Data Analysis, Test and Measurement PowerPoint presentation

I-1

Oregon K-12 Literacy Framework

Schools teach reading, and

Schools teach reading across instructional areas

Six Organizing Principles of High-Quality Reading Instruction:

Sufficient time for reading instruction is scheduled, and the allocated time is used effectively.

Data is used to form fluid instructional groupings.

Instruction is focused on the essential elements of reading.

Research-based strategies, programs, and materials are adopted and used schoolwide with a high level of fidelity.

Instruction is differentiated based on student need.

Effective teacher delivery features are incorporated into daily reading instruction.

The Oregon K-12 Literacy Framework is aligned to Response to Intervention (RTI)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-2

School

The ability to read proficiently is “a must” for school success and learning throughout life. Over the past 20 years, there has been a growing understanding that reading instruction – teaching all students how to read – is a critical school responsibility, particularly in the early stages of reading development. And as the knowledge on reading development deepens, it becomes increasingly apparent that reading instruction in the classroom must play a central role in education throughout grades K-12, not just in the first few years of school.1

The Instruction chapter of the Oregon K-12 Literacy Framework addresses the critical role schools play in teaching all students to be grade-level readers or above in grades K-3 and the equally critical role schools play in teaching all students to maintain and advance grade-level reading skills in grades 4-12. Reading well is a prerequisite for students to do well in school, to demonstrate proficiency in the Essential Skill of Reading, and to earn an Oregon Diploma.

High-quality reading instruction in grades K-12 involves the integration of six major organizing principles: (1) making sufficient time for reading instruction and using that time effectively, (2) using data to form fluid instructional groupings, (3) focusing instruction on the essential elements of reading, (4) using research-based strategies, programs, and materials to target the essential elements of reading, ( 5) differentiating instruction based on student need, and (6) providing effective teacher delivery. Each of the six organizing principles will be described in detail in the sections that follow.

Organizing Principle 1: Sufficient Time Is Allocated and Used Effectively for Reading Instruction

The first organizing principle of high-quality reading instruction is that sufficient time is allocated and used effectively. For all students to meet important reading goals, it is critical to provide enough time during the school day for explicit reading instruction. To that end, allocating time for reading instruction in a school’s master schedule is a top priority, and once time has been allocated, protecting that time from interruption becomes a top priority.i In elementary, it is important that assemblies, fire drills, class parties, class pictures, or other special events are routinely scheduled outside of that time in order to maximize reading instruction. In secondary, it is important that instruction time in every instructional area be protected not only to provide sufficient time for students to master the course content and skills, but also because the teaching of reading specific to the instructional area occurs in all middle school and high school classes. The purpose of daily reading instruction in elementary and in secondary is to increase all students’ reading skills over time, moving them to grade-level proficiency or beyond. The purpose of timely reading interventions in grades K-12 is to accelerate reading development to enable students to close the gap between current reading performance and grade-level expectations as quickly as possible. Gradually improving or perfecting any skill over time requires consistent, effective instruction and daily practice. To that end, daily, sufficient, and protected time for reading is scheduled so that all students improve as readers every year.

Throughout grades K-3, all students benefit from receiving at least 90 minutes of daily reading instruction.2 The goal is for all students to be grade-level readers or above. This 90-minute block is

1 Kamil et al., 2008; Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Torgesen, Houston Miller, Rissman, & Kosanovich, 2007 2 Haager, Klingner, & Vaughn, 2007 2 Haager, Klingner, & Vaughn, 2007

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-3

School

dedicated to providing instruction on the five essential elements of beginning reading: phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. For grades K-3 students who have not met grade-level reading goals, more than 90 minutes of daily reading instruction needs to be provided.ii The amount of instruction time provided beyond the 90 minutes is based on what students need to become grade-level readers. Students who are well below reading goals need more reading instruction than students who are close to meeting reading goals or who are meeting or exceeding reading goals.

ENGLISH LEARNER STUDENT FOCUS: Allocated Reading Instruction

When allocating time for reading instruction, it is important to schedule more than 90 minutes per day for students who are English learners (ELs) (Gersten et al., 2007). With English learners, additional daily reading instruction needs to focus on vocabulary development and comprehension. This additional instruction can be integrated with the instruction ELs receive during the time of day allocated to English Language Development.

In grades 4-5, a 90-minute reading block is recommended for all students. With the goal of all students being grade-level readers or above, students receive daily, focused reading instruction on the essential elements of reading with an emphasis on advanced phonics skills, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. In grades 4-5 students begin working regularly with texts in social sciences, science, math, and other instructional areas. Because reading across the instructional areas presents new challenges for upper elementary students, it is critical that teachers begin strong content-specific strategy instruction on text structure in each instructional area while also providing vocabulary and comprehension instruction specific to each instructional area. For grades 4-5 students who have not met grade-level reading goals, more than 90 minutes of daily reading instruction needs to be provided. The amount of daily reading instruction beyond 90 minutes is determined based on what students need to become grade-level readers. Students who are well below reading goals need more reading instruction than students who are close to meeting reading goals or who are meeting or exceeding reading goals.

In grades 6-8, a 40-60 minute class designated specifically for reading instruction is recommended for all students. Students are assigned to a reading class based on reading proficiency data; class assignments remain fluid based on progress-monitoring data. In addition to the reading class, students receive reading instruction across all instructional areas on content-specific advanced word study, comprehension, and vocabulary. The goal is to ensure that all students are grade-level readers or above.iii Note that in some cases, a review of school data may indicate that a reading class for all middle school students may not be justified as the reading scores for most students meet or exceed expectations. In this case, a school may decide to provide a reading intervention class specifically for those students who are reading well below grade level.

iv This intervention class may be provided in

place of an elective course. If resources are limited and a separate reading class for all students is not feasible, another option is for middle schools to make the language arts period longer than other classes to provide extra time to focus on reading instruction for all students. Students who are reading well below grade level could participate in both the extended language arts period as well as an additional reading intervention class. See the resource list at the end of the chapter for a link to a video of how one Oregon middle school structured their reading program.v For students with the most intensive reading needs (e.g., students who are in the very low category on the Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-4

School

(OAKS) in Reading/Literature), it is critical for schools to make available intensive interventions provided by qualified specialists.

In grades 9-12, the recommendation is for two to four hours of literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas daily.3 The Reading Next Panel, in their report to Carnegie Corporation of New York, stated that, “although some of this time should be spent with a language arts teacher, instruction in science, history, and other subject areas qualifies as fulfilling the requirements of this element if the instruction is text-centered and informed by instructional principles designed to convey content and also to practice and improve literacy skills” (p. 28).4 To that end, high school teachers provide increasingly more rigorous vocabulary and comprehension instruction and practice to students each year of high school across the instructional areas, preparing them to exit grade 12 reading at grade level or above.

As in grades K-3, the principle for grades 4-12 is to provide more reading instruction and more intense reading instruction for students based on need.5 In addition to the separate reading period and literacy-connected learning for students in grades 4-8 and the literacy-connected learning for high school students, students with moderate to severe reading difficulties need additional time for reading instruction. Finding this time would ideally involve scheduling instruction during an extended school day or extended school year. However, when that is not possible, in grades 9-12, time might be taken from home room, study hall, study skills, or an elective class for additional explicit small group reading instruction matched to student need. See the resource list at the end of the chapter for a document that shows the possible reading intervention plans a school might consider for grades 6-8 and includes some of the pros and cons associated with each.vi For students with the most intensive reading needs (e.g., students who are in the very low category on the OAKS in Reading/Literature), it is critical for schools to make available intensive interventions provided by qualified specialists.

In order to realize desired outcomes, interventions must be implemented with a high level of instructional quality that includes appropriate group size and sufficient time based on student need.6 Intensive interventions for some secondary students begin by focusing on building foundational skills such as phonological awareness, decoding, and other word analysis skills. Other students may require interventions that focus on building fluency, increasing vocabulary knowledge, and using comprehension strategies.7 The purpose of intervention is to accelerate reading development so that students can close the gap between current performance and grade-level expectations. For secondary students reading well below grade level, small group intensive instruction is most likely a last opportunity to close the gap with their peers and become grade-level readers.

The minimum recommended times for daily reading instruction for all students in grades K-12 are provided in the following table.

3 Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 4 Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 5 Kamil et al., 2008; National Governor's Association Center for Best Practices, 2005 6 Kamil et al., 2008 7 Kamil et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-5

School

Recommended Time Allocations for Reading Instruction for ALL Students

Grade Level Amount of Instruction Per

K–3 • 90 minute reading block Day

4–5 • 90 minute reading block and literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas

Day

6–8

• 40-60 minute reading class for all students (grouped based on skill level) and separate from English language arts

• 2-4 hours of literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas

Day

9–12 • 2-4 hours of literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas

Day

As noted above, for students who are not yet reading at grade level, the number of minutes of daily or weekly reading instruction needs to be increased above these minimum amounts. The amount of extra time is based on how far students are below grade level. At this point, difficult decisions need to be made regarding what other content students will miss in order for them to participate in additional reading interventions designed to move them to grade-level proficiency.

Organizing Principle 2: Data Is Used to Form Fluid Instructional Groups

In grades K-3, schools need to use time allocated for reading instruction to provide both whole class (also referred to as whole group or large group) and small group instruction for every student on a daily basis. Small group instruction is the most effective way to provide students with intense reading instruction that focuses on their specific learning needs.8

Student reading skill is used in creating the composition of reading groups, particularly during small group instruction.9 If all students in the group are at approximately the same instructional level, teachers can target a narrower range of skills, which intensifies the instruction. That is why homogeneous group instruction based on reading proficiency data is an important consideration throughout grades K-12.

To make small group instruction effective for all students, it is critical for reading teams at each school to review student data regularly and use this information in revising the composition of small and large groups to ensure fluidity. The ultimate value of small group instruction for any instructional purpose is

8 Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, and Moody, 1999; Torgesen, Fall 2004; Gersten et al., 2009 9 Slavin, 1987; Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, & Moody, 2000

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-6

School

based on evidence that students are benefiting.10 Decisions about benefit and movement to different instructional groups need to be based on student reading data.

As a result of the data-based planning and group assignments described above, the composition of student groups for reading instruction is fluid and revised regularly based on student reading data. Small group instruction

Enables teachers to address specific skill gaps and/or next-step challenges for every student Enables teachers to work closely with every student Increases instructional interactions between teachers and students Gives students multiple opportunities to practice reading activities Enables teachers to correct student errors immediately.

Small group instruction is an excellent format for English learners. A major benefit is that small group formats provide English learners with more opportunities to practice academic and oral language in the presence of an expert teacher.11

vii viii

In grades K-3, the size of the groups and the amount of time students spend in whole class and small group instruction depends on student performance data and school resources. The goal is to provide instruction that will move ALL students to grade-level proficiency or higher. Students who are well below grade level need more time in small group instruction than students who are somewhat below, at, or above grade level. Students who have not met reading goals need at least 30 minutes per day in small group instruction. Students who are meeting reading goals need the opportunity to work in small group formats each day throughout grades K-3. For those exceeding reading goals, small group instruction is one of the best ways for schools to provide the accelerated instruction higher performing students need.ix

12

General guidelines for the number of students to include in small group instruction are outlined in the following table. For students in grades K-3 who are well below grade level, small group instruction is best if group size does not exceed five students; optimal group size is no more than three students.13 For students who are performing somewhat below grade level, group size should not exceed eight. For students at or above grade level, small group size should not exceed twelve. (An exception to the above recommendations would be some supplemental programs that can be delivered effectively with a group size of 18-20.) Note that in most cases the appropriate group size for maximum benefit from small group instruction will be recommended by the reading program that is being implemented.

10 Fuchs et al., 2008 11 Gersten et al., 2007 12 O’Conner 2007; Fletcher, Denton, Fuchs, & Vaughn, 2005 13 Elbaum & Vaughn, 2001

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-7

School

Recommendations for Small Group Sizes in Grades K-3

Student Skill Level Number of Students Per Group

Well Below Grade Level 3 - 5

Somewhat Below Grade Level < 8

Grade Level or Above < 12

EL STUDENT FOCUS: Small Groups There are exceptions to the value of homogeneously grouping students for reading instruction. An important exception is with English learners when the instructional focus is specifically on vocabulary and reading comprehension. For these instructional focus areas, it is valuable for English learners (and English only students also) if students with differing levels of English proficiency are taught in the same group. In this case, more proficient students will have the opportunity to serve as stronger language models for less proficient English learners. Because instruction during these specific times should be highly rich in student language, it is best if small groups of students with different levels of English language proficiency are convened. The recommended size of these groups should range from 3 - 6 students (Gersten et al., 2007). If adequate time is devoted to this instruction, each English learner will have multiple opportunities to actively engage in high-quality instructional interactions with the teacher and peers focusing on vocabulary and comprehension.

Reading instruction in grades 4-8 is provided in two fundamental ways. First, it is recommended that ALL students in grades 4-8 be taught reading as a separate class from English language arts; the composition of the class is homogenous but fluid based on reading proficiency data, and the contents of the class is aligned to the Oregon Reading Standards http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/real/newspaper/Newspaper_Section.aspx?subjectcd=ELA. These reading classes are designed to help students continue to develop foundational reading skills; they support students by providing instruction followed by practice on those specific essential elements of reading that will accelerate their growth as readers. In grades 4-8 reading classes, students are explicitly taught strategies and skills that are common to both informational and literary text and that will help them read at grade level or above. These separate reading classes in tandem with strong content-specific instructional support (described in the next paragraph) will increase students’ ability to access increasingly more difficult text each year in grades 4-8.

