integrative case analysis 10 pages
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Chapter02.pptChapter 2
Management Theory and Organizational Communication
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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- Explain what is meant by a theory
- Discuss the practical relevance of examining theories
- Describe the four stages of the Hawthorne Studies
- Identify the principles of various organizational and management theories
- Explain the relevancy of human communication and psychological theories toward the evolution of organizational communication studies
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Demystifying Theories
- Theories provide us with a practical understanding about the nature of reality
- Theories explain why events happen a certain way
- Theories help us make predictions about the future
- Theories help guide us toward the future by giving us some level of control over it
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Symbiotic Theory
- Symbiosis suggests an intimate association between dissimilar organisms
- Organizational theories may appear to be unrelated to one another, but when viewed as a whole they can help us understand better how to research and understand organizational behavior
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Classical Theory of Management
- Looks at organizations as machines
- Figured that the best way to design an organization is to structure it in the most efficient manner
- Employees are considered “parts” of the machine
- Classical managers were concerned about the best process for production activities and how to best explain these tasks and the policies that govern work
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management
- Taylor wrote a famous book: The Principles of Scientific Management
- Argued that poor management results in wasted human effort
- Argued that any job could be completed scientifically and that through scientific management practices, human effort could be maximized
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Scientific Management:
Soldiering and Systematic Soldiering
- Workers are inherently lazy and will underperform without precise direction
- There are no additional monetary incentives for increasing productivity rather than hourly wage
- Q1: Why should someone work harder when they receive the same pay as slower workers?
- Hourly work discourages performance because employees fear “rate-busting” and are discouraged by peers
- Brought about “time and motion” studies as a means of discovering the “one best way” of doing things
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Scientific Management and Communication
- Employees need to be aware of their tasks
- Management needs to know the best way to do those tasks
- Management alone should articulate the best way to do a task and the rules that govern work
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Henri Fayol’s
Principles of Management
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
- Fayol wrote General and Industrial Management
- Believed that management had responsibilities other than managing and overseeing work practices
- Came up with a list of fourteen principles and five elements of management
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14 Principles of Management
Division of work
Authority and responsibility
Discipline
Unity of command
Unity of direction
Subordination of individual interest to general interest
Remuneration of personnel
Centralization
Scalar chain
Order
Equity
Stability of tenure and personnel
Initiative
Esprit de corps
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Fayol’s Five Elements
of Management
Planning
Organizing
Command
Coordination
Control
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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The Scalar Chain and the Gangplank
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
- The scalar chain refers to the hierarchical chain of command
- Fayol believed that the chain of command should be followed in most cases, but that the chain can sometimes be slow
- Argued that a gangplank could be used to link departments to remedy this problem (see Figure 2.1)
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The Scalar Chain and the Gangplank
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Fayol and Interdepartmental Communication
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
- Communication between departments is necessary as illustrated by the “gangplank”
- Organizational departments resist interdepartmental communication
- Each one is concerned about its own welfare and takes cover from responsibility
- Weekly meetings with department heads would remedy this problem by forcing departments to work together, especially in the presence of a “higher authority”
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Early Assumptions About Organizational Behavior
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
- Fayol argued that oral communication is more effective overall than written communication because it is quicker and allows for clarification more easily
- Fayol argued that “command” involved nonverbal elements of communication
- When managers act responsibly, they set examples about proper behavior; unfortunately, this works with improper behavior as well
- Taylor suggested that there are many “plums” that can be offered to increase motivation besides monetary improvements
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The Four Segments of the Hawthorne Studies
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
- Researchers varied lighting intensity in the first study
- The second segment, called the relay assembly studies, varied working conditions
- The third segment involved interviewing 21,000 workers about work conditions
- The final segment was called the bank wiring phase, which tested the employees’ ability to self-manage tasks.
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Conclusions from the Hawthorne Studies
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
The first two segments suggest that employees change behavior when observed, a notion now known as the Hawthorne Effect
Employees are capable of making their own decisions and desire making and regulating their own rules
Ultimately, there may be some value in allowing upward communication in the workplace
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Human Relations Theory
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Created in the 1930s as a direct response to the Hawthorne Studies
Human relations theorists assumed that under the right conditions, work could be enjoyable
They argued that workers are motivated by needs other than money
There is ample evidence to support these notions, even today
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Criticisms of Human Relations Theory
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Too much emphasis on the employee
Managers misunderstood and misused the theory
They manipulated employees by offering bogus praise
Misuses ultimately diluted the theory’s impact by offering superficial praise, causing it to be counterproductive
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Human Resources Theory
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Resulted from a critical assessment of human relations theory by Raymond Miles
Miles argued that although many people touted human relations approaches, they were rarely meaningfully implemented
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Assumptions of Human Resources Theory
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Employees are as capable as management in making meaningful contributions in the workplace
Managers have the responsibility to cultivate a climate that will facilitate employee contributions instead of just acknowledging the contributions as a way to gain cooperation
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Douglas McGregor
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Assumed managers look at employees in one of two ways similar to the classical theory approach and the human relations/human resource approaches of management
Labeled these perspectives Theory X and Theory Y
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Theory X Assumptions
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
People dislike work and will avoid it when possible
Workers are not ambitious and prefer direction
Workers do not seek responsibility and are not concerned with overall organizational needs
Workers must be directed and threatened with punishment to achieve organizational productivity
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Theory Y Assumptions
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Under the right conditions, work can be as natural as play
Workers are ambitious and prefer self-direction
Workers seek responsibility and feel rewarded through their achievements
Workers are self-motivated and require little direct supervision
Workers are creative and capable of organizational creativity
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Self-Actualization
Esteem Needs Recognition and Status
Social Needs
Sense of Belonging - Love
Safety Needs
Security - Protection
Physiological Needs
Hunger - Thirst
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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Two factors increase motivation
Hygiene factors include those necessary for health
Good pay and benefits, understandable organizational policies, and effective technical supervision
Motivation factors include those inherent to internal work satisfaction
Responsibility, challenging work, opportunity to advance, and recognition for distinctive performance
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Contingency Theorists
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
People are individuals and as such are motivated by different things
What is valued by one employee might not be valued similarly by another employee
Formal and informal relationships, personality styles, and varying needs of employees all contribute to a need for different motivational methods, thus defining contingency theory
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Problems with Theory Y
Zaremba/Organizational Communication, 3e, © 2010, by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Assumes that all people are the same and would enjoy work under the right circumstances
There are some who would ultimately enjoy a life of leisure
Assumes that it is possible to always have workers working “under the right conditions”
Not all jobs can be made interesting to all people
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