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Chapter 2
Communicating and
managing communication
( 7 Readings)

Reading -1 The communication climate

How good and effective we are at communication ?
Communication:-

1- Includes the way in which ideas, information and feelings are communicated within organizations and the interpersonal skills required.

2- Is an important component in good leadership and management.

3- Influence employee’s motivation , satisfaction ,productivity and commitment.

4- Communication climate directly influences whether working relationships will be cooperative and whether information flow will be smooth.

5- Communication climate can be ‘Open’ or ‘Closed’.

A. In an open climate people can speak freely without fear of being criticized; suggestions are welcomed and acted on , mistakes are used as an opportunity to learn. In this climate, behaviors will convey to people that they are valued, recognized and acknowledged.

B. In a closed climate the environment is often highly political where employees can become possessive about the information they have access to and to use it as a source of power. Information is given or withheld to reinforce person’s position rather than to contribute to effective working. In such a climate , communication between individuals is minimal, defensive and focused on relationships rather than on work objectives. Here, behaviors result in defensiveness where people protect themselves from attack often by verbally attacking critics, by distorting information, by avoiding information, by pretending not to care about it or by simply ignoring relevant information .

Closed climate behaviors	Open climate behaviors
Evaluative : judgmental assessments of others’ behavior Example: You shouldn’t have done that.	Descriptive : describes a complaint in behavioral terms rather than being judgmental (avoids blaming). Ex. : I wish you hadn’t done that before discussing it first.
Controlling : an attempt to impose a solution or outcome . Example: Do it this way	Solution-oriented : the focus on working together to resolve problems.
Neutral : indifference towards the other person. Example: How could you have forgotten to spell check the report?	Empathetic : identification with the situation or emotions of another person. Ex. I know how hard you worked to meet the deadline but I think you spelled check report in rush
Strategic : an attempt to manipulate or deceive the other person.	Spontaneous : there is no attempt to manipulate the other person.
Superior : the other person is not worthy of respect .	Equal : the other person is worthy of respect Example: I did like your views on this.
Certain : the speaker’s view is correct Example: I already know the answer	Provisional : a willingness to consider the other person’s situation or view.

Ways to improve the communication climate

Ed Robertson (2005) maintains that an organization’s communication climate will be only ‘as strong as the multiple work groups or micro communication climates that comprise it’.
In their work group managers need to communicate:

1. Job information.

2. Personal information.

3. Operational information.

4. Strategic information.

5. Information to their managers.

At the same time, manager’s direct reports need:

1. To notice explanations of policy and answers to questions.

2. To notice job performance expectations to be set out clearly.

3. To notice changes from official sources.

4. To notice freedom to make suggestions and to make complaints.

6. Supervisor efforts to understand their feelings and problems.

Key areas to improve communication climate

1- Information needs : Employees need informal and formal information (reports). Managers need to consider what they are communicating, how, how much, and to whom. They need to assess two fundamental aspects of communication:

a. Adequacy : refers to the amount and quality of what is communicated. Inaccurate or incomplete information may lead to misunderstandings, mistakes and frustration . Conversely, too much accurate and complete information can cause information overload.

b. Flow : refers to the way information flows vertically and horizontally in an organization, allowing the exchange of ideas , issues and opinions .

2- Feeling valued : A manager can help staff to feel valued by treating them with respect, by listening to them and acknowledging their opinions, even if suggestions are not used. This helps staff to feel engaged and committed and this is vital in fostering creativity and innovation .

3- Trust: With lack of trust, employees rarely admit making a mistake and are less willing to take risks or tolerate change. As a result, they will not be offered the proper support needed and their productivity may suffer. Manager’s first reaction to mistakes should be understanding and forgiving. A manager can create an atmosphere of trust in two ways:-

A. First to be trustworthy himself.

B. Second to ensure that when a report admits a mistake, the focus is placed on putting it right or prevent repeating it.

4- Conflict: Conflict is inevitable and should be dealt with it constructively. Conflicts raise due to different perspectives or views . Exploring these perspectives lead to better solutions. Managers need to invite conversation with staff, to listen carefully and to look for areas of agreement. They need to encourage staff to disagree, to raise questions about what they are doing and to think about ways of improving .