Second, in grades 4-8, in addition to providing reading instruction in a separate class, reading strategies and skills are taught across all instructional areas. Teachers devote a portion of the instructional time to teaching students the reading strategies necessary to access and comprehend subject-specific texts and other materials. In grades 4-5, during literature, social sciences, science, mathematics, and health, teachers support and extend the foundational skills and comprehension strategies students learn in their reading classes. In grades 6-8, using subject-specific texts across the

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-8

School

instructional areas, teachers support and expand on the strategies and skills students learn in reading classes. In grades 6-12, where in most cases students attend separate classes for each subject, a subject-specific approach to teaching and supporting reading across all instructional areas is essential.14

In grades 9-12, teaching and supporting subject-specific reading across the instructional areas is critical as high school teachers are the sole providers of reading instruction for most high school students. Students receive reading instruction exclusively in the courses they are taking unless they are reading below grade level. As in elementary and middle school, it is important for students in high school who are reading below grade level or significantly below grade level to receive reading instruction through a separate reading class. 15

Teaching reading across the instructional areas makes sense, inasmuch as it helps students read content more easily and learn content more deeply. In grades 4-12, the use of small groups for reading instruction is conceptualized somewhat differently than it is in grades K-3. In grades 4-5, grouping approaches may look similar to grades K-3 although typical group sizes may be larger. As students move into grades 6-8 and grades 9-12 settings, the size of the reading groups will be determined largely by student need and the number of students appropriate for the type of instruction being delivered.

The following general guidelines will help districts and schools determine reading class size for grades 4-8. For students somewhat below grade level, but who have relatively strong foundational reading skills (e.g., nearly meets proficiency on the OAKS in Reading/Literature), class sizes of approximately 15-20 students enable teachers to provide an appropriate degree of instruction and feedback. For students who are somewhat below grade level and are struggling with the development of foundational reading skills (e.g., have not mastered phonics or are well below proficiency standards on reading fluency targets and low on the OAKS in Reading/Literature), class sizes of 8-15 students enable teachers to provide the level of intense instruction and feedback these students require. For students with significant reading difficulties who are struggling with the development of foundational reading skills and are reading two or more years below grade level (e.g., very low on the OAKS in Reading/Literature), reading class sizes of 6-8 students are appropriate. These students require a great deal of intense and explicit instruction from highly trained teachers.16 The composition of student groups for reading instruction is fluid and revised regularly based on student reading progress. The following table summarizes recommendations for reading class sizes in grades 6-8.

14 Heller & Greenleaf, 2007; Metzler, 2002; Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 15 Kamil et al., 2008 16 Kamil et al., 2008

The composition of student groups for reading instruction should be fluid and revised regularly based on student reading progress.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-9

School

Recommendations for Reading Class Sizes in Grades 6-8

Student Skill Level OAKS Proficiency Number of Students

per Group

Well Below Grade Level (2 or More Years Below)

Very Low 6 - 8

Somewhat Below Grade Level (Lacking Foundational Reading Skills)

Low 8 - 15

Somewhat Below Grade Level (Have Nearly Acquired Foundational

Reading Skills)

Nearly Meets 15 - 20

In grades 9-12, when a separate reading class is no longer provided to all students, schools need to provide reading intervention to students performing well below grade level utilizing group sizes similar to those listed in the preceding table. High-quality interventions for struggling adolescent readers require instruction in smaller groups, increased time for learning, or both. 17 18

Generally, the more intense the needs of students, the more important it is for teachers to have extensive professional development and demonstrated skill in working with them. Teachers assigned to work with small groups of lower performing students use their skills to provide frequent instructional interactions, multiple opportunities for student responses, and immediate corrections for students’ skill- based errors. Even in large reading classes, however, teachers who are effective at providing explicit instruction and multiple practice opportunities for students can carry over some of the advantages of small group instruction to the large group.

Other Instructional Formats to Increase Reading Opportunities K-12 In addition to the use of fluid instructional grouping, other formats can be used to increase the opportunities students have to develop reading proficiency. An excellent instructional approach includes students working with each other. In grades K-12, students can be taught to work with their peers in ways that provide serious and challenging learning opportunities.19 With practice, teachers can manage these instructional formats so that transition times—from students working together to whole-class/teacher-led instruction— are minimal.

Using this approach, reading teachers and teachers across the instructional areas regularly have students work with each other in small groups or with a partner. These activities are structured so that teachers are able to provide more feedback and supervision to the groups that need it most. Small groups and partner formats increase the opportunities students have to

17 Kamil et al., 2008 18 Biancarosa, C. & Snow (2006) 19 Gersten et al., 2007; Klingner & Vaughn, 1999; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000

Small groups and partner formats can increase the opportunities students have to process key learning objectives and practice using reading skills.

Instruction

OREGON

process k each othe

Small example, comprehe K-3 or in u In all case that when on importa

Org

The th elements instruction elements

20 Biancaros 21 Gersten e 22 Francis et 23 Klingner & 24 Fuchs, Fu

K-12 LITERAC

key learning o er on many im

Reading w Providing s Reading w Practicing Practicing (especially

l peer groups students can

ension.23 Or s upper elemen es, it is critica n students are ant learning o

ganizing

hird organizin of reading. T

n across the g for grades K-

sa & Snow, 2006 et al., 2007; Kami t al., 2006. & Vaughn, 1996; uchs, Mathes, & S

CY FRAMEWO

objectives and mportant readi

words accurat summaries of

with expressio key vocabula and producin

y for ELs).22

can provide learn to enga

students who ntary or secon l that extensiv

e working with objectives.24

Principle

ng principle of he following f grade levels. -3; the next se

il et al., 2008

Kamil, 2004 Simmons, 1997;

ORK

d practice usin ing tasks, inc

ely f content that

on and fluency ary21 ng academic l

practice for st age in rich tex need to deve ndary) can wo ve teacher-led h each other t

e 3: Instr Elemen

f high-quality figure provide The section i ection after th

Gersten et al., 2

Adopte

ng reading sk luding

has been rea y

language in th

tudents on an xt-based disc

elop phonolog ork with each d preparation they follow hig

ruction Is ts of Rea reading instru

es a preview o mmediately b

hat explains th

2007; Kamil et al

d by the State B

kills.20 Student

ad

he context of

ny of the esse cussions that gical awarene

other to prac n and instructi ghly-specified

Focused ading uction is focus of the essenti below the figu he essential e

., 2008

Board of Educ

ts learn to pro

grade-level r

ential element increase read ss and phonic

ctice and reinf ion be provide d procedures

d on the E

sing instructio al elements f

ure explains th elements for g

cation, Decemb

ovide feedbac

eading conte

ts of reading. ding cs skills (in gr force these sk ed to students that are cente

Essential

on on the ess for reading he essential grades 4-12.

ber 2009 I-10

Sch

ck to

nt

For

rades kills. s so ered

l

sential

0

hool

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-11

School

A Preview of Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction for Grades K-3 Reading instruction in the early grades focuses on the five essential elements research has identified: phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.25 26 27 x xi These five essential elements are aligned to Grades K-3 Oregon Reading Standards http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/real/newspaper/Newspaper_Section.aspx?subjectcd=ELA. Students with knowledge and skills in these essential elements will be able to read at proficient or advanced levels on the OAKS in Reading/Literature in grade 3.

In general, phonological awareness instruction is heavily emphasized in kindergarten and the first part of grade 1. Phonics instruction begins in kindergarten and grade 1, with teaching children sound symbol relationships and how to decode many simple words. Phonics instruction progresses in grades 2 and 3 to include letter and vowel combinations and more difficult word types. (Students in grades 4 and above focus on advanced word study.) Fluency instruction receives greater instructional attention as students develop proficiency in phonics. Fluency instruction begins in grade 1 and is heavily emphasized

in grades 2 and 3. (For some students, fluency should continue to be a major instructional focus through grade 8 and above.) Vocabulary instruction is strongly emphasized throughout grades K-12. In the early grades, much of the content of vocabulary instruction is from books and other curriculum materials teachers read to students. As students begin to read on their own and read increasingly complex texts across the instructional areas, they encounter words that are not a part of their oral vocabulary, and their vocabulary expands more rapidly. Comprehension instruction shifts from a listening comprehension focus in grades K-1 to a mostly reading comprehension focus beginning in grade 1 and continuing on through grade 12. Because comprehension is the key to school success and learning throughout life, there is a heavy emphasis on comprehension instruction throughout grades K-12.28

In the sections that follow, each essential element for beginning reading instruction is defined and described.

Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness can be defined as one’s sensitivity to, or awareness of, the sound structure of words.29 It is heavily emphasized in kindergarten and the first part of grade 1. Phonological awareness is an oral language skill that sets the stage for understanding the association between sounds and print,

25 National Reading Panel, 2000 26 National Reading Panel, 2000 27 Kamil et al., 2008 28 Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2007. 29 Torgesen and Bryant, 1994

Key Term Phoneme: An individual unit of sound. When placed together, phonemes create words.

The best predictor of reading difficulty in kindergarten or first grade is the inability to segment words and syllables into constituent sound units (phonemic awareness).

Lyon (1995)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-12

School

which is the central emphasis of phonics instruction.30 Phonological awareness can be thought of as a hierarchy of skills that develops over time. Examples of early phonological awareness tasks include identifying and making oral rhymes (e.g., the cat on the mat) and identifying syllables in spoken words (e.g., clapping the parts in names: Jo-anne). More sophisticated phonological awareness skills include identifying onsets and rimes in spoken words (e.g., the first part of pot is /p/, p-ot) and identifying individual phonemes (sounds) in spoken words (e.g., the sounds in hot are h-o-t). When students are able to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words, they have phonemic awareness.31 Phonemic awareness is the most sophisticated skill in the hierarchy of phonological awareness skills— and it is the skill that best predicts later reading achievement.32 The research base is clear that phonemic awareness can be taught and learned, and when it is, the beneficial impact on early reading achievement is measurable. Instruction that focuses on phoneme blending and segmentation best prepares children for reading. In phoneme blending, children first listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes, then they combine the phonemes to form a word (e.g., “What word is /r/ /a/ /t/?”). In phoneme segmentation, children break a word into its individual sounds (e.g., “Say the sounds in glad.”).33

Hierarchy of Phonological Awareness Skills

30 Adams, 1990; Shaywitz, 2003 31 NRP, 2001 32 Torgesen & Burgess, 1998 33 Chard & Dickson, 1999

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-13

School

Phonics Phonics instruction focuses on teaching students the associations between sounds and print. Phonics instruction begins in kindergarten and grade 1 and progresses in grades 2 and 3. In English, 44 phonemes represent the sounds of the language, and children need to know what letters and letter combinations represent each of these phonemes in order to be able to read. Associating sound to print (decoding) is essential for learning to read, and most children will need to be taught these sound associations directly. Effective reading instruction teaches students these letter-sound combinations through the isolation of individual letter sounds (i.e., synthetic phonics instruction) as well as in the context of reading connected text.34 While some children develop adequate phonics skills without a great deal of explicit classroom instruction,

other children need even more explicit instruction than what is offered in the classroom in order to learn the associations between sound and print. Strong phonics instruction is highly systematic and incorporates enough practice so that students soon learn to read familiar words with automaticity (i.e., applying letter-sound knowledge immediately). Automaticity is essential to reading because meaning is easily lost if every word has to be sounded out before it is read. When children begin reading words with automaticity, they progress rapidly as readers. When they come to an unfamiliar word, they have the tools to read the word phonetically by “sounding it out”; phonetically reading unfamiliar words (“sounding out”) is the most powerful strategy good readers of all ages use to read words they don’t recognize.35 One focus of phonics instruction, then, is to teach children the associations between sounds and print so they develop automaticity with familiar words, and a second focus of phonics instruction is to teach children the skill of regularly and effectively “sounding out” unfamiliar words so they are able to access thousands of words on their own.

Fluency In essence, fluent reading is reading text accurately and with sufficient pace so that deep comprehension is possible.36 37 If one reads for comprehension, then reading fluently is essential. Fluency instruction begins in grade 1 and is heavily emphasized in grades 2 and 3. Some students develop adequate fluency skills without a great deal of explicit instruction. Other students need considerable instruction to learn to read fluently.

Students work on fluency development by reading connected text that includes words they are able to read accurately. This allows students to build on the knowledge they have of phonological awareness and phonics. A consistent problem with some fluency instruction is that the words students are trying to read fluently are not words they are able to decode accurately.38 When students have problems with decoding 34 National Reading Panel, 2000 35 Ehri et al., 2001; Adams, 1998 36 Pikulski & Chard, 2005 37 Simmons, Fuchs, Fuchs, Mahes, & Hodge, 1995 38 One of the most common problems in fluency instruction is that students are reading passages that contain words they are not able to read accurately. In these cases, phonics instruction needs to be the focus of the lesson. If fluency instruction is the goal, then the difficulty of the materials needs to be adjusted so that students are able to read the words accurately.

Phonetically reading unfamiliar words (“sounding out”) is the most powerful strategy good readers use to read unknown words.

Only a reader with skilled decoding processes can be expected to have skilled comprehension processes.

Perfetti (1984)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-14

School

text accurately, fluency instruction is inappropriate because it may encourage them to guess at reading words they do not know. In order to build fluency, students need to practice orally reading and rereading text that is at their independent reading level; that is, text they can read at about 95% accuracy.39

Fluent reading also addresses appropriate inflection and expression. Effective fluency instruction includes varied models of fluent reading, with critical features such as inflection and expression conspicuously identified, so that students can emulate these features and receive direct and immediate feedback from teachers on their effort.

Grade 1 students improve fluency—and at the same time expand and improve vocabulary and comprehension—when they begin reading hundreds of words on their own independently, typically during the last half of first grade. Making sure all children are on track to being independent readers as soon as possible after they enter school is a major objective of the framework. Once a student begins to read independently, fluency increases and vocabulary and comprehension expand. Encouraging, supporting, and expecting all students, once they are able to read, to build fluency through reading regularly in and out of school, will result in more grade- level readers and above in grades 1-3 as well as system-wide. Grade-level readers and above are able to benefit the most from school.

