Short Paragraphs

Chapter_6_Reports.pdf

Home >Biology homework help >Short Paragraphs

CHAPTER 6

Reports

Reports provide accounts of information and range from short, informal e-mails to over 100 page formal manuscripts. They may be distributed to an internal or external audience, read via hard copy or on a computer screen, and written in a variety of business genres.

Typically reports fall into one of several categories. Informational reports present information without analysis. They offer facts but do not interpret information. Analytical reports interpret data or informa- tion and often provide recommendations. They may be written to assess a business opportunity, provide solutions to problems, or to support business decisions. Proposals are analytical reports that pose persuasive requests to influence decisions either within an organization or to an external audience.

Reports, like all professional communication, must be well written: clear, comprehensive, and organized. In addition, because they often contain information obtained from a wide variety of sources, reports must be meticulously cited to give them credibility. This chapter provides an overview of the most common types of reports, the various formats used to present reports, components to include in reports, and document design.

Report Types

Whether informal or formal, short or long, each type of report has a spe- cific purpose. Individual organizations may name reports differently, but most reports fall into one of the categories listed in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.

Personnel in organizations write other types of reports. A few of the most common include the strategic plan, which defines a company’s goals and objectives and the action plans to attain those goals. A marketing plan outlines an organization’s target market and competition to best identify its own niche and presents the advertising and promotional plans

Mizrahi, Janet. Writing for the Workplace : Business Communication for Professionals, Business Expert Press, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=2050916. Created from apus on 2021-08-10 22:53:43.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

70 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

Table 6.1 Common informational reports

Report type or name Purpose

Elements to include

Activity Summarize regular activities or unusual events for managers

Bulleted points describing activities

Trip/development activity

describe most important takeaway to justify trip or activity

Introduction, body, conclusion

Progress Explain status of project, describing work completed, work in progress, work to do, current or anticipated problems, expected date of completion

Background, work completed, work in progress, problems, target completion date(s)

Technical Provide managers with facts and data

Executive summary, introduction, conclusions, recommendations (if applicable)

Table 6.2 Common analytical reports

Report type Purpose Elements to include

Feasibility Evaluate viability of specific course of action

Background, benefits, problems, costs

Proposal Persuade audience to take a course of action

Letter of transmittal, abstract or executive summary, table of contents, list of illustrations, introduction, background, plan, schedule, personnel, budget

Recommendation Justify action, often within an organization

Background, alternatives, recommendation

White paper Argue a position or propose a solution; provide evidence of subject expertise

Introduction, background, solution, conclusion

to maximize its market share. A business plan is a roadmap for a new enterprise or a formalized plan for growing an existing business.

Report Styles

Whether a report is formal or informal depends on the audience. Many internal reports—those written for someone within an organization—will

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 71

be informal. For example, if a supervisor asks an employee to write up a justification for taking a trip, the report would likely be informal, written as an e-mail or a memo and using a casual, conversational tone. Not all reports written for internal audiences are informal, however. If a division of a large organization must submit a yearly strategic plan to corporate headquarters, the report would likely be a bound or digital manuscript written in a formal tone. In fact, such a report is among the most formal type of writing done in organizations.

One of the ways to hit the right note of formality is by employing the characteristics of formal and informal writing. Refer to Table 1.4 (Formal and informal writing styles) for a breakdown of the characteristics and components of each writing style.

Report Formats

Reports may be written using a variety of document formats. For example, a report informing a manager about a trip to an industry expo might be delivered in a short e-mail. Sometimes, a formal letter may be used. Say a company is responding to a request for information about providing drought-resistant landscaping services. The initial inquiry may have come via phone or e-mail, but a reply detailing the services the company offers would be best communicated in a formal letter. Such a document would likely be several pages in length.

Memos are also effective for presenting information in reports. Memo reports tend to be less lengthy and less formal than manuscripts, ranging from one to several pages, and are typically used within an organization, though they may at times be sent to an outside audience. Memo reports are often sent via e-mail and are accompanied by a brief e-mail message that forecasts the document’s contents (see transmittal messages section that follows). Manuscript reports may be produced in print or digital versions. Print manuscripts are bound; digital versions of the print report are often a PDF of the print version. Some digital reports contain links that take the reader outside of the manuscript.

Today many companies prefer report decks over more traditional reports. Report decks (sometimes referred to as data blocks) are created in PowerPoint and include narrative and graphics to present information succinctly. They are distributed digitally to individuals or groups, and

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

72 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

although they are prepared using presentation software such as Power- Point, they are not designed to be used for oral presentations.1

See Appendix B for sample documents of a trip report e-mail, a memo proposal, and a letter report.

