

During the 1980s and 1990s, scholars began to believe that strain theory could be rehabilitated

Agnew was the most successful in this area, creating what is now known as General Strain Theory (G S T)

Agnew’s theory broadens Merton’s, and talks of more general means of coping

Types of Strain

Agnew’s theory expands the causes of strain from 1 to 3

Agnew does not believe that a single cause of strain is the problem but rather the accumulation of events leads to whether or not someone would break the law

Three Types of Strain

Failure to achieve positively valued goals

Something valued positively is removed from life

Imposition of noxious stimuli

Types of Coping

Agnew proposed several ways in which people cope with strain

Behavioral coping

Cognitively reinterpreting situations (cognitive coping)

Emotional coping

When Does Strain Lead to Delinquent Coping?

Strain is more likely to lead to crime if it interferes with an area of life that an individual finds important

Individuals with poor coping skills and/or resources are more likely to turn to crime

Absence of conventional social support, high risk reward ratios of crime, and predisposition to crime also lead to delinquency

Empirical Support (1 of 2)

Few researchers argue that Strain is a successful theory based on empirical support

Most tests of G S T have relied on survey data

A variety of indicators have measured strain including neighborhood problems, negative life events, and hassles with peers

Empirical Support (2 of 2)

While ample data exists to test Social Disorganization (a competitor of Strain), datasets that are able to test strain (measuring feelings/emotions) are limited

Hoffman (2002) and a few other studies (eg. Brezina) have found support for the theory, but not enough research exists to support the theory

Messner and Rosenfeld, Institutional Anomie

Originally conceptualized in 1994, this theory was built mostly on the work of Merton

Focused specifically on institutions responsible for regulating behavior and how these institutions are subverted

Value Orientations (1 of 2)

Messner and Rosenfeld focus on four American Value Orientations

Achievement

Individualism

Universalism

Money Fetish

Value Orientations (2 of 2)

The primary idea behind this theory is that the economy holds disproportionate power

Other institutions are devalued due to the overarching power of the economy

See the low level wages of those who educate and socialize children

Empirical Testing

Unlike Agnew’s theory, Messner and Rosenfeld’s theory has received little empirical testing

The basic premise behind the theory is that dominant economic institutions should produce higher crime rates

This is a difficult proposition to measure and has yielded inconclusive/inconsistent results

Social Support Theory (1 of 2)

Cullen et al. (1994) attempted to respond to the weaknesses of Merton's original theory

This theory focused on social support at the individual level as well as higher units of analysis

The primary idea is that when people have difficulties they believe there are people who can support them

Social Support Theory (2 of 2)

Cullen reasoned that there are high rates of crime in America because little structural or cultural support exists for people who get into difficulties

Research on this theory is small in size, but in general it is supportive of the theoretical propositions

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 8

Control Theories of Crime

Introduction

The Control Perspective is among the oldest and most popular explanations for the causes of criminality

The basic idea behind the control perspective is that people are fundamentally selfish/pleasure seekers (dating back to work of Hobbes)

Also drew from the work of Durkheim, Bentham, and Freud

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (1 of 4)

Control theories assume that the desire to commit crimes is natural to all human beings and what needs to be explained is why people resist criminal temptation

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (2 of 4)

Control theories begin with the view that crime is simply a consequence of rational self-interest, of which everyone is born with

Learning to commit crimes from others is not necessary

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (3 of 4)

Another factor that is commonly assumed in control theories is that there is general agreement in the world about what constitutes socially unacceptable behavior

Crime is not simply an arbitrary product of moral entrepreneurs or powerful people

What Control Theories Assume about Human Nature? (4 of 4)

Some people find the fundamental assumptions of human behavior believable, others do not

It is important to be aware that assumptions are very different than proven facts

Assumptions cannot be scientifically proven

Early Control Theories

Reiss (1951) was the first criminologist to discuss control theories, personal and social forms of control