Vocabulary Vocabulary instruction, teaching the meanings of words, should begin in earnest in the beginning of kindergarten. Vocabulary knowledge is a key determinant of reading comprehension. If students do not know the meanings of words they are expected to read, they will have little chance of comprehending the texts they are reading. As students progress through the grade levels and learn to read more difficult texts, they begin learning the meanings of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.40

While children learn most of their vocabulary at first indirectly by engaging in conversations with adults and through listening to books that are read to them, learning vocabulary through reading on their own soon becomes the most efficient strategy for increasing vocabulary (see independent reading references in previous section on fluency). In fact, by grade 3, the number one determinant of vocabulary growth is the amount of time a student spends reading independently.41 Struggling readers simply do not engage in the amount of free reading necessary to promote large or even sufficient gains in vocabulary knowledge. That is why it is critical for schools to catch young children up quickly to grade-level reading targets so they, too, can become independent readers as early as possible, efficiently building vocabulary and comprehension on their own.

However, explicit instruction in word meanings can add to students’ ability to learn a given set of words. Explicit instruction is particularly important for students who are not strong or regular readers. In

39 Center for Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, 2001 40 Oral vocabulary refers to words that students use in speaking or recognize in listening. 41 Nagy, Anderson, & Herman, 1987

A robust approach to vocabulary involves directly explaining the meanings of words along with thought provoking, playful, and interactive follow-up.

Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2002)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-15

School

school settings, students can be explicitly taught a relatively deep understanding of about 300 words each year. This can account for between 6% and 30% of a student’s vocabulary growth.42 It is reasonable to teach thoroughly about eight to ten words per week.43 44 Explicit vocabulary instruction provides instruction in word meanings as well as strategies that promote independent vocabulary acquisition skills. Explicit instruction in word meanings and explicit instruction in strategies for learning the meanings of new vocabulary are complementary approaches, not conflicting approaches.45 Research clearly indicates both approaches enhance students’ vocabulary acquisition.46

Comprehension For students to be successful in school, they must be able to read grade-level text with deep comprehension. Students will not be able to read with deep comprehension if they struggle with phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, or vocabulary words they do not know and are encountering in text.47 48 If students have these skills and knowledge, the likelihood they will be able to read grade-level text with deep comprehension is very good.

Comprehension instruction shifts from a mostly listening comprehension focus in grades K-1 to a reading comprehension focus beginning in grade 1 and continuing on through grade 12. Comprehension is emphasized strongly in grades 2, 3, and above.

To increase the chances students will read with deep comprehension, it is critical that teachers explain and model comprehension strategies and skills directly to students at all grade levels.49 Comprehension strategies are routines and procedures that readers use to help them make sense of texts. Even students who are struggling with phonics or fluency skills can benefit from learning comprehension routines. Examples of these strategies include summarizing texts, asking and answering questions, paraphrasing, and finding the main idea.50 The table that follows lists the seven types of text comprehension strategies which appear to have a solid scientific basis. When these strategies are taught explicitly to students, the benefit in terms of overall reading proficiency can be powerful.51

42 Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986 43 NRP, 2001 44 For some students, especially ELs, this will require a great deal of instruction. For these students, even very common words may be unknown, and if not addressed instructionally, comprehension will be extremely limited. 45 Kamil et al., 2008 46 Baumann, Edwards, Boland, Olejnik, & Kame’enui, 2003; Bos & Anders, 1990; Jenkins, Matlock, & Slocum, 1989 47 Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 48 Willingham, 2006/2007 49 NICHY, 2007; Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Torgesen, Houston Miller, & Rissman 2007 50 Kamil et al., 2008 51 National Reading Panel, 2000 62 The National Reading Panel identified 7 reading comprehension strategies that are supported by empirical research. There is evidence that when these strategies are taught explicitly, reading comprehension improves. However, Willingham (2006/7) makes the excellent case that many good readers do not require explicit instruction to learn how to comprehend text. Although explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies should not harm students who already read with deep comprehension, this type of instruction is not as critical for students with strong comprehension skills.

Key Term Comprehension Strategy: Routines and procedures that students learn to employ in order to make meaning from text. These strategies should be taught explicitly.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-16

School

Scientifically-Based Comprehension Strategies Identified by the Report of the National Reading Panel

Comprehension Monitoring: Teaching students to be aware of their understanding of the material

Cooperative Learning: Teaching students to work as a group to implement reading strategies

Use of Graphic and Semantic Organizers: Teaching students to make graphic representations of the text to improve comprehension

Question Answering: Teaching students to answer questions and receive immediate feedback

Question Generation: Teaching students to ask themselves questions as they read the text

Story Structure: Teaching students to use story structure to help them recall story content

Summarization: Teaching students to integrate ideas from the text

Explicit instruction is the best delivery system for teaching students comprehension strategies.52 Explicit comprehension instruction involves a series of steps: teacher modeling and explanations of the specific strategies students are learning, guided practice and feedback on the use of the strategies, and finally independent practice in the application of taught strategies.53 In addition, explicit instruction involves providing a sufficient amount of support, or scaffolding, to students as they learn how to use the strategies on their own and when to use them.54

In explicitly teaching comprehension strategies to students, it is better to provide multiple-strategy instructional lessons (e.g., make connections between new text information and prior knowledge, make predictions about the content of the text, and draw inferences)55 than single-strategy lessons.56 This finding is consistent with the National Reading Panel, which also found benefits from teaching students to use more than one strategy to improve their reading comprehension skills.57

xii

The Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction for Grades 4-12 Adolescent reading instruction is becoming an increasingly popular topic and a body of research- based practices is emerging. The following table provides a list of resources for administrators and teachers on the topic of adolescent literacy. The list is not comprehensive, but offers school personnel a solid starting point for building knowledge in this area.

xiii

52 Duffy et al., 1987; Fuchs et al., 1997; Klingner et al., 1998; Schumaker & Deshler, 1992; Torgesen et al., 2007; Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 53 Brown, Campione, & Day, 1981; Dole, Duffy, Roehler, & Pearson, 1991; Kame’enui, Simmons, Chard, & Dickson, 1997; Pearson & Dole, 1987; Pressley, Snyder, & Cariglia-Bull, 1987; Duke & Pearson, 2002 54 Brown et al., 1981; Palincsar and Brown, 1984; Pearson and Gallagher, 1983 55 Hansen & Pearson, 1983; Trabasso & Bouchard, 2002 56 Kamil et al., 2008 57 NRP, 2000a

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-17

School

Resources on Adolescent Literacy

Academic Literacy Instruction for Adolescents: A Guidance Document from the Center on Instruction 2007, Florida Center for Reading Research

Doing What Works: Research-based Education Practices Online US Department of Education, http://dww.ed.gov/topic/?T_ID=23 Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers: A Practice Brief 2008, Center on Instruction

Improving Adolescent Literacy: Effective Classroom and Intervention Practices 2008, Institute of Education Sciences

Literacy Instruction in the Content Areas: Getting to the Core of Middle and High School Improvement 2007, Alliance for Excellent Education

Reading Next: A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School Literacy 2006, Alliance for Excellent Education

Reading to Achieve: A Governor’s Guide to Adolescent Literacy 2005, National Governors Association Center for Best Practices

Time to Act: An Agenda for Advancing Adolescent Literacy for College and Career Success 2010, Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy.

The Secondary Literacy Instruction and Intervention Guide: Helping School Districts Transform into Systems that Produce Life-Changing Results for All Children 2007, Stupski Foundation

What Content-Area Teachers Should Know About Adolescent Literacy 2007, National Institute for Literacy

The Center on Instruction, in their practice brief entitled “Effective Instruction for Adolescent Readers,” defines adolescent reading as occurring between grades 4-12 and as separate from beginning reading.58

xiv They note that the essential elements of reading instruction for older readers differ slightly

from those of beginning readers. The Center on Instruction organizes the essential elements of reading for older readers into five general areas: word study, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and motivation. The following table compares the essential elements of beginning reading instruction with those for adolescents. In the sections that follow, each element of reading instruction at the secondary level is addressed.

58 Boardman, et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-18

School

Essential Elements of Reading Elementary Level vs. Secondary Level

Element Elementary Secondary

Phonemic Awareness

Word Study (Advanced)

Fluency

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Motivation

*Adapted from Center on Instruction Professional Development Module on Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers

Word Study Word study is defined as instruction that focuses on reading at the word level. Advanced word study focuses on teaching students to utilize word analysis and word recognition strategies to decode longer, multisyllabic words. For example, older students are taught to break difficult words apart into the root word, prefixes, and suffixes, and utilize the smaller parts to assist them in decoding the word. From grade 5 on, average readers encounter approximately 10,000 words each year that they have not seen in print before.59 Most of these new words contain two or more syllables.60 Ending phonics instruction in the primary grades may result in students who are proficient at reading monosyllabic words, but who lack strategies for decoding longer words. Recommended instructional practices for advanced word study in grades 4-12, as identified by the Center on Instruction, include teaching students to

Identify and break words into syllable types Read multisyllabic words by blending the parts together Recognize irregular words that do not follow predictable patterns Understand the meanings of common prefixes, suffixes, inflectional endings, and roots—

instruction should include ways in which words relate to each other (e.g., trans: transfer, translate, transform, transition)

Break words into word parts and combine word parts to create words based on their roots, bases, or other features

Use structural analysis to decode unknown words. (p. 7)61

While word study instruction occurs in reading classes and as part of reading interventions, it is essential that advanced word study instruction occur across the instructional areas. Specifically, teachers in all classes focus on teaching the base words, prefixes, suffixes, and compound words that are 59 Nagy and Anderson, 1984 60 Cunningham, 1988 61 Boardman et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-19

School

important for the new vocabulary being introduced.62 While some instructional focus may be on how to spell these words, the main instructional focus is on how changing word parts signals changes in word meaning.

Fluency Fluency instruction begins in grade 1 and is heavily emphasized in grades 2 and 3 with a continued emphasis through grade 5. However, for some students, fluency should continue to be a major instructional focus through grade 8 and above. As noted in the fluency section for grades K-3, “In essence, fluent reading is reading text accurately and with sufficient pace so that deep comprehension is possible.” Because fluent reading is associated with reading comprehension, fluency is especially important to adolescent readers as they encounter large amounts of text across the instructional areas.

While there is less research on the role of fluency instruction for older students, the Center on Instruction recommends the use of two instructional practices. First is the use of repeated reading of the same passage to increase students’ sight vocabulary. When utilizing the repeated reading technique, selecting passages with a controlled number of target words in otherwise readable text may be especially useful versus selecting overly difficult text with a disproportionate amount of unfamiliar vocabulary. It is important for teachers to select passages for repeated readings that have been previously taught and practiced or to select text at students’ independent reading levels.

The second recommended practice for improving fluency is the use of non-repetitive wide reading which, when supported by the teacher, can also be a productive way of exposing students to new target words, content, and types of text. With non-repetitive wide reading, teachers select high interest passages at students’ independent or instructional reading levels. Students then practice fluency using these successive passages from a novel or textbook. To increase passage difficulty, teachers select texts with new vocabulary and content. The end goal is for adolescent readers to decode words accurately and automatically, read at an appropriate rate, utilize appropriate phrasing and expression, and combine multiple tasks while reading, which includes actively processing and understanding the text.63

While formal fluency instruction as described above can best be accomplished through reading classes and reading intervention periods, there are important ways for all teachers to support this element. The National Institute for Literacy, noting that it is important for struggling readers to witness fluent reading on a regular basis, suggests that teachers model fluent reading for students by reading aloud from classroom texts regularly. It is also important for students to have the opportunity to read aloud, although sensitive implementation is important. Choral reading is a good strategy that provides struggling readers with practice reading the text aloud as a group rather than reading aloud on their own. Teachers might select specific passages for choral reading, such as poems, segments of literary works, or critical content that they want students to remember.64 Teachers may also be effective at providing opportunities that work well for partner reading in class, pairing more fluent readers with less fluent readers and selecting different passages for them to read aloud to one another.65

62 National Institute for Literacy, 2007 63 Boardman et al., 2008 64 National Institute for Literacy, 2007 65 National Institute for Literacy, 2007

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-20

School

Vocabulary Older readers encounter an abundance of new vocabulary words in the increasingly difficult text they are expected to read. In grades 4-8, they receive vocabulary instruction in reading, English language arts, science, social sciences, math and other classes across the instructional areas.66 In grades 9-12, it is also critical that students receive vocabulary instruction in every class. To expand their vocabulary and their ability to access increasingly difficult text, students need to be taught the meanings of new words as well as be given strategies for determining the meaning of unknown words. The Center on Instruction identifies three types of vocabulary instruction appropriate for older readers:

Teaching the meaning of specific words

Teaching word-learning strategies

Teaching word meaning and word-learning strategies specific to the instructional areas.67

The sections that follow discuss selection of target vocabulary words and then describe each type of vocabulary instruction.

Selecting Words

Secondary teachers begin by selecting words that are important and useful for students within and across the respective instructional areas. The following table provides one method for categorizing words into types or “tiers” useful for selecting target vocabulary.

Three-Tiered Approach to Vocabulary (Beck and McKeown, 1985) Tier 1 Words

Words most students at a particular grade level will know

basic words (e.g., pour, shake, flow)

Tier 2 Words words having utility across many dimensions or instructional areas academic words found in many curriculum areas (e.g., observe, record, investigate)

Tier 3 Words highly specific content words lacking generalization content words low-frequency words needed to understand the concept (e.g., translucent, transparent,

viscous)

Secondary teachers need to balance instruction of the important content-specific words (Tier 3) with instruction on the high utility words that go across instructional areas (Tier 2).

