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Chapter Eight

FIELD OPERATIONS

Key Terms

Bias crime Hot spots

Computer-aided dispatch Law enforcement

Computerized crime mapping Order maintenance

Crackdowns Proactive arrests

Crime suppression Preliminary investigation

Directed patrol Primary aggressor laws

Dual arrest Proactive

Enticement Quality-of-life policing

Entrapment Reactive

Event analysis Social services

Follow-up investigations Specialist

General deterrence Specific deterrence

Generalist Target oriented

Chapter Outline

I. The Patrol Function

a. Historical Development

b. Patrol Methods

c. Use of Patrol Resources

II. Focused Interventions

a. Proactive Arrests and Crackdowns

b. Guns and Gang Violence

c. Focused Deterrence Initiatives

d. Policing Disorder: Zero Tolerance and Quality-of-Life Policing

e. Problem Oriented Policing Focused on Disorder

III. Reactive Arrests and Intimate Partner Violence

IV. Police Pursuits

V. The Investigative Function

a. Historical Development

VI. Selected Research on Investigative Operations

a. Advances in Physical Evidence: AFIS and DNA

b. Career Criminal Programs

c. Bias Crime Programs

d. Detective-Patrol Relationships

e. Enticement and Entrapment

VII. Summary

VIII. Critical Thinking Questions

IX. References

Lecture Outline

I. The Patrol Function

a. Goals of patrol

i. Crime prevention and deterrence

ii. Apprehension of offenders

iii. Creation of a sense of community security and satisfaction

iv. Provision of non-crime-related services

v. Traffic control

vi. Identifying and solving community problems with respect to crime and disorder

b. Patrol officers perform three functions

i. Law enforcement

1. make arrests, issue citations, conduct investigations

ii. Order maintenance

1. loud parties, underage drinking, neighborhood disputes

iii. Social services

1. take reports, provide information, assist the public

c. Historical development

i. Two developments in the 1930s changed the nature of patrol

1. greatly increased use of patrol car

2. development of Uniform Crime Report

ii. Crime suppression

1. traditionally regarded as the most important patrol function

2. more area could be covered and response time shortened

3. create the impression of a police “omnipresence”

4. further isolated the officer from the community

iii. Development of radio and telephone

1. changed patrol from proactive to reactive

iv. Patrol is once again attempting to regain knowledge and awareness of the neighborhood

1. changed emphasis from incident oriented to problem oriented

2. changed emphasis from responding to problems to solving problems that relate to or cause crime

v. Terrorism and patrol

1. target oriented

a. assess likely targets in their districts

2. event analysis

a. police should be aware of important celebrations, ideologies, and anniversaries of known activists, terrorists

d. Patrol methods

i. Two most dominate methods are by foot and by automobile

1. foot patrol

a. resurgence of foot patrol

b. may effect a slight reduction in crime

c. primarily reduces citizens’ fears of crime and changes the nature of police-citizen interactions

ii. Use of motorcycles, motor scooters, three-wheeled vehicles, planes, bicycles, helicopters, horses, boats

e. Use of patrol resources

i. Patrol staffing

1. one-officer versus two-officer units

a. One-officer units produced more arrests. Fewer citizen complaints, less expensive

ii. Resource determination

1. comparative approach

a. involves comparing one or more cities, using a ratio of police officers per 10,000 population unit

iii. Resource allocation

1. two important variables for determining allocation

a. location and time

i. dividing the community into beats

ii. shifts

2. the greater the number of problems or calls for service, the smaller the size of the beat and the more concentrated the resources

iv. Computerized crime mapping

1. assists officers about where to concentrate their patrol activities

2. computer-aided dispatch (CAD)

3. ICAM

a. Information Collection for Automated Mapping

b. developed to help beat officers focus on problem solving

II. Focused Interventions

a. Directed patrol

i. More proactive, uses uncommitted time for a specified activity, and is based on crime and problem analysis

ii. Identify hot spots and hot times for crime and allocate personnel accordingly

b. Proactive arrests and crackdowns

i. Proactive arrests are initiated by the police and focus on a narrow set of high-risk targets

ii. Crackdowns are intensive, short-term increases in officer presence and arrests for specific types of offenses or for all offenses in specific areas

iii. Residual deterrence

1. some crime reduction continues even after the crackdown has ended

iv. deterrence decay

1. a lessening of the crime deterrent effect

2. crackdowns might be more effective if they are limited in duration and rotated across crime targets or target areas

c. Guns and gang violence

i. Kansas City Gun Experiment (1995)

1. specific deterrence was where the goal was to focus on the seizure of illegal weapons from targeted offenders

2. general deterrence was where the goal was to maximize motor vehicle stops as a sign of increased police presence

3. specific deterrence strategies appear to be more effective than general deterrence strategies

ii. Pittsburgh’s Firearm Suppression Patrol (FSP)

iii. Boston Gun Project (1996)

1. cease-fire strategy

a. an attempt to deter the particular problem of gang-related violence

iv. Cincinnati Initiative to Reduce Violence (CIRV)

1. conflict between street groups is responsible for a large portion of urban violence

2. early assessments show a decline in gang-related violence

d. Focused Deterrence Initiatives

i. Also known as “pulling-levers policing”

1. based on the premise that conflict between street groups over issues of respect is responsible for a large portion of urban violence and that reaching out to these groups and their members with a specific deterrent message and offers of assistance to escape a violent lifestyle can reduce violence

2. individuals identified through this process are brought together with law enforcement, social service agencies, and community members at what are referred to as offender notification meetings, “call in” sessions or forums where a specific deterrent message is conveyed

ii. Most well-known initiative is Boston Gun Project

1. also known as the ceasefire strategy

a. emphasized a team approach and involving local and federal police and other justice system agencies.