Report Components

Reports often contain an assortment of elements, which are broken into major sections: front matter, body, and back matter. Here we’ll discuss the various elements that may be included in a report.

Transmittal

Whether being distributed digitally or presented in person, reports are always accompanied by an introductory message called a transmittal. The transmittal accompanies the report but is not part of the report itself. The message may be in the form of a letter, especially for formal reports going to an outside audience, but it may also be an e-mail or a memo. Transmittals are written using the direct strategy and discuss what the report is about and why it was written. They may introduce the main points of interest within the report. The more formal the report, the more formal the transmittal.2

Front Matter

Front matter is comprised of the first few pages of a report that come before the narrative. Front matter may include a cover, an attractively designed front piece for formal reports and those intended for a wide audience. The written information on a cover varies, but it will, at a minimum, contain the title of the report and the name of the person or organization submitting it.

Some reports contain an abstract, a brief distillation of the report’s content. Scientific or technical reports often contain abstracts. Descriptive abstracts simply describe the information in the report without offering interpretation. Informative abstracts summarize key results and offer interpretations.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 73

A title page will contain some or all of the following:

• Report name • Person or organization submitting the report • Name of individual receiving the report • Date the report is submitted • Copyright

The table of contents is an outline of the report that provides readers with the location of major categories and subcategories of information. A good table of contents should offer enough detail so the reader can immedi- ately locate a particular section. Such detail may be written in several formats:

• Decimal outline format (1.0, 1.1, 1.1.2, etc.) • Alphanumeric outline (I, A, 1, a, etc.) • Graphic markers (boldface, indentation, etc.)

Obviously, a table of contents must contain accurate pagination. The list of illustrations shows all tables, figures, and maps. It appears

on its own page and is not part of the table of contents. Tables are gener- ally listed and numbered separately from other figures. All other figures (charts, graphs, maps, photographs) are listed sequentially as they appear in the report. (We will discuss the types of illustrations and the rules for inserting them into reports later in this chapter.)

An executive summary presents the most important elements of a report in a condensed form so a busy manager can glean the report’s most critical takeaways. Depending on the length of the report, an executive summary may be one or 10 pages. For longer executive summaries, informational headings should be used. Executive summaries are objective and must accurately sum- marize information contained in the report body. A well-constructed exec- utive summary often makes reading the entirety of the report unnecessary.

Body

The body of a report contains several sections. The introduction orients the reader. It includes background information explaining the context of the report and defines the report’s limitations (what it will and will not cover). It may provide an overview or the report’s organization, sources

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

74 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

or methodology used to conduct research, definitions of key terminology, authorization for writing the report, and the report’s purpose or signifi- cance. An introduction should not be confused with a summary, which is read in lieu of or separately from a report body.

The findings include the information and supporting facts of the report. Reports are broken into sections or chapters defined by headings. Whichever system is used—alphanumeric or decimal outline or graphics for reader cues—headings are organized by hierarchy (see the sample below). First level headings name major topics. Second level headings subdivide information under a first level heading. Third level headings further subdivide information. It is not necessary to give each body para- graph its own heading; doing so can bog down the reading of a long report. However, for readability, include at least one heading per page.

The following is a sample of headings using graphic markers.

Headings may be informative or descriptive. Informative headings can be written as questions or as summaries, but they are most effective when they are limited to four to eight words.3 Descriptive headings name topics.

In the various sections of a report, information is often cited using a formal citation system. Academic reports use discipline specific citation systems such as MLA for the humanities, APA for the social sciences, or CSE for the sciences. Many organizations use The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) as their guide for citing, which employs footnotes or endnotes accompanied by a list of references in the report’s back matter.

It is important to consider the ethical use of information at this point. It is dishonest (and illegal!) to use copyrighted material without

TITLE (Centered, caps, boldface)

Heading Level 1 (Centered, upper and lower case, boldface)

Heading Level 2 (Flush left, upper and lower case, boldface)

Heading Level 3 (Flush left, upper and lower case, boldface, begin typing directly after heading)

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 75

permission from the author. You may not use photographs or other images you encounter on the Internet without specific permission. The only exception to this rule is information published by the government.

Another element of ethical use of information is the avoidance of plagiarism. Never cut and paste information and claim it as your own work. Instead, rely on paraphrase and summary, using direct quotes only when they add emphasis, and always with proper attribution. Whether paraphrasing, summarizing, or quoting, always give credit to your sources; it makes your work appear well researched as well as making it ethical.