66 Kamil et al., 2008 67 Boardman et al., 2008

When children have access to words important to the gist of a story or to the meaning of text, the children’s understanding is enhanced

(Henry, 2005)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-21

School

The National Institute for Literacy provides another framework for selecting vocabulary words to preteach. This group also makes the distinction between specialized academic words and non- specialized academic words used when discussing subject-specific information. The Institute suggests that teachers consider the following points when selecting vocabulary to preteach:

Importance of the word for understanding the text

Students’ prior knowledge of the word and the concept to which it relates

The existence of multiple meanings of the words (e.g., meter in poetry, mathematics, and science)

Opportunities for grouping words together to enhance understanding a concept (p. 16).68

Teaching Words and Strategies

Teaching the meaning of specific words. Once target vocabulary words have been selected, teachers provide a variety of experiences around each new word. This may begin with providing a student-friendly definition, and lead to reading the word in text, discussing examples and non- examples of the word, creating semantic maps, etc. It is important to teach multiple meanings of the words, providing multiple exposures to the target words to demonstrate the different ways words are used. Effective instruction actively engages students in vocabulary learning (e.g., linking new words to words that students already know through games and discussion) and is flexible in order to ensure students understand and can complete the task at hand.69 This instruction works particularly well with Tier 2 words (i.e., non-specialized academic words).

Teaching word-learning strategies. In addition to directly teaching the meaning of specific words, secondary teachers teach students to identify the meaning of a new word by using their existing knowledge of words and word parts. This instruction, paired with guided practice in using word parts (morphemes) and contextual cues, aids students in deriving word meanings. To increase this type of word learning, it is essential that secondary teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in wide reading of texts.70

Teaching word-meaning and word-learning strategies specific to the instructional areas. When focusing on the meanings of words in a specific subject area, instruction needs to include both direct teaching of word meanings and instruction on word-learning strategies.71 Grades 4-12 teachers use subject-specific materials to select target vocabulary words, focusing on Tier 3 words (i.e., specialized academic words) that will have high utility in each instructional area. Based on the particular context, teachers determine the goal for depth of word understanding, and then explicitly teach the vocabulary words prior to reading, selecting from strategies such as the following: providing a simple definition, generating examples and non-examples, utilizing semantic maps, using key words or word parts, and/or using computer technology.72

68 National Institute for Literacy, 2007 69 Boardman et al., 2008 70 Boardman et al., 2008 71 Boardman et al., 2008 72 Boardman et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-22

School

Comprehension Reading comprehension is a critical component of reading instruction in grades 4-12. The expectations for students to learn from text increase significantly in the upper grades. Students must know how to apply comprehension strategies across instructional areas.73 As in grades K-3, explicit comprehension instruction is the best delivery system for teaching older students comprehension strategies.74 The research highlight below describes the components of explicit comprehension strategy instruction.

Research Highlight:

Adolescent Literacy Recommended Practice

Provide direct and explicit comprehension strategy instruction (Kamil, 2008). Strong evidence supports teacher modeling and explaining of specific comprehension strategies. This instruction includes active participation of students. In addition, teachers must instruct students on how and why they would use strategies such as summarizing, asking and answering questions, paraphrasing, and finding the main idea. This explicit instruction ensures that students are able to use and apply the strategy independently and with a variety of text types.

As also noted in the research highlight, an essential dimension of effective instruction in comprehension strategies is the active participation of students in the comprehension process. In fact, many researchers believe that it is not the particular strategies taught that make the difference in student comprehension, but rather active student engagement in the comprehension process.75 For passive readers, strategy instruction may be a catalyst for them to become actively engaged in processing the meaning of text. Struggling adolescent readers are frequently students whose “eyes sometimes glaze over the words on the page because they are not actively processing the meaning of what they are reading.”76 Instruction in applying comprehension strategies may help these students become more active readers.

Strong readers may not require explicit instruction to read with deep comprehension, but there is no evidence that providing explicit comprehension instruction for these students is harmful, and there is some evidence that the development of comprehension strategies and skills will occur more quickly with these students when explicit instruction is provided. For these students, teachers can differentiate by providing them with more complex texts and assignments in order to accelerate application of advanced reading comprehension strategies.

Explicit strategy instruction includes the following key steps:77

1. Select texts carefully when first beginning to teach a strategy. For example, teaching the main idea is sometimes difficult with narrative texts because many narrative texts do not have clear main ideas.

73 Biancarosa & Snow, 2006 74 Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Kamil, 2008; Torgesen et al., 2007 75 Gersten et al., 2001; Pressley et al., 1987 76 Kamil et al., 2008 77 Kamil et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-23

School

2. Teach students how to apply the strategies they are learning to different texts. This encourages flexible and appropriate strategy use.78

3. Ensure that the text is appropriate for the reading level of students. Texts that are difficult to read make strategy use problematic because students are struggling with the text itself. Texts that are too easy make strategy use unnecessary.

4. Begin explicit comprehension strategy instruction by telling students what strategies they are going to learn and why it is important to learn them.79

5. Model how to use the strategies by reading and thinking aloud with a text.80 Provide guided practice with feedback so that students have opportunities to practice using the strategies. When students are able to demonstrate strategy use with guided support, teachers then provide independent practice using the strategies.

6. Make sure students understand that the goal of strategy use is to comprehend the text and that the strategies can be used flexibly by readers. Focusing too much on the process of learning comprehension strategies can minimize the importance of students’ understanding of the text itself.81 The goal should always be comprehending texts – not using strategies. 82 Different readers can achieve proficient comprehension by using different strategies. The true purpose of strategy instruction is effective, independent reading.

Many comprehension strategies are general and can be used across the instructional areas. The National Institute for Literacy, in their report titled, “What Content-Area Teachers Should Know about Adolescent Literacy,” identified the following general strategies that can be adapted for use with most types of text:

Generate Questions. Teachers read aloud passages from subject-area texts, stopping to model the kinds of questions successful readers ask, repeat this modeling several times, and guide students in generating their own questions.

Answer Questions. Using subject-area texts, teachers can model how to construct answers from: explicit information (“right there” responses), implicit information found in several places in the text (“pulling it together” responses), a synthesis of information in the text and the reader’s own prior knowledge (“text and me” responses), and answers when the student does not have to read the text for the answer, but the text will inform the answer (“on my own” responses).

Monitor Comprehension. Teachers read aloud selected text passages stopping at various points to “think aloud” about what may or may not be understood and modeling aloud problem-solving strategies. 78 Duffy, 2002; Paris et al., 1983; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995 79 Brown et al., 1981; Duke & Pearson, 2002 80 Bereiter & Bird, 1985; Duke & Pearson, 2002 81 Pearson & Dole, 1987 82 Kamil, et al., 2008

...all teachers can assume responsibility for helping students comprehend texts that are used in their classrooms. The goal of text comprehension instruction is to help students become active, purposeful, and independent readers of science, history, literacy and mathematics texts.

(The National Institute for

Literacy, 2007, p. 20)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-24

School

Summarize Text. Teachers explicitly teach the four components to the summarizing strategy: identify and formulate main ideas, connect the main ideas, identify and delete redundancies, and restate the main idea and connections using different words and phrasings.

Use Text Structure. Teachers examine the content, language, and structure of text with which students may have difficulty and identify specific strategies such as using graphic and semantic organizers or using words that function as transition or signal words for a particular text structure.

Use Graphic and Semantic Organizers. Teachers provide instruction on how to use graphic and semantic organizers that will help them see the relationships among concepts, ideas, and facts in a text.83

The following table organizes comprehension strategies that can be used across instructional areas before reading, during reading, and after reading.

83 National Institute for Literacy, 2007

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-25

School

Comprehension Strategies to Support Text-Based Learning

Before Reading

Previewing • Encourage students to observe text organization and text features

• Help students to anticipate new content

Activating Prior Knowledge • Prepare students to engage actively in new learning • Help students remember relevant knowledge Understanding Relationships • Strengthen students' abilities to categorize and classify (For example, use anticipation guides and generate questions.)

During Reading

Increasing Thinking and Memory Skills • Build cognition and metacognition • Help students learn how to remember new information • Help students develop and see relationships among ideas (For example, use graphic and semantic organizers, interspersed questions, paired reviews and/or reciprocal teaching.)

After Reading

Answering Comprehension Questions • Focus on the essence of the question • Help students answer the question accurately and succinctly

Summarizing • Increase factual recall and conceptual understanding of content information (For example, use multiple choice questions, think-pair-share for answering written questions)

From: ACCESS Toolkit (second edition), copyright 2008 by Mary M. Gleason, Ginger Kowalko, and Lori Rae Smith

Following is an example of a before-reading activity designed to reinforce the understanding of relationships; a second example is specific to health. See the resource list at the end of the chapter for more discipline-specific examples.xv

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-26

School

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-27

School

Motivation

Research Highlight: Adolescent Literacy Recommended Practice

Increase student motivation and engagement in literacy learning (Kamil, 2008). There is a small base of experimental and quasi-experimental research that supports the consideration of motivation when teaching adolescent literacy.84 This includes selecting materials that students can relate to their own lives. A similar level of motivation can be achieved when students can choose their own reading material from a teacher designed pre-selected group of texts. Teachers should also strive to build the confidence of students. Some strategies for doing this include viewing mistakes as growth opportunities and providing feedback to students about comprehension strategies and how strategies can be modified to fit various tasks.

Motivating students to read is an essential issue to address with adolescent readers. Lack of motivation to read and lack of engagement in reading can hinder comprehension and limit access to new vocabulary and content.85 Successful readers are motivated to interact with text, are strategic in how they read text, have better comprehension when engaged with the text, are interested in reading to learn more about particular topics, and as a result, read more.86 Researchers have identified four instructional practices that can increase student motivation:

Provide goals for reading (i.e., provide a question or purpose for reading) Support student autonomy (i.e., give students opportunities to choose text) Use interesting text Increase opportunities for students to collaborate during reading.87

Organizing Principle 4: Research-Based Strategies, Programs, and Materials are Adopted and Used Schoolwide with a High Level of

Fidelity With the goal of all students reading at grade level or above, schools use strategies, programs, and materials that focus on the essential elements of reading. The strategies, programs, and materials are constructed in a manner aligned to the best research evidence available on design of instruction. When possible, strategies, programs, and materials should be supported by evidence from experimental research that clearly demonstrates their effectiveness; that is, a program has actual scientific evidence of effectiveness that has been demonstrated through a well-designed study that clearly describes how the research was conducted. The term “evidence-based” is used here to describe these types of strategies, programs, and materials. In the absence of an evidence-base, then strategies, programs, and materials are used that have been designed based on components that scientific research has verified as effective. While the exact program itself may not have been evaluated, it is based on components and techniques

84 Guthrie & Humenick, 2004; Biancorosa & Snow, 2006; RAND, 2002 85 Morgan & Fuchs, 2007 86 Boardman et al., 2008 87 Guthrie & Humenick, 2004

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-28

School

proven effective in other research studies. The term “research-based” is used here to describe these types of strategies, programs, and materials.

Each school needs an integrated set of strategies, programs, and materials that are selected and used to meet the needs of the full range of students in the building. In grades K-5/6, this includes a core reading program, supplemental programs and materials, and intervention programs that are specifically designed for students who are well below desired reading goals.88 In grades 6-8 and grades 9-12, reading textbooks, subject-area texts, and other materials may be used effectively with students reading at grade level or somewhat below. Supplemental programs may also be implemented with students reading somewhat below grade level. For students well below grade level, however, intervention programs that focus on foundational aspects of reading development need to be used. For all students grades 4-12, strategies to promote access to subject-specific texts should be used across the instructional areas. In the sections below, the use of core, supplemental, and intervention programs across the grade levels is discussed.

The term “core” has different meanings at elementary and secondary. In grades K-5/6, a core program is a basal reading program that can be purchased for use as the basis of reading instruction. Similar types of programs can be used in grades 6-8 as part of the curriculum for reading classes.

The term “core” means something entirely different for grades 9-12, however. In high school, teachers do not implement a core reading program. Instead, reading instruction is diffused across the instructional areas. “Core instruction” refers to the reading instruction that all teachers provide in every course. Subject-area texts are analogous to core reading programs in earlier grades. Reading instruction is not a separate subject, but rather becomes discipline-specific.

88 District and school leaders purchasing a variety of programs will need to study how programs will align. Often the scope and sequence of intervention programs and core curriculums are not aligned; at the least, special planning time will be needed by teachers to make the necessary adjustments so as not to confuse struggling learners who are receiving instruction in several programs.

Key Terms Research-Based vs. Evidence- Based The term "research-based” indicates that the specific program/approach is based on scientific research. It includes components that scientific research has verified as effective, but it may or may not have evidence of actual use in practice. "Evidence-based" indicates that a scientific study has determined that the specific program/approach is effective when implemented, that is, a program has actual scientific evidence of its effectiveness that has been demonstrated through a well-designed study that clearly describes how the research was conducted.

Instruction

OREGON

Core Re In gra the core p students w grade leve comprehe instruction the neces core read knowledg would rea grade leve

Additi program. through th program m about goa deeply on program m with high

89 Adapted f

K-12 LITERAC

eading Pro ades K-5/6, s program is us who are close el can benefit ensively addre n, and be seq ssary skills to ing program i e and skills th

ad at grade lev el throughout

ional benefits A good core

he grades, the makes plann als and object ne core progra makes provid mobility, a co

rom Vaughn, Hu

CY FRAMEWO

ogram: Ele chools select ed with (a) st e to meeting r t from particip ess all five es quenced in a w meet reading is that if used hey need to m vel soon after t elementary s

to students, program is se e content kno ing easier fo tives, instruct am rather tha ing professio

ommon core p

ughes, Moody, &

ORK

ementary t and impleme tudents who a reading goals pating in parts ssential eleme way so that if g goals and ex correctly, stu

meet state rea r they enter s school and be

teachers, and equenced ca owledge addre r teachers. It ion, and stude n several. Fo onal develop program provi

Elbaum, 2001

Adopte

ent a research are meeting o s. Note that st s of the core p ents of beginn it is taught by xpectations. I udents have t ading standar chool or in gr eyond.

d schools acc arefully within essed builds provides a ba ent performan

or schools and pment more e ides consiste

d by the State B

h-based core or exceeding r tudents who a program as w ning reading, y teachers wi In other word the greatest o rds in grades rade 3 at the l

crue from the and between on previous k asis for effect nce. A coach d districts, sel efficient and ency in instr

Board of Educ

e reading prog reading goals are performing

well. The core provide expli th fidelity, stu s, the major b

opportunity to K-5/6, which

latest and con

use of a com n grades so a knowledge. A tive staff com benefits by n

lection of a co cost effectiv uction from

cation, Decemb

gram. In gene s or (b) with g well-below program sho cit and system

udents will dev benefit of usin learn the

h means they ntinue reading

mmon core rea s students mo common cor

mmunication needing to kno ommon core ve. For distric school to sc

ber 2009 I-29

Sch

89

eral,

ould matic velop ng a

g at

ading ove re n ow

cts chool.