Toby (1957) discussed stakes of conformity where individuals resist criminal temptations due to being interested in conforming

Nye (1958) focused on two types of external control, e.g., direct and indirect

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (1 of 4)

The control theory formulated by Hirschi (1969) has taken on the role as the most frequently referenced social control theory

Hirschi’s conceptualization focuses on the individual’s social bonds as means of imposing restraints on behavior

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (2 of 4)

The Social Bond is an individual’s connectedness to society and crime, and occurs with weakened connections to others

Social bond consists of four elements

involvement

commitment

attachment

Belief

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (3 of 4)

Criminals are not socialized to commit crime, but rather they are undersocialized to conform

While some of these bonds may vary independently, Hirschi hypothesized that the four elements of the social bond are interconnected

Hirschi’s Social Control Theory (4 of 4)

People with weakened bonds do not necessarily become criminals, but criminal temptations will speak more persuasively to this group of people

Empirical Testing (1 of 2)

For the first 25 years of publication, Hirschi’s social control theory was subject to empirical testing more than any other theory

Hirschi himself tested his theory in his 1969 book using data from California

Empirical Testing (2 of 2)

Empirical testing supported the theory, but some weaknesses were found

Associations with delinquent peers (bonds) were more closely related to crime

Questions asked on Hirschi’s self-report surveys also may have been problematic

Self-Control Theory

Gottfredson and Hirschi came up with this theory in 1990

This book focuses little on social bonds, and is much more concerned with individual levels of self-control

People with Low Self-Control (1 of 2)

Hirschi argues that low self-control leads to distinctive personality characteristics

These individuals are lazy, impulsive, self-centered, belligerent and cannot deny instant gratification

A common thread of low self-control behaviors are that they are potentially destructive

People with Low Self-Control (2 of 2)

While self-control encompasses many traits it is also unidimensional

Personality traits are symptoms of having low self-control

Social bonds fit into the theory, in that people with low self-control fritter away the opportunities to create bonds

Origins of Self Control

Where does low self-control come from?

It is an acquired characteristic

Childrearing is the primary agent for the development of self-control

Empirical Research and Criticisms of Self-Control Theory (1 of 2)

Since 1990, few theories have generated as much research attention and discussion as self-control theory

Self-report surveys are the typical methods of testing self-control theory

Issues with measurement (reference the Grasmick scale) have made measuring self-control difficult

Empirical Research and Criticisms of Self-Control Theory (2 of 2)

Results of the empirical tests have generally been supportive of the theory

Individuals with low self-control tend to engage in more crime

Evidence exists linking self-control with adverse life circumstances

While significant, the effect of low self-control on crime has not been found to be large

Criticisms

A major criticism exists as to how self-control is measured

Self control theory typically has significant problems accounting for spurious variables

Issues with delinquent peers are especially difficult to account for, and must be taken into consideration

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (1 of 4)

One of self-control theory’s more controversial positions is its claims that by late childhood individual differences in self-control remain relatively stable

The life course perspective (see Sampson & Laub, 1993) offers a different view

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (2 of 4)

This perspective is based on data originally collected by the Glueck’s in the 1950s

This theory accounts for why juveniles become offenders in the first place

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (3 of 4)

Also looks at how and why transitions between childhood and adolescence can shape later adult offending

Family context shapes juvenile offending

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (4 of 4)

The argument of stability versus change over the life course is important to keep in mind here

The paradox is that while most if not all adult offenders were juvenile offenders, not all juvenile offenders become adult offenders

Social bonds account for this, due to Sampson and Laub

Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory

Stability and change are hallmarks of individuals according to Sampson and Laub's theory

Theory hypothesizes that individual behavior is remarkably consistent over time

Consistency over the life course is known as a trajectory

Self-Control Revised?