All reports must have an ending. A summary is a recap of the report findings. Conclusions explain how the data in the findings relate to the original problem named in the report’s introduction. Because conclusions sum up the report’s details, they never contain new material. Some reports end with recommendations. Recommendations provide solutions to the problem the report addresses or suggestions for future actions. Sometimes report conclusions and recommendations appear in the same section.

The following example shows the differences between a finding, a conclusion, and a recommendation.

Finding More than 80 percent of pet owners delay prophylactic dental treatment for their pets, citing cost as the deterrent.

Conclusion Current high costs for prophylactic pet dental treat- ment are leading to more costly and serious pet health issues and unhappy pet owners.

Recommendation Develop alternate fee structures for prophylactic dental treatments.

Back Matter

Back matter is the section of a report that contains details referred to, but not fully included, in the body. Typical sections are the references and appendixes. References contain a list of the sources cited or consulted in the writing of the report, using a formal citation system. Appendixes are supplemental to the body of the report and are labeled A, B, C, and so on when more than one appendix is needed. Appendixes are reserved for lengthy or highly detailed portions of a report that readers may not want to read in detail.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

76 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

Report Visuals

Visuals in reports serve several functions. First, they draw readers’ attention. The old adage “A picture is worth a thousand words” is true. Whether a bar graph or pie chart, visuals turn numbers into pictures and help readers grasp points more readily. Second, they help break up text and make a long report more readable and visually attractive.

Visuals should only be used when they highlight an important point, and choosing the correct visual to communicate an idea or fact is crucial to relaying meaning. Table 6.3 summarizes the uses of the most com- monly used visuals.

Table 6.3 Visual types and purpose

Type Purpose or use

Table Organize numerical data or information into rows and columns

Bar or column chart

Show data in vertical or horizontal columns for comparison

Gantt chart Plan and track status of project with beginning and end dates

Line chart Illustrate trends over time; compare data over time

map Show specific points within an area; illustrate distances; show geographic features

Organizational chart

depict hierarchies within an organization; show how ele- ments relate to one another

Photographs Illustrate actual image; record events

Pie chart Show parts of a whole adding up to 100%

Tables display information in rows and columns and can be com- prised of text (such as Table 6.3) or numbers. Numerical tables are used to show large amounts of data and are easily created in spreadsheet or word processing software. Place tables with important information within the body of the narrative; place other tables in the appendix. When making tables, organize data logically, name row and column headings clearly, and use white space, gradation of color, or lines to differentiate between rows and columns.

Bar Charts are excellent ways to illustrate comparisons and are most useful to the reader when they communicate one simple message.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 77

0 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 ‘11 ‘12

0.5

1.0

1.5

$2.0 trillion

U.S. China Figure 7. U.S. and China Exports and Imports 2002−2012

U.S.−China trade gap in dollars. Source: National Association of Manufacturers

Figure 6.1 Sample bar chart

For example, Figure 6.1 shows the trade gap in the United States by comparing exports to imports. To help your reader readily grasp the meaning of the bar graph, use color, shade, or crosshatch to differentiate data. Label the horizontal and vertical axes using specific values that are clearly demarcated.

A Gantt Chart is a type of bar chart used as a project management tool. It shows the length of a project and names specific tasks to be accom- plished, sometimes naming key players. Do a simple Google search to see examples of Gantt charts.

Line Charts are effective ways to show changes over time. They may contain one or several lines to show several elements of data. Figure 6.2 shows a comparison of gross sales between two divisions of an organi- zation. Notice how the horizontal axis shows time and the vertical axis shows the dollar value.

Maps are useful ways to show geographic data with another feature or set of data. For example, a map may be used to show weather patterns across a region or a country, such as the one in Figure 6.3. A map’s label must explain its purpose, and its caption must explain the map’s features. Maps should only show the data that needs to be illustrated. For example, if you are using a map to show voting districts, don’t include major highways, which are irrelevant to the map’s main point.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

78 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

Organizational Charts show hierarchies within a group. They are easily created in most word processing software and include boxes with text. They are constructed using a top-down structure; the largest box at the top represents the highest level of authority. Smaller boxes may be used to indicate descending order of authority. Equivalent levels are placed horizontally.

Q3 0

$100,000

Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Housewares

Figure 3. Gross sales by department Decline in sales from last six quarters of housewares and fine china

Fine China

Figure 6.2 Sample line chart

July 2004 July 2009 July 2014

Hotter

Figure 11. Average high temperatures Hotter weather increases in the Western U.S. over the past decade.