9

hool

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-30

School

Benefits of Selecting a Common Core Reading Program in the Elementary Grades

Audience Benefit

Students A core program provides instructional continuity from grade level to grade level (i.e., vertical alignment of scope and sequence for the five essential elements).

Teachers A common core program makes planning and pacing of the instructional program easier and provides a basis for effective staff communication about reading instruction, student data, and reading goals.

Coaches A coach benefits by needing to know deeply one core program rather than several.

Schools / Districts A common core program makes professional development cost effective and efficient.

District For districts with high mobility, a common core program provides consistency in instruction and language from school to school.

Teachers need extensive professional development to use a core program effectively and with fidelity. To that end, it is important to differentiate professional development based on teacher need. Professional development provided by publishers is insufficient for effective implementation of the program to occur. Additional and on-going professional development is critical, particularly during year one with follow-up provided during year two, if the core program is to be used effectively and with fidelity. See the Professional Development chapter, 3-4, for a discussion on preparing teachers to implement reading programs.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-31

School

Defining Fidelity to the Program

Fidelity of implementation is an important and commonly misunderstood concept. Many educators mistakenly assume that “fidelity” means that ALL aspects of the program are implemented precisely as written by the publisher. There are two major problems associated with this interpretation. First, most core programs contain more material than can be taught in the time schools allocate for reading instruction (90 minutes). Second, some aspects of the core program lesson(s) may not provide sufficient information about what teachers actually need to do instructionally to provide systematic and explicit instruction. In this case, the goal is for teachers to instruct in a way that actually provides more explicit instruction than is indicated in the core program. The most important aspect regarding fidelity to the core program is that school-based teams decide (a) what aspects of the core program are most important in teaching the five essential elements, and (b) when and how specific aspects of the core should be extended or enhanced to make instruction in these five essential elements more systematic and explicit, based on student need.

As noted above, elementary schools select core programs that are constructed in a manner that is aligned with the best research evidence available. If a core program is not supported by experimental research (i.e., an evidence-based program), a school will need to evaluate the quality of how a core program is constructed (i.e., determine if the program is research-based). There are multiple dimensions on which the construction of core programs should be evaluated.xvi It would be a major challenge to schools to adequately evaluate the design of a core reading program because of the time and preparation it takes to do this well. However, schools can be critical consumers of information provided by other larger entities that have conducted comprehensive reviews of core reading programs. Schools can carefully analyze these reviews, examine the instruments and methods used in conducting the reviews, and arrange to ask questions and otherwise seek additional information about the review process before deciding to purchase a core program.xvii xviii

Design Features of Strong Core Programs

• Provide explicit and systematic instruction • Provide ample practice on high-priority skills • Include systematic and cumulative review of high priority skills • Demonstrate and build relationships between fundamental skills leading to higher order

skills.

From the "Consumer’s Guide to Evaluating a Core Reading Program Grades K-3: A Critical Elements Analysis" (Simmons and Kame’enui, 2005)

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-32

School

Core Reading Program: Middle School Literature anthologies are commonly used as the core curriculum in heterogeneous middle school English language arts classes. In the homogenously-grouped middle school reading classes, informational text materials from across the instructional areas are a main focus along with the core anthology for English language arts. It is possible that for some students a different literature anthology, or the support materials associated with an anthology, may be utilized for instruction. It is important to note that curriculum should be matched to student need. For example, students with intensive reading needs would not be placed in an anthology of grade-level reading material. Instead, these students would be placed in an intervention program designed specifically for struggling adolescent readers. The intervention program would supplant the core curriculum.

Supplemental Programs and Materials: Elementary Supplemental programs generally provide deeper instruction and additional practice on a particular essential element or subset of essential elements. For example, a supplemental program may focus on phonological awareness and phonics for students in kindergarten and grade 1 or a supplemental fluency program may be used with students in grades 4-5. Deeper instruction means that the instruction for a particular concept or skill is more extensive than it would normally be presented in the core program. For example, more guidance is given to teachers in how to make instruction more explicit and systematic. Teachers have more extensive opportunities to model a skill or task. Students have more opportunities to practice applying what they have learned in the lesson under the careful guidance of the teacher and also independently. Learning objectives are divided into more discrete subsets of an essential element(s) so that when students struggle it is clear what the source of difficulty is and how to address it.

There are two reasons elementary schools may consider the use of supplemental programs. First, when schools examine analyses of core reading programs they may find that the design for teaching all five essential elements of reading is not of equal quality. Some essential elements may be strongly designed throughout the grades and others less so. To address shortcomings in how a particular element in a core program is designed, a school may “supplement” the core program with a supplemental program. To address phonics shortcomings in a core program, for example, schools may consider the use of a phonics supplement. The supplemental phonics program would be used with ALL students who receive instruction from the core reading program as an addition or supplement to the core program, not as a substitution for the phonics instruction from the core. The same rationale holds for other essential elements of reading.

A second reason elementary schools may consider the use of supplemental programs is to address the needs of a subset of students for whom the instruction provided in the core program, though designed well, is not sufficient to meet their specific needs. For some students, particularly students who are close to meeting grade-level reading expectations but are still below desired goals, there may be gaps in their knowledge and skill in relation to one or more of the essential elements. For example, for students not meeting formative phonics goals, schools may need to consider the use of a supplemental phonics program to provide additional instructional support. Another example is a student who has sound phonics skills but is not making adequate progress in reading fluency. A supplemental program targeting fluency instruction might be beneficial in providing more instruction and practice for the student in this area. The core program may address fluency instruction in a way that meets the needs of the majority of

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-33

School

students, but for a small number of students additional fluency instruction may be necessary. Again, this supplemental instruction would be provided as an addition to the core program and would not be a substitution for content included in the core.

Benefits of Using a Supplemental Program

Address shortcomings in how a particular element in a core program is designed by providing supplemental instruction to all students.

Address the needs of a subset of students for whom the instruction provided in the core programs, though designed well, is not sufficient to meet the needs of specific students.

Supplemental Programs and Materials: Middle School and High School In grades 6-12, reading teachers and specialists can utilize assessment data to determine specific areas of need for students who are not reading at grade level and provide supplemental instruction (see the definition of supplemental materials in the opening portion of the previous section) in these areas. Some students, for example, may need explicit instruction on strategies to decode multisyllabic words. The school can then select a supplemental advanced phonics program to implement with these students daily or several times a week. Other students may need to focus on building reading fluency. In this case, schools can select and implement a supplemental fluency program. Fluency programs that include informational text as part of the daily instruction may be especially beneficial for these older students who are required to read subject-specific texts. There are different ways to schedule supplemental instruction in the upper grades. In grades 6-8, where the recommended practice is to include a reading class for all students, schools can include the supplemental program as part of the reading instruction provided during reading class to those groups of students who need it. A common method to implement a supplemental program in grades 9-12 is to utilize homeroom, study hall, or elective periods to implement the supplemental programs. In addition to utilizing supplemental programs to improve reading skills, it is critical that secondary teachers provide within each instructional area opportunities for advanced word study, fluency building activities with subject-area texts, explicit vocabulary instruction, and direct comprehension strategy instruction.

While grades 6-12 teachers do not implement supplemental reading programs in their courses, their role in helping all students to access required text or other text specific to a subject area is significant. Text in the instructional areas is typically above many students’ reading level.90 As a result, it was common in the past to have students read very little text, the rationale being that if students learned the content–even if they could not read the content to understand it deeply—instructional expectations were met. It is important, however, that all students, including those who are struggling readers, be given opportunities to read texts across the instructional areas. In the effort to help all students become grade- level readers or higher, teachers can select text at students’ instructional levels to supplement the course text. To help students access informational text, teachers can (a) summarize and explicitly teach the content from text in their respective courses, (b) provide scaffolds to students for reading the selected

90 Armbruster, 1984; Armbruster & Anderson, 1988

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-34

School

course text, and (c) provide additional text at the students’ reading level. Teachers will find it helpful to use Lexile measures to assist with identifying appropriate text for the range of learners in their classrooms.xix http://www.ode.state.or.us/search/page/?id=1638 The Oregon School Library Information System (OSLIS) http://www.oslis.org/ provides research databases of articles, many of them Lexiled (every Oregon district has an access code for OSLIS databases). Teachers find Lexiles useful as a way to locate informational text at students’ independent and instructional reading levels. This approach to selecting text will pay large dividends for students as they are expected to practice reading in every class, improving their reading skills over time. Students who understand the importance of daily practice to hone skills in sports, music, and other areas will understand how daily practice “plays” out in reading as well!

To select the most effective supplemental programs for both elementary and secondary levels, schools identify those programs supported by experimental research (i.e., evidence-based programs). In the absence of experimental research, schools evaluate the alignment of supplemental programs to scientifically-based reading research. A website for accessing a tool to evaluate supplemental programs is provided at the end of the chapter along with links to websites that include completed reviews of programs.xx

xxi xxii

Intervention Programs: Elementary Intervention programs are intense reading programs designed to address the needs of students who are well below grade-level goals. Whereas core reading programs in the early grades typically focus on many aspects of literacy instruction including areas such as writing, spelling, and oral communication, intervention reading programs focus more narrowly on the essential elements of reading. To select the most effective intervention programs, schools should identify those programs supported by experimental research (i.e., evidence-based programs). In the absence of experimental research, schools can evaluate the alignment of intervention programs to scientifically-based reading research.xxiii xxiv

Intervention programs can be comprehensive, but in some cases intervention programs focus on fewer than all five essential elements. Some intervention programs specialize on only one element of reading. For example, a subset of students may be reading or decoding with a high level of accuracy, but their rate of oral reading continues to be slow. In this example, the students would benefit from an intervention program that focuses on fluency building and not phonics.

Many core reading programs now include intervention materials. One benefit of utilizing intervention programs that are designed to go with a core reading program is the consistency in the scope and sequence between the core and intervention for items such as the order of introduction of sounds, high frequency words, and word types. This consistency is often reflected in common themes as well. Just as with stand- alone interventions, however, schools need to review the core-embedded intervention program to determine if the program is aligned to scientifically-based reading research. In some cases, the core-embedded intervention programs may not be intensive enough to meet the needs of the students. Characteristics of intensive intervention programs are discussed below.

One characteristic of an intensive intervention reading program is that instruction is usually more explicit and systematic. A second characteristic is that an emphasis is placed on the concept of mastery learning; that is, there are clear criteria for what students must do to demonstrate they have learned instructional content before teachers move to the next lesson in the sequence. The idea behind mastery

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-35

School

learning is that students can only progress through the sequence of learning objectives when they are able to demonstrate competence on the key objectives of the instructional content.

A third important characteristic of an intervention reading program is that student progress on formative reading goals is carefully monitored. The ultimate objective is that students will make sufficient progress in the intervention program to exit the program and receive their instruction in the core program or in a grade-level reading class. Normally this requires a specific plan for the amount of instructional material teachers will need to cover each day so the students will eventually catch up to the instruction being provided in the core program or grade-level class. The concept of mastery learning is critical in this pacing plan because adequate pacing ensures that teachers cover instructional content and that students master the key objectives.

It is helpful for teachers to set goals for lesson pacing and then provide regular, planned updates on the lesson progress of their instructional groups.xxv These updates can be scheduled in conjunction with upcoming grade-level or department-level meetings. Teachers indicate how many lessons each group has completed to date (e.g., the blue group in first grade has completed Lesson 55 of Intervention Program X as of October 31st). These updates include the most recent information on student performance on in-program mastery tests as well as a summary of the students’ overall progress toward formative reading goals. Teachers work in grade-level or department-level teams to review the lesson progress updates to determine which groups are on pace for timely completion of the program, which groups are not on pace, and which groups do not have all students at mastery. The team identifies ways to improve lesson pacing (e.g., sharpen teacher presentation skills) or address lack of mastery (e.g., provide additional opportunities for group responses prior to individual responses). The team also identifies if there are students who need to be regrouped based on their performance at these regular updates.

Teams select and implement intervention programs based on the students’ grade and level of need. For example, kindergarten students who are identified as being at risk for reading difficulty upon entering school in the fall require intensive intervention. Teams select a research-based intervention program that teaches phonemic awareness and beginning phonics skills. These kindergarten students may participate in the regular core reading instruction and receive an additional explicit, systematic intervention program outside of the reading block (e.g., in an extended day program). Grade 5 students who are reading at the grade 2-level will require an intervention program that teaches initial decoding skills and allows for acceleration through the lessons so students can learn the content in a shorter amount of time. For these struggling readers, teams may consider supplanting core reading instruction with the intervention program during the regular reading block AND providing additional instructional time outside of the reading block to complete lessons in the intervention program. This additional instruction time may also be used to reteach or provide extra practice on skills that were difficult during the initial presentation of lessons earlier in the day.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-36

School

Intervention Programs: Middle School and High School

Common Characteristics of Struggling Readers in Middle and High School Grades

Stupski Foundation Report: The Secondary Literacy Instruction and Intervention Guide

Are less fluent readers - many have some multisyllabic needs and their sight word vocabularies are thousands of words smaller than the grade-level reader

Are less familiar with the meaning of words

Have less conceptual and content knowledge

Have fewer and less-developed strategies to enhance comprehension or repair it when it breaks down

Do not enjoy reading nor choose to read for pleasure

In middle school and high school, interventions differentiated enough to close the gap for intensive struggling readers are also necessary.91 Intense interventions (see the definition of intervention materials in the opening portion of the previous section) on word study and fluency building are provided to those students who lack foundational reading skills. These interventions are provided by reading specialists or teachers who have undergone thorough professional development to help them understand the program or approach they will use.92 Professional development also deepens teachers’ understanding of adolescent struggling readers. Placement of secondary students in interventions begins with initial screening data to identify those students who need extra help and is followed up by a deeper assessment with diagnostic tests to provide a profile of literacy strengths and weaknesses.93 Additional information regarding intensive interventions for older struggling readers is provided in the section on differentiated instruction that follows.