Hirschi updated and revised self-control theory in 2004

Self-Control was updated to include the totality of consequences an individual considers when deciding whether or not to commit crimes

Social bonds are these consequences

Policy Implications (1 of 2)

Social control theory suggests policies that would strengthen bonds between individuals and society

Self control theory advocates for programs that help young children improve self-control

Similar to many theories, control theories question the usefulness of prison

Policy Implications (2 of 2)

Self-Control Theory is very concerned with the court and correctional system policies

Threats of exceedingly punitive sanctions are of no value if people do not consider them

Self-control theory indicates that the formal justice system offers little crime prevention in return for huge tax expenditures

Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction

Fourth Edition

Chapter 9

Theories of Social Conflict

The Conflict Perspective (1 of 3)

Crime from the conflict perspective is considered a byproduct of social inequality

Crime arises from both the effort of those in control groups and those positioned lower in the social structure

The Conflict Perspective (2 of 3)

Crime also arises as a collective expression of alienation, deprivation, and frustration by those in the working class

The conflict perspective is particularly applicable in highly stratified, pluralistic, multicultural societies such as the United States

The Conflict Perspective (3 of 3)

Those who gain power naturally define crime and deviance in ways that serve their interests, and their designations determine how society will be structured

Marxist Heritage

The philosophical foundation in which the conflict perspective is built is traced to the works of Karl Marx

According to Marx, the economic system of capitalism is the source of most social problems, including crime, because it creates competition for profit

Marxist Concepts (1 of 2)

The capitalistic desire for profit is realized through the extraction of surplus value from the working class, by the ruling class

Profit through surplus value can only be realized through the exploitation of the working class by the ruling class

The insatiable desire for profit leads to alienation

Marxist Concepts (2 of 2)

Marx predicted that as alienation became obvious and widely recognized throughout the working class, class consciousness and later revolution would arise

Mainstream definitions of success factor into class consciousness

Orthodox Marxism

Also known as Instrumental Marxism

This theory posits that a direct relationship exists between the interests of the ruling class and the criminal justice system

These interests are identifiable based on the historical functioning of the criminal justice system

Structural Marxism (1 of 2)

Differs from Orthodox Marxism in that it acknowledges an indirect relationship between ruling class interests and how social class institutions operate

Structural Marxism (2 of 2)

According to this theory, ruling class interests are subtle

While these theories don’t explicitly discuss crime, they are the bases for several theories that do

Labeling Theory (1 of 4)

The Labeling perspective acknowledges that people first participate in norm violation, either crime or a less serious act by chance or as a part of growing up

The difference between delinquents and non-delinquents often is as simple as who gets caught

Labeling Theory (2 of 4)

Lemert and Tannenbaum are two of the primary labeling theorists

According to Lemert (1967), initial acts of deviance, known as primary deviance lead to reactions from authority that are often negative

Labeling Theory (3 of 4)

Youths are seen as delinquent and lose opportunities to participate in conventional activities

Continued participation in crime is known as secondary deviance

Labeling Theory (4 of 4)

Secondary deviance reflects both the ironic social construction of crime through the labeling process and the importance of self-concept

Secondary deviance is promoted through internal normalization of behaviors and the lacking of social controls

Reintegrative Shaming (1 of 2)

Braithwaite’s (1989) theory of Reintegrative Shaming is the most important recent contribution to labeling theory

Argues that it is illogical and counterproductive to publicly label

Reintegrative Shaming (2 of 2)

Characterized as a combination of several perspectives including: labeling, subcultural, control, opportunity and learning

Marxist Criminology (1 of 2)

Marxist or radical criminologists use the Marxist framework to examine criminal law, crime itself, and government practices of social control

Social Origins of the law are seen as reflective of special interests that are traceable to class

Marxist Criminology (2 of 2)

Marxists contend that criminal law serves to control the lower classes and provide immunity for crimes of the ruling class

From the Marxist perspective, criminal law is seen as a tool of repression by the ruling class

White-Collar and State Crime (1 of 2)

Marxist’s are more focused on White-Collar Crimes than street crimes

Sutherland was an early theorist who examined white collar crime

Some theorists believe white collar crime (fraud, false advertising) are more harmful than street crime