Colder

Figure 6.3 Sample map Average high temperatures

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 79

Photographs should be used to convey a specific message or to illustrate a point. For example, if you are writing a brochure about poison oak, a photograph showing the distinctive three-leaf formation would be extremely helpful. Never simply capture a photograph from the Internet and use it. Many stock photo sites such as Shutterstock.com offer low-cost or even free use of photographs, with permission. And remember that unless a photograph has high enough resolution, it will appear fuzzy and will therefore be useless to the reader. The higher the dpi value (dots per inch), the higher the resolution and the greater the clarity of the photograph.

Pie Charts (or graphs) show data that adds up to 100 percent in wedges within a circle. They are an excellent way to help a reader visualize parts of a whole. For example, say you were creating an advertising budget for a campaign and wanted to illustrate where the funds were being spent, such as the sample in Figure 6.4. When making a pie chart, show the different sections in colors or patterns and group smaller percentages together in an other section.

Online 33%

Newspaper 34%

Magazine 33%

Figure 1. Advertising budget by media type

Figure 6.4 Sample pie chart

Infographics differ from the more conventional visuals previously discussed. They use images to tell a story, distill information, and provide a streamlined and alternative way to understand complex ideas. They employ elements of design to communicate visually. These creative images are interesting to look at and are used in many ways: presenting survey data, recruiting employees, showing how something works, and much more. But as arresting as these graphics are, they can be challenging

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

80 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

to create. Many tools are available for creating infographics such as Piktochart and Visual.ly.

Integrating Visuals into Text

Use the following rules when integrating visuals into a report.

1. Mention the visual in the narrative. Direct your reader’s attention to the visual by referencing it. Write “See Figure 1” or “As Figure 1 illustrates … ”. Never let a visual stand alone without some discussion of its contents.

2. Place the visual near where it is discussed. Do not confuse readers by making them search for the image.

3. Label visuals clearly. The title of the visual should accurately and concisely describe its main message.

4. Use a caption with a title to identify the image’s purpose. 5. Keep images on one page. Never break up a table or other image

onto two pages. 6. Refer to tables as tables and all other images as figures. 7. Number visuals sequentially. 8. Include a source line when taking information from an outside

source. Place it in the lower left. 9. Place lengthier visuals in an appendix.

Report Document Design

As with all workplace documents, reports must be easy to read, so docu- ment design is extremely important. For shorter reports—e-mails, letters, memos—the standard document design we have discussed earlier applies. Here we’ll discuss document design for longer reports.

Page Design

The way your report page appears will encourage or discourage reading. These pointers can help make a long report more visually appealing.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

REPORTS 81

1. Consider using an attractive header and footer as a way to create visual interest in longer reports. A logo or infographic image that is unobtrusive can liven up a page. Even a simple colored line across the top and bottom of a page will make a report with many pages appear less tedious. Include page numbers in either the header or footer.

2. Use right and left margins of 1 to 1.25 in., and use 1 in. for the top and bottom. You may also opt to use two columns for a standard report. Doing so can make dense text easier to track.

3. Choose font style for readability. Many manuscript reports use serif fonts, but increasingly, sans serif fonts are also being used. If you do use a sans serif font for a report, adjust your spacing between lines. When a report will be read on a screen, use generous spacing between lines with both serif and sans serif fonts. (Locate the Pew Research Center’s report Millennials: A Portrait of Generation Next on the Internet for an excellent model of document design using a serif font to be read on the screen.)

4. Differentiate between body copy and headings with boldface and font size. If you use a sans serif font for body copy, choose a serif font for headings. Never use more than two fonts in a long report.

5. Add color for visual interest. Stick to a color scheme using no more than three complementary colors.

Writing Collaboratively

Because reports may be large projects, they are often written collabora- tively. Producing a collaborative project on a deadline can be challenging. Different writing styles and abilities and even different levels of commit- ment to a project can affect collaborative writing. If you are working with a group of people to write a report, consider these pointers.

• Meet regularly to discuss project progress • Assign tasks and keep on schedule • Share information

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .

82 WRITING FOR THE WORKPLACE

• Use a group editing document space like Google Docs or Dropbox

• Rely on individual strengths • Edit for a unified voice and document design

Conclusion

Reports are an important way of communicating information within organizations, to stakeholders, and to other organizations. Many types of reports are regularly written in the workplace using various formats, from short e-mails to manuscripts of more than 100 pages. Reports are broken into sections and must be well organized and visually appealing. Collab- orative report preparation can expedite completion but requires commit- ment and coordination. Clearly written reports that display information in an approachable way continue to play a large role in communicating in the workplace.

C o p yr

ig h t ©

2 0 1 5 . B

u si

n e ss

E xp

e rt

P re

ss . A

ll ri g h ts

r e se

rv e d .