5- Grievances: Occurs when staff feel being treated unfairly. Staff need to be sure that grievances will be listened to , treated and that serious attempt is adopted to deal with their source.

6- Continual Feedback: ( positive and negative ) is vital to maintain and improve staff performance. A constructive approach is to ask the person to assess the outcome himself.

Reading -2 Theories of communication

1- The information model of communication

Developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949).To them communication is seen as a linear process in which a sender develops a message, then transmits it over a channel to a receiver.
The model has three basic components: ( next slide)

1 . A sender or source of an encoded message – for example, a computer or a television camera.

2 . A medium or channel of transmission – for example, signals running along cables or sound waves travelling through the air.

3. A receiver which decodes the message – for example, another computer, a television or a radio receiver.

An additional feature is the noise in the channel which restricts the amount and quality of information that can be transmitted. However, this model misses human components . That is how the same message can be interpreted differently by different people depending on prior knowledge , experience, beliefs, values , culture.

2- The constructivist model of communication

This model sees people as constructing meanings and mental models to understand and make sense of the world.
In creating and developing mental models language , experience , listening and talking to others are essential.
This theory suggests that we need empathy ( i.e. the use of intellect and emotions to understand another person’s view). Empathy involves :

1 .Having an emotional response to another person . It involves being capable of feeling and sharing the same emotions as this person.

2. The mental capacity to take the position or perspective of another person. This may also involve understanding the context that might have led to a person’s actions and beliefs.

3. Self-regulation processes that prevent confusion between one’s own feelings and views and those of the other person.

Six steps to perspective-taking and empathy :

1 . Assume difference: Seek out differences between your and other individual views for a situation.

2 . Know self: Realize that your own view is just a view out of many views that will increase your knowledge or understanding.

3. Suspend self: That is the need to put your own ideas aside and try to see the world of the other person.

4. Allow guided judgment: Because understanding of other views is partial, you need a feedback on yours. Ex. ask the person ‘So your view is …’ and allow him to correct you.

5. Allow empathetic experience: With information given, you can construct an alternative view of another person. This knowledge is valuable when you need to predict how the person responds to a future situation.

6. Re-establish self: Now return to your own view of a situation where it is likely has been changed because you incorporated new knowledge while attempting to understand someone else’s view .

How similar, how different? Do we always have to practice the six steps to communicate effectively?
The width of the inverted triangle represents the effort required to achieve proper communication. Also judgments about how much effort to put into communication will need to take into consideration the effort needed to correct misunderstandings and repair poor relationships if initial effort proves insufficient.

Reading -4 Barriers to communication

Some barriers can be removed or lowered, others are accepted.
Barriers categories are:

1- Physical barriers and distractions.

2- Perceptual barriers : ex. our assumptions . We may assume that a person knows or understands or sees things like we do.

3- Emotional barriers: ex. fear of criticism, of negative reactions or of an angry response . Lack of trust may make people reluctant to communicate thoughts , feelings and ideas.

4- Cultural ( ethnic) barriers : are similar to perceptual barriers .Cultural differences may extend to values (ex. valuing individual assertiveness over relationships and group work ) , what is acceptable practice in the workplace , how good performance is rewarded and how poor performance is treated.

5- Language barriers.

6. Gender and status barriers: Gender and status differences often occur simultaneously in societies where one gender is considered to possess a higher status over the other. Status has a major impact on group communication. In general :

a- Leaders and men speak more than women in a group.

b- Men interrupt women more often than they do for men.

c- Men allow men to interrupt more than they do for females.

d-Men are likely to change topics after a women has spoken.

Status power & gender may result in unequal contribution to discussion which result in less opportunity to share knowledge and ideas.

7. Interpersonal barriers. Personality clashes arise when relationships between people are not strong & in harmony.

Reading-6 Communication skills

To understand another’s point of view, to build relationships and to acquire information , certain skills are needed :

(1) Active listening and (2) Questioning.

1. Active listening : Three types of active listening mostly used:-

a. Support listening: is to encourage others to say what they think or feel. Manager should not distract speaker or put forward his views unless necessary.

b. Responding listening: focuses on establishing a relationship with another person. It helps to show that you are interested with what they says.

c. Retention listening : is required when seeking information (in group situations).