White-Collar and State Crime (2 of 2)

Political or state crime differs from white collar crime in respect to its primary objectives

Political gain as opposed to economic advantage

Political objectives are the state’s need to obtain power or authority

Left Realism

Evolved due to critical theorists’ neglect of inner city crime

Young (1987) is a well known Left Realist

Left realists are quick to criticize critical criminologists who neglect to support victims of crime

Cultural Criminology (1 of 2)

Closely related to the field of cultural studies and influenced by postmodern insights

This perspective is focused on crime control, and uses techniques such as media analysis

The role of culture (e.g.- how certain subcultural groups recruit members) is heavily emphasized in this perspective

Cultural Criminology (2 of 2)

Qualitative research methods play a large part in how cultural criminology is studied

The immediacy of crime, or firsthand observation is helpful in this area

Cultural Criminology is highly tied into social constructionism

Social Construct of Crime (1 of 2)

Crime is typically explored objectively, but can also be examined subjectively

Subjectivists also known as Constructionists or those who contend that crime is socially/subjectively constructed

Social Construct of Crime (2 of 2)

No individual or act is inherently deviant to society

Media heavily influences what is criminal

Feminist Criminology (1 of 3)

Frequently misunderstood and misrepresented

Not simply the study of women and crime

Feminist Criminology aims to place gender at the center of discourse

Feminist Criminology (2 of 3)

Feminist Criminology much like Feminism itself allows for the idea that women’s experiences differ dramatically from those of men

Feminist Criminology (3 of 3)

Three primary types of feminist criminology exist

liberal

radical

marxist

Types of Feminist Criminology (1 of 2)

Liberal Feminism is a cultural orientation to gender differences that examines attitudes about gender roles

Radical Feminism is a more aggressive approach and is the stereotypical, “anti male” perspective

See Hagan’s (1989)- Power-Control Theory

Types of Feminist Criminology (2 of 2)

Marxist/Socialist Feminism attributes gender oppression to inequality inherent in capitalistic economies

Feminist Criminology has become highly influential in recent years

Types of Feminist Criminology and Conclusion

Feminist Criminology is a more recent development in the attempt to understand crime

It is currently gaining popular acceptance into the mainstream

Advocates such as Sharpe do not believe this has been fully achieved as of yet

Developmental Criminology

A theoretical model that attempts to link life transitions and developmental processes with patterns of offending behavior over time

Notion is that involvement in crime closely resembles a legitimate career with a beginning, an ascension, a peak, a decline, and an exit

Examines persistence and desistance of criminal behavior (why do people keep committing crime and why do people stop?)

Described as “dynamic” rather than static

Interactive(?)

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Example

Terrie Moffitt’s Dual Pathway Developmental Theory

Demonstrates existence of adolescent limited (AL) offenders and life-course persistent (LCP) offenders

Both have very different pathways in and out of crime, start criminal careers at different ages, both commit different types of crimes, and both have very different psychological and family profiles

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Key findings from developmental study of crime

Most offenders will desist quickly

Many will desist without any criminal justice system involvement

Some, a small percentage, will persist over a long period of time (these are the career criminals, habitual or chronic offenders)

This small percentage (between 6-8%) is responsible for a large percentage of crime committed over time (the 80/20 rule)

Wolfgang study – found 6% of the cohort studied committed more than 50% of the crime over time

Orange County, CA – found 8% of young offenders responsible for nearly 60% of crime totals over time

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The 8% solution: Preventing serious, repeat juvenile crime

The Orange County, CA Probation Department’s research staff tracked two groups of first-time juvenile offenders for three years and found that a small percentage (8%) of the juveniles were:

Arrested repeatedly (a minimum of 4 times within a 3-year period) (These are PERSISTERS)

Responsible for 55% of arrests

Could be identified reliably at first contact with the juvenile justice system

What characteristics do you think these kids had compared to the 92% that were DESISTERS?