Research Highlight: Adolescent Literacy Recommended Practice

Make available intensive and individualized interventions for struggling readers that can be provided by trained specialists (Kamil, 2008). Strong scientific evidence supports this recommendation to provide intensive support for those middle and secondary students struggling with basic literacy skills. Students in this situation need their growth to be accelerated so they may catch up to their peers. This process begins with teacher observation and initial screening to see which students are in need of this instruction and then a diagnostic assessment to determine their literacy skill weaknesses and strengths. Based on the assessment results, an intensive and explicit instructional plan should be developed and delivered by a skilled teacher.

91 McPeak, 2007 92 Torgesen et al., 2007 93 Kamil et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-37

School

Teachers in middle school and high school are not responsible for carrying out intensive interventions for struggling readers. However, it is a priority through professional development for teachers to learn to use strategies designed to make subject-area texts more accessible to all students, including those who struggle with literacy.94 It is critical for teachers to activate prior knowledge, set a purpose for the reading, preteach key vocabulary, preview text structure, and utilize other consistent teaching processes with expository text that support effective reading. In doing so, teachers use tools that will help struggling readers better understand and remember the content. For instance, graphic organizers and guided discussions can help students understand and master the curriculum content.xxvi If schoolwide coordination is achieved through common planning periods and informal opportunities for teachers to collaborate and communicate across the instructional areas, teachers can more easily provide mutually reinforcing reading opportunities to better prepare students to meet identified standards in all areas. Ideally, teachers work with literacy specialists and other teachers to provide coherent and consistent instruction that enables students to succeed in reading across the instructional areas.

Organizing Principle 5: Instruction Is Differentiated Based on Student Need

The third major organizing principle of high-quality reading instruction is differentiating instruction based on student need. Differentiated instruction is the key instructional concept that drives the nature of instruction for below grade-level readers and above grade-level readers. In order for ALL students to be able to meet yearly reading goals, instruction needs to be differentiated based on student need. This concept articulates how each teacher, with support described in this section, is able to make sure that all students in his or her classroom receive the instruction they need to make adequate reading progress and to become grade-level readers or above. For students who are on track for successful reading achievement, core reading instruction can be provided that (a) meets state standards, (b) allows students to meet or exceed standards on the OAKS in Reading/Literature and (c) allows students to read texts and other material across the instructional areas with comprehension.

For students who are not on track—those students who are not meeting formative reading goals and are not meeting on the OAKS in Reading/Literature—reading instruction should be differentiated from standard core instruction so that students can make progress toward reading at grade level. The way instruction is differentiated—as well as the intensity of the instruction—is based on student need.

94 Torgesen et al., 2007

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-38

School

Instructional Tiers of Support

The first step in organizing how to differentiate instruction is to group students based on level and type of need. Increasingly, students are grouped into instructional tier categories. These instructional tiers are based on how far below or above students are relative to grade-level reading goals. The precise number of tiers may vary among schools, but most schools use three or four instructional tiers at each grade.

In a 4-tiered system, the term “Advanced” describes students who are reading above grade level. Advanced students typically are quite efficient at learning the core content and require enhanced activities to continue to accelerate progress. Tier 1 describes those students who are reading at grade level and are considered to be at low risk for long-term reading difficulties. Tiers 2 and 3 describe students who are not meeting grade-level reading goals.

Tier 2 students are described as being at moderate risk for long-term reading difficulties. Generally, instruction for Tier 2 students in grades K-8 is differentiated in ways that allow them to be successful in the school’s core reading program or in the grade-level reading class. This may involve enhancing the core program, or providing reading class instruction that provides more explicit teacher language, more teacher modeling, and more practice opportunities on critical reading skills.xxvii xxviii In some cases, a supplemental program is necessary to establish foundational reading skills for Tier 2 students. A supplemental program may be implemented as part of a reading class curriculum in grades 6-8. In grades 9-12, schools may schedule a supplemental reading program during study skills, homeroom, or elective periods for Tier 2 students who would benefit.

For Tier 2 students in grades K-5 settings, additional reading instruction outside of the 90- minute block is often needed for students to make the progress necessary to reach grade-level reading goals. Teachers implement a supplemental program during the additional reading time. Tier 2 students in

Tier 3 – Students who are reading significantly below grade level and are at high risk for long- term reading difficulties.

Tier 2 – Students who are reading slightly below grade level and are at moderate risk for long-term reading difficulties.

Tier 1 – Students who are reading at grade level and are low risk for long-term reading difficulties.

Advanced – Students who are reading above grade level.

Advanced

Tier 2

Tier 3

Tier 1

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-39

School

grades 4-12 require teacher support to access the content across the curriculum. To help students access information, teachers can (a) summarize and explicitly teach the content from text in their respective courses, (b) provide scaffolds to students for reading the selected course text, and (c) provide additional text at the students’ level. It is critical for this instruction to be provided within the context of the class. See sections on supplemental and intervention programs for more information on how classroom teachers can support students in their classrooms who are receiving supplemental and intervention instruction for reading improvement.

Tier 3 students are at high risk for long-term reading difficulties and need the most intense reading instruction possible. Typically, the core instruction alone is not appropriate. Tier 3 students require reading instruction that is as explicit as possible and focuses exclusively on the essential elements of reading.

In grades K-5, depending on student need, schools may include Tier 3 students in some or all of the core instruction and provide additional intensive instruction using the intervention materials that were designed to complement the core program or a separate intervention program. In many cases, a separate, stand-alone intervention program is selected and supplants the core program for Tier 3 students. Instruction is differentiated through the effective implementation of the intervention program.

For Tier 3 students in grades 6-8 and grades 9-12, schools need to provide intensive and individualized interventions delivered by trained specialists.95 The cause of reading difficulties may differ from student to student. Schools adjust the focus and intensity of the interventions provided based on student need. Intensive interventions may, for example, focus on phonemic awareness and initial decoding for some students and teach more advanced word analysis along with fluency-building for other students. Another group of students may require assistance in increasing vocabulary knowledge and implementing comprehension strategies. This targeted support is most effective when provided in regular, small-group sessions provided over an extended period of time.96 Tier 3 adolescents continue to participate in regular subject-area classes while receiving an intensive reading intervention. Teachers need to pay particular attention to providing the instructional support necessary for these students to actively participate in the classes and to learn the content. See the resource list at the end of this chapter for a link to a description of a 4-tier middle school delivery model and accompanying questions for discussion.xxix

In grades K-5, when an intervention reading program is used with Tier 3 students and a different core program, or reading class, is provided for Tier 1 and Tier 2 students, an important goal for Tier 3 students is to eventually receive their reading instruction in the same core program or reading class as other students. That is the purpose of intensive interventions: to accelerate students’ reading development to bring them up to grade-level performance. For this challenging transition to occur, Tier 3 students have to make accelerated reading progress over an extended period of time.97

In order to accelerate reading progress for Tier 3 students, reading interventions need to be scheduled as follows: in grades K-5, additional reading instruction outside of the 90-minute block and literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas; in grades 6-8, additional reading instruction 95 Kamil et al., 2008 96 Boardman et al., 2008 97 Some schools use an intervention reading program (i.e., the most explicit and systematic possible) with all of the K-5 students. In this case the intervention reading program used with Tier 3 students is the same program as the core reading program used with Tier 1 and 2 students. Students are placed in small groups for reading instruction and are in many cases grouped by instructional level across classrooms. Different groups begin the program at different lessons and work through the lessons at varying paces.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-40

School

outside of the separate reading class and in addition to literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas; and in grades 9-12, a separate reading intervention period in addition to literacy- connected learning across the instructional areas. Teachers set lesson-pacing goals and monitor lesson completion and mastery carefully over the course of the school year. This data, in conjunction with the use of progress-monitoring measures, can assist teachers in making instructional decisions that will accelerate student progress over an extended period of time with the goal of helping all students to become grade-level readers.

Considering four tiers is a useful way for schools to think about differentiating instruction for students in each grade level based on need. In reality, however, it is possible and desirable for there to be substantial and subtle differences in instruction for students within each tier. For example, fluency development may be an important instructional focus for some students in Tier 2. For other Tier 2 students a major focus of differentiated instruction may be phonics. Vocabulary instruction may be a major emphasis with English learners in Tier 2. It is important to remember that instructional tiers address levels of reading risk and do not automatically define how instruction will be differentiated for students.

Developing an Instructional Support Plan How instruction is differentiated for students is communicated formally through clear plans of instruction that teachers, parents, and administrators can understand and review. xxx An Instructional Support Plan (ISP) describes the instruction the grade-level team commits to provide students in each tier. In essence, the ISP serves as a blueprint in grades K-8 (and can be adapted for grades 9-12) for the reading instruction for each tier in each grade level in the school.

Grade-level teams group students within each tier based on instructional needs; they design an ISP specific for each subgroup within the Tier (e.g., high-emerging/low-emerging or phonics group or fluency group). The ISP includes important details regarding daily reading instruction in the five essential elements of reading. It describes who will provide the instruction, what program materials will be used, how long reading instruction will last, when during the day the instruction will occur, what the group size will be, and how reading progress will be monitored.xxxi xxxii The ISP should highlight, in particular, those variables that can be adjusted or altered to increase student reading progress. For example, in elementary schools a team may decide to focus on increasing the amount of reading instruction provided each day or decreasing the size of the reading group during small group instruction to increase reading progress for a group of struggling students. xxxiii

Teams map out an instructional plan for subgroups of students in each tier of instructional support. All teachers in a grade level commit to working off the same plan. A grade-level ISP targets what needs to be done so that each student can meet grade-level reading goals. If the data indicate that a subgroup of students in a particular instructional tier are not making adequate progress, the grade-level team adjusts the ISP in some meaningful way to increase the likelihood students will make greater progress in the future. The original instruction and the changes made are reflected clearly in the ISP. See the following template for a grade-level ISP.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-41

School

Template for Grade-Level Instructional Support Plan Tier ____Students / Subgroup ______

Grade: School: Date:

Directions: Please document your current grade-level plan for Tier __students /Subgroup ________

Program

(Specify name and publication

year, e.g., Houghton Mifflin,

2008)

Core / Supplemental/

Intervention (fill in one)

Minutes per day

Days per

week

Instruction delivered by: (Classroom Teacher, EA, Title I, Peer, Independent Activity, etc.)

Whole Group or

Small Group

Assessment Tools/ Schedule

The concept of developing an ISP can be adapted for grades 9-12 to define reading instruction provided across the instructional areas. Subject-specific support maps describe the instruction that will be provided to students in each tier by subject. Department-level teams determine what support, for example, will be provided to Tier 2 students in the subject of biology. The map includes details such as a list of strategies that will be used to assist Tier 2 students in accessing the content, the additional texts that will be included on the topics covered, and the amount of instructional time that will be devoted to the essential elements of reading, such as advanced word study, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategy instruction.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-42

School

Organizing Principle 6: Effective Teacher Delivery Features Are Incorporated into Daily Reading Instruction

The final organizing principle of high-quality reading instruction is effective teacher delivery. How teachers deliver instruction is one of the most critical aspects of effective reading instruction.98 Whereas the essential elements of reading instruction can be clearly defined and program materials scrutinized to determine their alignment with the essential elements, these variables remain inert until teachers use them with students in the classroom. How teachers deliver reading instruction through the use of strong programs and materials plays a major role in whether students are actively or passively engaged in learning. Students who are reading below grade level, and are passively engaged during reading instruction, are unlikely to make the progress necessary to reach grade-level reading goals. Teachers who deliver reading instruction effectively make potentially difficult material accessible to all students, from advanced learners to students who are struggling. The effective delivery of instruction is what most people think of when they think of an effective teacher.

Although the delivery of effective reading instruction is a hard concept to describe precisely, there are identifiable features that should be emphasized. Teachers can learn to incorporate these delivery features into their daily instruction which may be especially beneficial for those students who are not meeting important reading goals.99 The following sections describe nine features of the effective delivery of reading instruction. These features are independent of the specific programs and materials used to help organize reading instruction.xxxiv xxxv High-quality programs and materials will make it much easier for teachers to deliver instruction effectively, but the use of strong programs, in the absence of strong instructional delivery, is unlikely to result in students receiving the instruction they need to reach important reading goals.

These nine features target critical instructional interactions between teachers and students and address how teachers model instructional tasks, provide explicit instruction, engage students in meaningful interactions with language, provide students multiple opportunities to practice instructional tasks, provide corrective feedback, encourage student effort, engage students during teacher-led instruction, engage students during independent work, and facilitate student success.

The nine features of effective teacher delivery are applicable grades K-12; they are essential for initial reading instruction in kindergarten and continue to be essential through elementary, middle, and high school as teachers instruct students on how to access content from texts. When these delivery features converge with strong programs that focus on the essential elements of reading, schools increase the probability that students will learn to read at grade level or above. If the delivery of instruction is problematic, students are less likely to meet reading goals.