Above three types require the following skills : To: (1) Pay attention/ concentrate (2) Signal that you are listening (3) Encourage the speaker to say more & to expand and (4) Check and reflect back what you think you have heard or understood.
Pitfalls in listening include: selective listening , interrupting the speaker , wanting to put forward your own opinion , becoming frustrated with the way something is being communicated rather than focusing on content , pretending to listen.

2. Questioning: It complements effective listening skill. It increases manager’s control over gathering information process . Questions need to be systematic , logical and appropriately timed. It requires the manager to:

(1) Understand what’s being said.

(2) Decide what further information is needed.

(3) Consider what kind of question is most likely to produce the information needed .

(4) Select the type of question that will strengthen the relationship with the speaker.

There are various categories of questions :

Closed questions: Requires a simple ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ response . It allows little or no freedom in choosing the response . They are not appropriate when detailed response is needed. They can be frustrating to the respondent, who may have information to provide but not being invited or encouraged to participate in a dialogue. However, they allow to retain control of the dialogue.

2. Open questions : Allow freedom in making responses. They require the respondent to do the talking . However, they can be unnecessary if they produce more detail than what is needed and respondents can move away from the subject . Further, the questioner may be influenced by how articulate the respondent rather than by content.

3. Direct questions : useful when a limited amount of information is needed.

4. Probing questions: open questions that guide the conversation from general specific, with the aim of encouraging respondents to provide additional details.

5. Leading questions : Normally suggest what the desired response should be. Ex. ‘Don’t you think it’s important that we talk to Hani about this now? Expected answer is ‘Yes’.

6. Loaded questions : Similar to leading questions but they employ emotive language. Ex. ‘What do you think of this ridiculous decision?. It very obvious what the response is.

7. Hypothetical questions: “What if” questions. Useful to test ones ideas against others

8. Mirror or reflective questions : Serve to summarize and clarify what a speaker has said . The listener might ask: ‘So you think there is a lack of clarity about what the task involves?’ Such questions are useful in establishing shared understanding.

9. Answering a question with a question: This is primarily a response technique and used in two main ways: (1)to keep control of a conversation or interview (2) to encourage people to resolve problems themselves. Such questions can help to build confidence and morale.

Reading -8 What are meetings for?

Face-to-face meetings are particularly suitable for handling unclear problems or situations , but the cost can be high. Meetings are likely to serve one or more of the following purposes: to bring together a range of knowledge and experience , to gather or give information , to explore effects of proposed changes , to make or assist in decisions , to allocate resources, to aid problem-solving , to develop cooperation & commitment , to allocate tasks and agree actions. Types of formal meetings :

Briefing meetings : purpose to inform people what has already been planned and decided and what is expected of them.

Business meetings: information is shared, issues are discussed and decisions are made , are formal with standard agenda.

Planning meetings and working groups: Detailed meeting , focus on communication and participation, often people from different parts of the organization are involved or from different organizations.

4. Consultation meetings : Ex. consultations with staff, with customers or general public. These can be a planning tool.

5. Staff meetings: They have range of purposes from reporting on developments to the discussion of interpersonal issues.

6. Review and evaluation meetings : Can be regular or occasional Purpose is to review progress towards organizational or individual goals or of a project team progress.

Meeting Styles : Meetings can vary along two dimensions :-

1- The formal–informal dimension : refers to terms of reference (purposes, functions, group responsibilities), procedures and formal roles required (chair, secretary).

2- The adversarial– consensual dimension : refers to the type of debate. In adversarial meetings there is challenge, disagreement and opposition, whereas in consensual meetings there is emphasis on what people agrees . Which style is used depends on the degree to which individuals share similar values, beliefs and goals.

Each style presents its own opportunities and limitations to members. The formal–adversarial meeting encourages individual achievement and requires political skills. It is important to prepare for such a meeting by studying other members, and preparing for the arguments of opponents.
Both the formal– and the informal–consensual meeting place great emphasis on group achievement through group effort. The member qualities demanded in a consensual meeting are good listening skills, clear, assertive presentation, openness and honesty, respect for and interest in other points of view, and an understanding of decision-making process.