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8% solution

These 8% enter system with complex set of problems or RISK FACTORS which were identified as:

Involvement in crime at an early age

A multi-problem profile including:

Significant family problems (abuse, neglect, criminal family members, lack of supervision and control)

Problems at school

Drug and alcohol abuse

Behaviors such as gang involvement, running away and stealing

Many of these features make desistance more challenging (web of problems)

Given these findings, if you were a judge . . .

What would you do with the 92% that would desist quickly?

What about the 8% to make desistance happen quickly?

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8% Intervention Program

Created the “8% Early Intervention Program” to serve first-time offenders who were no older than 15.5 and who exhibited at least three of the four risk factors in the multi-problem profile

Goals included:

Increase structure, supervision, and support for families

Make kids accountable

Make school more important

Promote prosocial values, behaviors and relationships

Develop new interventions in the community

Bottom line: Identify the “persisters” and help them at an early age

Young Juvenile Offender project here in Virginia (Functional Family Therapy, intensive home-based therapy)

Fast Track Project (page 328 of textbook)

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How does desistance happen?

Two theories of desistance

Sommer

Shover

How do you think desistance happens?

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Stages of desistance – Sommer (gradual process)

Stage 1 – Catalysts for change, making decision to stop offending

Socially disjunctive experiences - hitting rock bottom, tiredness, illness, fear of death, aging, perception of risk/certainty of punishment increases

Delayed deterrence - increasing severity of punishment with multiple charges (3 strikes); increasing fear of punishment; harder to do time

Assessment – reappraisal of life and goals, psychic change, role of religion?

Decision – Decision to quit and/or initial attempts at desistance; usually a conscious decision to stop

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Stages (continued)

Stage 2 – Discontinuance

Public announcement of decision to end criminal participation, claim to a new social identity (beginning of certification process)

Stage 3 – Maintenance

Ability to successfully renegotiate identity, support of significant others, integration into new social networks, ties to conventional roles, stabilization of new social identity

THIS IS THE CRITICAL STAGE

Likely to be episodic with occasional relapses interspersed with longer periods of good behavior

Typically a slowing down process, deceleration (fewer criminal events)

Involves a successful certification process (pronouncement by others that you have moved from “offender” to “law-abiding citizen”

If you were an offender going through this process, what factors do you think might help you be successful?

246

Factors that impact success at Stage 3

Access to legitimate opportunities, employment opportunities

Social support (family, friends, neighbors, programs like OAR)

Ability to be involved in legitimate activities

Ability to shun criminal world (gangs) (Move away?)

Formal treatment programs that provide ties to people (AA and sponsors; drug treatment courts)

Success of certification process

Appear in legitimate locations; importance of family; “appearing” normal (remove tattoos, piercings); having an address and phone number

Reduce negative stigma of probation and parole supervision (A CORRECTIONAL PARADOX)

Prison-based self-improvement programs

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Shover’s Model of Exiting

A five-pronged process rather than a three-point stage

Aging Process

Orientational Change (new perspective of self, growing awareness of time, changing aspirations and goals, growing sense of tiredness)

Interpersonal Change (ties to another person, ties to a line of activity)

Modified Calculus (risks now outweigh the reward – rewards of crime now seen as minimal)

Reduction in Criminal Behavior

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Laub and Samson study “Shared Beginnings and Divergent Lives”

Main finding: Found support for Shover’s exiting process. Three main determinants of a “knifing off” of criminal activity included:

Joining the military

Getting married

Finding legitimate employment

Religion also played a role (although minor)

Other findings:

Did not observe a process but a quick change for some

Desistance did not seem to depend on perceived risk of legal punishment

Conditions necessary for exiting life of crime are largely outside the correctional system’s control

Argues that the CJS does little to make desistance happen – may actually make persistence in crime more likely – HOW?

What policy implications does this approach have if we want to make desistance happen sooner rather than later?

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