98 Moats, 1999; Lyon & Chabra, 2004 99 Carnine, Silbert, Kame'enui, Tarver, 2004

When these delivery features converge with strong programs that focus on the elements of reading, schools increase the probability that students will learn to read at grade level or above.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-43

School

Effective Teacher Delivery Checklist

Teacher models instructional tasks

Teacher provides explicit instruction

Teacher engages students in meaningful interactions with language

Teacher provides multiple opportunities for students to practice instructional tasks

Teacher provides corrective feedback after student responses

Teacher encourages student effort

Teacher engages students during teacher-led instruction

Teacher engages students during independent work

Teacher facilitates student success

Feature 1: Teacher Modeling

Teachers provide clear and vivid examples (e.g., think alouds) of the knowledge they want students to develop. Models of whole concepts, such as using context in surrounding text to determine word meanings, and isolated tasks, such as reading cvc (e.g., cat) words written on the white board, are provided so that students understand exactly how to complete tasks. Strong teacher modeling (a) clearly isolates the critical aspects of what students should do, (b) is visually engaging, and (c) avoids the use of language that is extraneous to the learning task. In an instructional sequence, effective modeling is followed by guided student practice under high levels of teacher support before students practice the skill on their own. Examples of modeling in the upper grades include a social sciences teacher modeling how to evaluate the historical context of primary source materials, a science teacher modeling how to form hypotheses while reading subject-area textbooks, a mathematics teacher modeling the use of slow precise reading of word problems, or a literature teacher modeling how to interpret symbolism in a passage or a short story.

Feature 1: Modeling Checklist

Teacher clearly isolates the critical aspects of the task

Teacher visually engages the students when appropriate

Teacher uses language that is central to the learning task

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-44

School

Feature 2: Explicit Instruction Explicit instruction begins by setting the purpose for learning. The teacher identifies for students what the learning objective is, explains why it is important, and then proceeds to teach students that objective through modeling and other explicit and systematic approaches. During explicit instruction, the critical details that define the concept being learned are identified and thoroughly addressed. During the early stages of learning, explicit instruction limits the range of interpretations students might reach through the use of highly specific examples and non-examples. Examples of concepts are carefully selected. The number of examples and the range of examples illustrating the dimensions of a target concept (as well as closely related concepts) are carefully planned beforehand as part of the delivery of instruction. In explicit instruction, current learning objectives are overtly connected to previously learned material. The language that teachers use during explicit instruction is clear and concise and avoids ambiguity.

Feature 2: Explicit Instruction Checklist

Teacher sets a purpose for learning

Teacher identifies critical details that define the concept being learned

Teacher uses highly specific examples

Teacher connects new concepts to previously learned material

In explicit instruction, explaining and modeling include defining each of the strategies for students and showing them how to use those strategies when reading a text. Guided practice involves the teacher and students working together to apply the strategies to texts they are reading. This may involve extensive interaction between the teacher and students when students are applying the strategies to see how well they understand the particular text they are reading. Or, it may involve having students practice applying the strategies to various texts in small groups. Independent practice occurs once the teacher is sure that students can use the strategies on their own. At that point, students independently practice applying the strategies to a new text.100

Feature 3: Meaningful Interactions with Language The effective delivery of reading instruction requires that teachers provide students with many opportunities to hear and use language in meaningful ways. In grades K-3, language-rich activities occur when teachers read books and other materials to students. Similarly, language-rich activities occur across the curriculum in grades 4-12 when teachers read aloud passages from books and other texts featuring complex language and text structures that challenge students’ comprehension skills. Visuals, such as semantic maps and other organizers, are an excellent means of promoting meaningful language discussions about the text that is read aloud. Visual materials provide concrete representations of objects and actions. Students are able to use these visuals as prompts or scaffolds as they learn to engage in

100 Kamil et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-45

School

extended academic language activities such as discussions about the text, oral or written responses to the text, or simulations or dramatic skits using the text.

Additionally, reading aloud to students in kindergarten through high school provides teachers the opportunity to engage them in contextual vocabulary study necessary for comprehension of more difficult text than they can read on their own. Students develop more sophisticated vocabulary and comprehension skills over time as teachers read texts across the instructional areas that are above students’ reading levels.

Strategies to build language and language structures such as these are aligned to the Kindergarten through High School Oregon Reading Standards http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/real/newspaper/Newspaper_Section.aspx?subjectcd=ELA.

Feature 3: Language Rich Activities: Grades K-3 and Beyond

Teacher reads books aloud to students o Reading text to students assists with comprehension building. o Books should be above students’ independent reading level to

access rich vocabulary.

Teacher uses visual prompts to scaffold and model language use o Semantic maps and other graphic organizers are effective visual

tools. o Visual tools can be used to extend academic language activities.

Through language activities carefully supported by the teacher, students integrate new learning with previously learned content, as well as reflect on their life experiences outside of formal school settings. It is critical that teachers establish instructional routines to ensure that these language interactions are academic in nature. In providing language models for students, teachers clearly identify the distinctive features of new concepts and describe the relations among concepts. Teachers elaborate on student responses to model appropriate language. Students can practice the same language activities with their peers or with the teacher. The intentional redundancy that can be built into language rich interactions is important in learning concepts deeply.101

101 Carlo, Snow, et al., Reading Research Quarterly, 2004

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-46

School

Research Highlight: Adolescent Literacy Recommended Practice

Provide opportunities for extended discussion of text meaning and interpretation (Kamil, 2008). High-quality discussion of text meaning is an important facet of effective literacy instruction supported by a moderate level of scientific evidence. It is important that students have a deeper understanding of the author’s meaning and perhaps challenge those conclusions through rich discussions facilitated by the teacher. This extended discussion is guided by the teacher through prepared follow-up questions and discussion protocols.

There is reasonable evidence that teachers can directly increase the reading comprehension of adolescents by providing regular opportunities for students to engage in high-quality discussions of the meaning and interpretation of texts.102 This is true in all classes, and discussions can occur in whole- classroom or small-group formats. Examples include literature circles with novels and/or utilizing a reciprocal reading process with expository texts. Effective discussions typically involve sustained interactions that explore a topic in depth rather than quick question and answer exchanges between teachers and students.103

Reciprocal Teaching

Excerpt from “What Content-Area Teachers Should Know About Adolescent Literacy” by the National Institute for Literacy (Appendix D)

Reciprocal Teaching is a “strategy package” that students can use when reading science, social sciences, English language arts, mathematics, or any other subject-area texts. With reciprocal teaching, students learn to use the following four interrelated strategies:

• Questioning: Generating questions about the text • Clarifying: Clearing up confusion about words, phrases, or concepts by using the text as much as

possible

• Summarizing: Describing the “gist” of what has been read and discussed • Predicting: Suggesting what might be learned from the next part of the text or what will happen

next

102 Kamil et al., 2008; Biancorosa & Snow, 2006; Torgesen et al., 2007 103 Applebee, Langer, Nystrand, & Gamorran, 2003; Reznitskaya et al., 2001

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-47

School

Feature 3: 4-12 Language Rich Activities

Teacher facilitates high-quality classroom discussions

o Students actively participate in the discussions.

o Student interactions include in-depth explorations of topics.

o Discussions are over sustained periods of time.

Teacher designs discussions to promote comprehension of complex text

o Students build a deeper understanding of the author’s meaning.

o Students critically analyze and challenge the author’s conclusion.

o Students use personal experiences to extend opinions related to the text.

Research evidence suggests that classroom discussions that promote reading comprehension do not occur frequently. In one large middle and high school study, only 1.7 minutes out of 60 minutes of reading instruction was devoted to this type of exchange. In classrooms where these types of discussions did occur, there was greater literacy growth than in classrooms where these discussions were infrequent, supporting the value these discussions can have when they focus on improving reading comprehension. 104

When discussions are designed to promote comprehension of complex text, they need to focus on building a deeper understanding of the author’s meaning and critically analyzing and challenging the author’s conclusions through reasoning and knowledge and through the application of personal experiences. Frequently described as “authentic” because real questions open to multiple points of view are asked, students should have multiple opportunities for sustained exchanges with the teacher and other students. Students then learn how to listen to the points of view and reasoned arguments of others participating in the discussion; to present and defend their own interpretations and points of view; and to use text content, background knowledge, and reasoning to support their interpretations and conclusions.105 It is important for secondary teachers to include various types of text in these discussions. For example, texts could include reports, graphs, charts, data tables, diagrams, internet text, video text, maps, posters, pictograms, news articles, scientific summaries, etc.

Defining High-Quality Discussions Because leading classroom discussions is challenging, teachers can structure classroom discussions to increase students’ reading comprehension through the use of a research-based discussion protocol that will improve discussion implementation (Kamil et al. 2008). In one study by Reznitskaya et al. (2001), teachers were taught to follow five guidelines: (a) ask questions that require students to explain their positions, (b) model reasoning processes by thinking out loud, (c) propose counter arguments or positions, (d) recognize good reasoning when it occurs, and (e) summarize the flow and main ideas of a discussion as it draws to a close.

104 Applebee et al., 2003 105 Kamil et al., 2008

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-48

School

Feature 4: Multiple Opportunities for Practice Effective teachers provide multiple opportunities for students to practice each new skill. For more complicated cognitive routines, teachers need to provide opportunities for practice after each step in an instructional sequence. Eliciting group responses is an efficient way to provide students with multiple opportunities for practice. Group responses are particularly powerful for more rote tasks associated with skill development (e.g., “Everybody, what’s the sound for this letter?). Group responses can be achieved through written and gestural responses as well. For example, a teacher might ask a group to show her what “gape” looks like or to show thumbs up if she gives an example of something that might make one gape.

Group responses do not work in all situations (e.g., if a teacher is leading an authentic conversation aimed at deep comprehension), but they can be utilized during instruction when there is only one acceptable response (e.g., “What word means able to be justified?” justifiable). Group responses provide opportunities for all students to practice all skills versus the teacher selecting individual students to respond. For oral group responses to be most effective, teachers must require unison responding. If students are not required to answer in unison, higher performing students typically respond first and are echoed by lower performing students. Some students quickly learn how to mimic responses milliseconds after other students and tune out the content of the teacher request. In essence, these students are learning to NOT pay attention to the teacher and teacher requests, and they are learning how to respond in ways that give the impression they understand content when they do not.

Feature 4: Multiple Opportunities for Practice Checklist

Teacher provides opportunities for practice after each step in an instructional sequence

Teacher elicits unison group responses

Teacher follows group responses with individual turns

In effective delivery sequences, group responses are followed by a much briefer period of time for individual responses. With individual response turns, teachers can check the mastery of specific students. This is an excellent time to determine how well low-performing students are doing and whether they really have learned the material from the lesson.

Feature 5: Providing Corrective Feedback Correction procedures are essential to ensure student mastery of strategies and content. If errors go unnoticed or are not addressed directly, students are likely to make the same errors again and again. Moreover, in early reading if students have not mastered the preskills, they cannot be successful when moving on to more complicated tasks. That is why it is critical for teachers to provide immediate corrections. In most cases, a correction begins with a teacher model of the correct response. When modeling, the teacher should limit corrective feedback to the task at hand. The teacher models the answer, requires the students to repeat the answer, then goes back to the beginning of the particular task to ensure that students are firm on the entire part or exercise. If a student makes a word reading error

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-49

School

when reading connecting text, for example, the teacher states the word correctly, asks the student to repeat the word, then asks the student to reread the sentence correctly. Providing a delayed test for students is a good method of ensuring mastery.106 In the word reading example, this may involve the teacher writing the difficult word on the white board and returning to it after the students have completed the story/passage. Building in this type of extra practice of difficult tasks in the lesson can help ensure mastery by all students before moving on.

An important principle of providing corrective feedback is that teachers also need to provide affirmations for correct responses by students. They can reinforce and praise students for the quality of their answers. In general, feedback on responses should go beyond confirming that the student’s response was correct or incorrect. Feedback should be specific, and when possible, enthusiastic. When providing feedback to adolescents, it is important to “be real” or they may not accept the feedback. If teachers are too effusive, the praise may be discounted. Effective strategies to use with adolescents may include asking them why their answer was a good one or what they did to read so well. The teacher can assist adolescents to begin to speak to their own strengths.

Feature 5: Corrective Feedback Checklist

Teacher provides immediate corrections

Teacher begins by modeling the correct response and requires student to repeat the answer

Teacher “firms” each part of the task

Teacher provides a delayed test on the difficult items

Teacher provides affirmations for correct student responses

Feature 6: Encouraging Student Effort Effective teachers give feedback to students before, during, and after task completion. They provide specific feedback about student accuracy and effort. The majority of feedback students receive should be positive. The ideal ratio of positive to negative feedback by the teacher is thought to be at least 3 to 1.xxxvi xxxvii A grade 2 teacher might praise students, for example, for reading an entire line of words correctly in a phonics warm up. A high school teacher might say, “Excellent summary of that section of text. You captured the main ideas.” Teachers need to demonstrate to students that they value student success in reading. They can do this by posting exemplary student work and by having regular celebrations to let students know that their hard work and good effort is important and appreciated.

106 Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, & Tarver, 2004

Teachers should provide affirmations for correct responses by students.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-50

School

Specific Praise Encourages Student Effort

Specific Praise Example Non-Specific Praise Example

The teacher could say, “Great job reading every word in that row correctly the first time. I know you’ll read those words correctly when you see them in our story today.”

The teacher says, “Great job reading. Keep up the good work.”

The teacher could say, “Excellent summary of that section of text. You captured the main ideas.”

The teacher says, “Nice work” or “Good job.”