b. also included community and private sector strategies

i. educational and employment opportunities

e. Policing disorder: Zero-tolerance and quality-of-life policing

i. Based on broken windows theory

ii. Quality-of-life policing

f. Problem-oriented policing focused on disorder

i. SMART—Specialized Multi-Agency Response Team

III. Reactive Arrests and Domestic Violence

a. Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment (1984)

i. Implemented mandatory-arrest policies

b. Dual arrest

i. Police arrest both parties in intimate violence cases

c. Police pursuits

i. Departments need policies regarding police pursuits

1. violent felony only pursuit policy

2. restrictive policy

3. judgmental policy

ii. Foot pursuits

IV. The Investigative Function

a. Historical development

i. In the mid-1850s to early 1900s, the detective was more like a “secretive rogue”

ii. Due process revolution

b. Terrorism and investigation

i. Needs to be proactive

ii. Investigation remains highly individualized and disjointed from the rest of the department

c. Intelligence-led policing

i. Involves intelligence analysis of data collected through improved data collection and sharing systems

ii. Requires organizational changes

V. Selected Research on Investigative Operations

a. Advances in physical evidence: AFIS and DNA

i. Two relatively recent developments in physical evidence are likely to have a significant impact on investigative effectiveness

1. automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS)

a. allows for fingerprints recovered at a crime scene to be compared with thousands of other prints on file in department’s computer system

2. DNA testing

a. allows for the comparison of human cell materials found at a crime scene to find a match between two samples

i. usually blood, semen, and hair

b. Career criminal programs

i. Some research suggests that between 7 to 10 percent of individuals are responsible for committing 50 to 60 percent of crimes

ii. Repeat Offender Project (ROP)

c. Bias crime programs

i. One study found that bias crime clearances were higher in departments where police responses to these crimes emphasized specialized investigations and arrest

d. Detective-patrol relationships

i. Different status between investigators and patrol officers

e. Enticement and entrapment

i. When the police provide both the opportunity and the intent to commit a crime

ii. Sting operations

Chapter Summary

Chapter Eight focuses on police field operations. This involves the patrol function of the police. The goals of patrol include crime prevention and deterrence, apprehension of offenders, creating a sense of community security and satisfaction, and traffic control.

Two critical developments occurred in the 1930s that changed the nature of the patrol officer. One was the increased use of the patrol car. The other was the development of the Uniform Crime Reports. The police have gone from a proactive approach to reactive approach. The police respond when called.

The two most dominate methods of patrol are by automobile and by foot. Controversy exists concerning the use of one-person or two-person patrol cars. Studies indicate that one-person cars make more arrests, filed more formal crime reports, received fewer citizen complaints, and were less expensive.

The 1970s and 1980s saw a resurgence of foot patrol. The officers had been removed from contact with the citizens because of the patrol car. For foot patrol to be successful, it must be implemented in areas in which officers can interact with citizens. The size of the foot patrol beat should be small enough that it may be covered once or twice per shift.

One method used to determine the appropriate number of police personnel for a city is the comparative approach. This approach involves comparing one or more cities, using a ratio of police officers per 10,000 population unit. This method is the most frequently used.

In allocating resources, location and time are the most important variables. Once these variables are known, then the department would know how best to deploy personnel. Computerized mapping assists some departments in helping officers focus on problem solving.

Police time may be better spent focusing on directed patrol and hot spots. Directed patrol is more proactive, using uncommitted time for a specified activity, and is based on crime and problem analysis. The police may use their time more effectively by focusing on hot spots, places where most crimes occur, and hot times, the times when the crimes may occur. The police will have to rely on research to establish the spots and times.

The police may be more proactive and initiate more contact with citizens. Crackdowns would be a way for the police to be more proactive. Crackdowns may be more effective if they are limited in duration and rotated across crime targets and target areas. The evidence appears to support the notion of an initial deterrent effect on some offenses, as well as support for the notion of residual deterrence. This occurs when crime reduction continues even after the crackdown has ended.

Another area of proactive enforcement by the police was with guns and gangs. Several studies have been conducted with the police cracking down on illegal weapons and violent behavior by gangs.

Quality-of-life policing is based on the broken-windows theory. The police will not tolerate even minor crimes. This should improve the quality-of-life in the neighborhoods and indirectly lead to a lower rate of serious crime.

The police response to domestic violence has lead to mandatory-arrest policies being implemented. Analysis of police pursuits have also called for agencies to adopt policies regarding when to pursue and when to back away.

Police departments are encouraged to develop proper policy and guidelines regarding police pursuits, either on foot or in a vehicle. Some departments have a violent felony only pursuit policy. Others utilize a restrictive policy or a judgmental policy. A few agencies discourage all vehicle pursuits.

In addition to the patrol function, the police have an investigative function. The patrol officers may conduct the initial investigation but it is the detective, or investigator, that handles the follow-up investigation. The detective is to determine if a crime has been committed, to identify the perpetrator, apprehend the perpetrator, and to provide evidence to support a conviction in court.

Investigations must change to some extent with respect to the threat of terrorism. Police investigation may need to become more proactive. Also, investigation units need to integrate themselves with the rest of the department and redirect their functional focus.

A recent management innovation related to investigations is intelligence-led policing. This involves intelligence analysis of data collected through improved systems.

Detectives should abandon crime control through apprehension as a principle goal of investigations. They should focus on justice. Detectives should look for clear crime patterns and utilize problem solving strategies to prevent crime.

While being proactive, the police must be concerned with enticement and entrapment. If the police provide both the opportunity and the intent to commit a crime, they police may be guilty of entrapment and the charges against the suspect may be dismissed.