Feature 6: Encouraging Student Effort Checklist

Teacher provides feedback before, during, and after task

Teacher provides specific feedback regarding accuracy and effort

Teacher provides a 3 to 1 ratio of positive to negative feedback

Teacher posts exemplary student work/has regular celebrations to honor good work

Feature 7: Engaging Students During Teacher-led Instruction Student engagement during lesson presentation is critical for student success.107 One of the most important aspects of effective teacher-led instruction in grades K-12 is gaining the attention of students before instruction begins. Once they have students’ attention, effective teachers pace lessons quickly to maintain attention. Appropriate pacing both within and between tasks is necessary. For tasks such as phonemic blending and segmentation, letter-sound practice, and word reading, teachers should elicit about 10-12 responses per minute. For more complex tasks in a reading lesson, such as vocabulary instruction and comprehension strategy instruction, teachers will need to stay within time limits as outlined by either the program or the length of the class period. Transitions between tasks need to be quick, whether in grade 2 or grade 10, and follow specific procedures that teachers establish early in the school year so class time is not wasted.

In addition to providing appropriate pacing, teachers can increase engagement by eliciting student responses throughout the lesson. This may be accomplished through requiring group responses whenever possible (see Feature 4: Multiple opportunities for practice). Assigning partners for Think Pair Share or other supported discussion activities is another way to increase student responses throughout the lesson. When presenting a comprehension question, for example, the teacher can ask the students to

107 Greenwood, et al., 1992; Snow, 2002; Torgesen et al., 2007; Rosenshine, 1978; NASBE, 2006

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-51

School

whisper the answer to their partner first and then call on an individual student to answer for the group (e.g., “Everybody, what is the prefix of biology? Tell your partner what that means.”). The idea is to create as many opportunities for the students to actually do something (e.g., respond as group, respond to partner, write response on a whiteboard, etc.) versus sitting passively and listening.

Feature 7: Engaging Students During Teacher-led Instruction Checklist

Teacher gains attention of students before beginning instruction

Teacher uses appropriate pacing within and between tasks

Teacher elicits student responses throughout the lesson

Teacher employs other active engagement techniques such as Think Pair Share, etc.

Feature 8: Engaging Students during Independent Work

In grades K-5, in order to provide small group instruction, teachers often have to rotate through teaching several instructional groups in the reading block while the remaining students work independently. Given the frequency and potential for regular independent work time, it is critical that teachers develop meaningful activities for the students to complete.108 Independent work activities need to be aligned with lesson content. If the students are working on reading words with the short “a” vowel sound in the reading lesson, for example, the independent work should also focus on this skill. It is critical that teachers model the task and check for understanding before beginning the independent work time to ensure that students are capable of completing the tasks independently.

In grades K-12, for independent work time to run smoothly, students need to be taught all independent work routines and expectations early in the school year. Examples, depending on grade level, include the following: where to keep their independent work, what to do if they have a question, how to select a center activity, what materials to bring to class, what to do when they complete the work and so on. Monitoring student independent work to make sure it is completed with a high level of accuracy is necessary for effective instruction; if work is not completed with accuracy, teachers need to provide additional instruction on the particular skill in a whole group or small group setting.

108 Carnine, Silbert, Kame'enui, & Tarver, 2004

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-52

School

Feature 8: Engaging Students During Independent Work Checklist

Teacher develops meaningful activities for students to complete, aligned with lesson content

Teacher ensures students are capable of completing the independent work tasks

Teacher instructs and provides practice on independent work routines

Teacher monitors independent work and provides feedback

Students Should be Taught Effective Independent Work Routines

Grades K-3 Grades 4 - 12

Where to keep student work What materials to bring to class

What to do if they have a question What to do if they have a question

How to choose a center activity How to choose appropriate independent work

What to do when work is completed What to do when work is completed

Feature 9: Facilitating Student Success Ultimately, teachers must ensure that students are successful at completing lesson activities at a high level of performance. To do so, the teacher must elicit a high percentage of accurate responses from the group and a high percentage of accurate responses from individuals. Some examples of methods teachers can use to check for understanding include random calling on students using popsicle sticks, quick matching of cards, or other manipulatives, such as clickers or 3-1 exit cards. To gain more exact information on student success rate, a coach or colleague can assist the teacher by collecting data on student responses to the various tasks outlined in the lesson. For mastery-based programs (i.e., supplemental or intervention programs), 70% of students’ initial responses should be correct on new material. Overall, 90% of students’ responses should be correct on both new and familiar material.109 If students are not meeting these criteria for lesson success, the coach can work with the teacher to adjust instruction. This may involve, for example, working with the teacher on implementing complete correction procedures, going back to “firm” the exercise, and providing delayed tests. It is critical that teachers hold the same standard of accuracy for high performers and lower performers in the group; however, teachers may need to provide regular additional instruction and practice for lower performers to ensure that their success rate is on par.

109 NIFDI

It is critical that teachers hold the same standard of accuracy for high performers and lower performers in the group.

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-53

School

Feature 9: Facilitating Student Success Checklist

Teacher elicits a high percentage of accurate responses from the group and individuals

Teacher adjusts instruction when student responses are not accurate

Teacher provides additional practice for lower performers to increase success rate

Summary In summary, high-quality reading instruction in Oregon’s K-12 Literacy Framework with the goal of all students reading at grade level or above involves the integration of six organizing principles: (1) sufficient time for reading instruction is scheduled, and the allocated time is used effectively; (2) data is used to form fluid instructional groupings; (3) instruction is focused on the essential elements of reading; (4) research-based strategies, programs, and materials are adopted and used schoolwide with a high level of fidelity; (5) instruction is differentiated based on student need; and (6) effective teacher delivery features are incorporated into daily reading instruction.

First, it is essential that schools allocate sufficient time for reading instruction, and that they use scheduled reading time effectively. In grades K-5, the recommendation is for students to receive at least 90 minutes of daily reading instruction; students in grades 4-5 also receive literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas. Students in grades 6-8 benefit from a daily 40-60 minute reading class, separate from English language arts, and daily literacy- connected learning across the instructional areas. For grades 9-12, the recommendation is 2-4 hours of daily literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas.

Second, schools utilize both whole class and small group instruction to effectively provide students with reading instruction that meets their specific instructional needs. In grades K-12, additional instructional time should be allocated for students who are not meeting important reading goals for their grade level.

Third, teachers target the essential elements of reading—phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and motivation—as appropriate to students’ skill levels and needs, during reading classes and during literacy-connected learning across the instructional areas.

Fourth, schools adopt research-based strategies, programs, and materials for use schoolwide. Schools utilize core, supplemental, and intervention programs that are constructed to align with the best research evidence available on design of instruction with the goal of supporting all students to be grade-level readers or above. To that end, teachers provide explicit instruction and practice in the reading strategies and skills students need to read proficiently across the instructional areas.

Fifth, to meet yearly goals, it is critical to differentiate instruction for students based on what instruction they need to meet or exceed target reading goals. For the best outcomes, students are grouped into instructional tiers based on skill levels—advanced, low risk, moderate risk, and high

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-54

School

risk—and provided the instruction they need. How instruction is differentiated for subgroups of students within each Tier is communicated formally through grade-level instructional plans.

Sixth, nine general features of effective instructional delivery provide guidance to teachers for honing delivery skills. When these delivery features converge with strong programs that focus on the essential elements of reading, schools increase the probability that students will meet or exceed grade-level reading goals.

Links to Resources i For samples of school schedules showing how reading time is scheduled go to http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/beacon_schools.html ii See the practitioner guide, Assisting Students Struggling with Reading: Response to Intervention (RtI) and Multi-Tier Intervention in the Primary Grades, by the What Works Clearinghouse for recommendations to help students struggling with early literacy. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/. The Center on Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers PowerPoint presentations and webinars on assisting students struggling to reach proficiency in early literacy, see http://ctl.uoregon.edu/pd/cf09 iii Visit the What Works Clearinghouse for a practice guide on strategies to improve reading outcomes for adolescent readers, see Improving Adolescent Literacy: Effective Classroom and Intervention Practices at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/ iv The Institute for Literacy and Learning offers a “live chat” with Anita Archer, an expert in reading instruction, on improving reading outcomes for adolescent readers. See Assisting Struggling Readings in Intermediate and Middle School Grades at: http://www.theinstituteforliteracyandlearning.org/library.php v To view a video of how one middle school structured their reading program, go to http://www.bethelschools.us/schools/cascade/ and click on “Teaching Reading (video),” located on the right side of the menu under Cascade Links. Video is downloaded as a wmv file. vi Possible types of interventions secondary schools might consider can be found at http://www.ode.state.or.us/search/results/?id=8. Search for “reading interventions.” vii See the practitioner guide, Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in the Elementary Grades, by the What Works Clearinghouse for recommendations on providing small- group reading instruction for English learners. http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/ viii The Center on Instruction offers helpful resources for teaching English Learners. See http://www.centeroninstruction.org/resources.cfm?category=ell. Visit the Center on Teaching and Learning (CTL) website for PowerPoint presentations and webinars on effective instructional practices for teaching reading to English learners, see http://ctl.uoregon.edu/pd/cf09 ix To view samples of 90-minute reading blocks and reading blocks greater than 90 minutes, see http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/. Also see Statewide Outreach Session on the 90-Minute Reading Block. Visit Module #4 at: http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/outreach_presentations_0809.html x See Big Ideas in Beginning Reading website http://reading.uoregon.edu/ xi See the National Reading Panel Report at http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org for detailed information about the five essential elements of beginning reading

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-55

School

xii Visit the What Works Clearinghouse for a practice guide on improving student comprehension in the early elementary grades. See Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten Through 3rd grade at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/ xiii The Center on Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers PowerPoint presentations and webinars on effective instructional practices for teaching adolescent readers at: http://ctl.uoregon.edu/pd/cf09 xiv View the Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers (2nd edition) practice brief at: http://centeroninstruction.org/resources.cfm?category=reading&subcategory=&grade_start=4&grade_end =12. xv Visit the Center on Instruction website for a helpful guide on literacy and content instruction in Grades 4-12. – Bringing Literacy Strategies into Content Instruction http://centeroninstruction.org/resources.cfm?category=reading&subcategory=&grade_start=4&grade_end =12. Also, see Literacy Instruction in the Content Areas: Getting to the Core of Middle and High School Improvement by the Alliance for Excellent Education for a helpful report on adolescents and literacy at http://www.all4ed.org/publication_material/adlit xvi To examine a guide for evaluating a core reading program go to http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review.html xvii Links to reviews of core reading programs:

• Oregon: http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review_core.html • Florida: http://fcrr.org/FCRRReports/CReports.aspx?rep=core • Washington: http://www.k12.wa.us/CurriculumInstruct/InstructionalMaterialsReviewReading.aspx

xviii To learn more about the effectiveness of core reading programs in the elementary grades visit the following websites:

• Best Evidence Encyclopedia http://www.bestevidence.org/reading/begin_read/begin_read.htm • What Works Clearinghouse http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/reports/Topic.aspx?tid=01

xix Lexile information can be found at http://www.ode.state.or.us/search/page/?id=1638 xx See the Consumer’s Guide to Evaluating Supplemental and Intervention Programs and the additional items for Analysis of K-3 reading intervention programs http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review.html xxi The Oregon Reading First Center and Florida Center for Reading Research websites also include completed reviews for schools to examine:

• Oregon: http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review_si.html • Florida: http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/CReportsCS.aspx?rep=supp

xxii To learn more about the effectiveness of supplemental reading programs for Middle and High School visit the following websites:

• Best Evidence Encyclopedia http://www.bestevidence.org/reading/mhs/mhs_read.htm • What Works Clearinghouse http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/reports/Topic.aspx?tid=15

xxiii See the Consumer’s Guide to Evaluating Supplemental and Intervention Programs and the additional items for Analysis of K-3 reading intervention programs http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review.html

Instruction

OREGON K-12 LITERACY FRAMEWORK Adopted by the State Board of Education, December 2009 I-56

School

The Oregon Reading First Center and Florida Center for Reading Research websites also include completed reviews for schools to examine: Oregon: http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review_si.html Florida: http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/CReportsCS.aspx?rep=supp xxiv The Oregon Reading First Center and Florida Center for Reading Research websites also include completed reviews for schools to examine:

• Oregon: http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_curr_review_si.html • Florida: http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/CReportsCS.aspx?rep=supp

xxv A web-based lesson progress program is now available through Oregon Reading First at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/goals_lpr.html xxvi Graphic organizer resources can be found at http://www.scoe.org/pub/htdocs/web-tools.html. Another resource for a variety of free graphic organizers is TeacherVision http://www.teachervision.fen.com/graphic-organizers/printable/6293.html xxvii See IBR II materials at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/pd_ibrs.html xxviii Program-Specific Enhancement materials are available on the Oregon Reading First Center website http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_enhancements.html xxix Bethel Middle Grades Delivery Model PowerPoint http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/subjects/elarts/reading/literacy/reading-instruction---alterable- variables-(bethel-sd).ppt xxx Grade level instructional support plans can be found at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_tools.html (includes templates for instructional focus group plans and steps for planning instructional groups) xxxi Grade level instructional support plans can be found at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_tools.html (includes templates for instructional focus group plans and steps for planning instructional groups) xxxii Using Core, Supplemental, and Intervention Reading Programs to Meet the Needs of All Learners (PowerPoint) http://www.ode.state.or.us/search/results/?id=8. Search for “Intervention Reading Programs.” xxxiii A chart that lists the alterable variables for increasing the intensity of instruction can be found at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/inst_tools.html (includes both versions of alterable variables chart) xxxiv A module on the Nine General Features of Instruction is available at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/. xxxv The Five-Minute Observation Form (Phase 2) provides schools with an observation tool that focuses on the nine general features of effective teacher delivery. A word document of the Five Minute Observation Form (Phase 2) is available at http://oregonreadingfirst.uoregon.edu/ . xxxvi The Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports website (www.pbis.org) is a resource for best practices in effective behavioral systems. xxxvii Visit the What Works Clearinghouse for a practice guide on improving classroom management in the elementary grades. See Reducing Problem Behaviors in the Elementary School Classroom at: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/