3 indicators of quality
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Learning Objectives LO1 Examine the underlying theo-
retical principles of develop- mentally appropriate prac- tices applied to a variety of early childhood programs.
LO2 Describe the core programs of early childhood education, program types, and their dif- fering philosophies.
LO3 Identify the variation of pro- gram options and range of delivery systems that impact the lives of children and their families.
LO4 Assess early childhood pro- grams utilizing indicators of quality early childhood prac- tices that support all children including those with diverse characteristics.
Standards For Professional Development The following NAEYC standards for initial and advanced early childhood profes- sional preparation are addressed in this chapter: Standard 1 Promoting child development and learning Standard 2 Building family and community relationships Standard 3 Observing, documenting, and assessing to support young children
and families Standard 4 Using developmentally effective approaches to connect with chil-
dren and families Standard 5 Using content knowledge to build meaningful curriculum Standard 6 Becoming a professional Field Experience
Code of Ethical Conduct These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics of this chapter:
Section I: I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field
of early childhood education, child development and related disciplines as well as on particular knowledge of each child.
P-1.7 We shall strive to build individual relationships with each child: make individ- ual adaptations in teaching strategies, learning environment, and curricula; and consult with the family so that each child benefits from the program.
Section II: I-2.8 To help family members enhance their understanding of their children, as
staff are enhancing their understanding of each child through communica- tions with families, and support family members in the continuing develop- ment of their skills as parents.
P-2.2 We shall inform families of program philosophy, policies, curriculum, assess- ment system, cultural practices, and personnel qualifications, and explain why we teach as we do—which should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to children.
Section IV: I.4.1 To provide the community with high quality early childhood care and educa-
tion programs and services. P.4-6 We shall be familiar with laws and regulations that serve to protect the chil-
dren in our programs and be vigilant in ensuring that these laws and regula- tions are followed.
2 Types of Programs
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40 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Throughout this text and whenever NAEYC principles are discussed, we use the term developmentally appropri- ate practice. What exactly is developmentally appropri- ate practice, or DAP, as it is more familiarly known?
More than 20 years ago, NAEYC published a posi- tion paper, which articulated standards for high quality care and education for young children. The guidelines were a response to the need for a set of unified standards for accreditation through NAEYC’s newly established National Academy of Early Childhood, and gave a nec- essary antidote to the more teacher-directed, academic preparation and skills-teaching methods that were en- croaching on many early childhood programs.
The DAP approach stressed the need for activity-based learning environments based on what we know about chil- dren through years of child development research and what we observe of their interests, abilities, and needs. The position paper was revised over the years to be more inclu- sive by moving from an “either/or” point of view to that of “both/and.” In other words, there are many right ways to apply DAP principles.
Three Core Components of DAP The position statement of “Developmentally Appropri- ate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Chil- dren from Birth through Age 8” (NAEYC, 2009) cites three core considerations on which teachers and caregiv- ers should base their decisions about young children’s growth and development:
1. What is known about child development and learning— knowledge of age-related characteristics that permit general predictions about what experiences are likely to best promote children’s learning and development. This is the core around which the idea of develop- mentally appropriate is built.
2. What is known about each child as an individual— what practitioners learn about each child that has implications for how best to adapt and be respon- sive to individual variations.
3. What is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children live—the values, expectations, and behavioral and linguistic conventions that shape children’s lives at home and in their communities that practitioners must strive to understand in order to ensure that learning experiences in the program
or school are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family. Figure 2-1 shows how these three core principles work together.
The following scenario shows how these core consid- erations are applied when planning a developmentally appropriate program for toddlers:
1. What does child development tell us about toddlers? We know that toddlers express their need to do every- thing by themselves, usually more than they can actu- ally achieve. They like to feel independent and learn quickly if given a little help and then encouraged to do what they can for themselves (see Chapters 3 and 4 for more detail).
2. What do we know about each child as an individual? Many of these toddlers rely on their parents to help them put on their clothes, feed them, or put their toys away. Others are being taught these tasks at home. Most of the children come to the teachers for assistance and a few ask for help. One toddler will persist at a dressing task for nearly five minutes while another will throw shoes across the floor if they do not fit the first time.
3. What do we know about the social and cultural con- text in each child’s life? Most of the children in this group come from homes in which help is readily available from siblings and extended family mem- bers. The group’s dominant cultural values and child-rearing practices reinforce dependence and community, although there is a smaller group of families that want their children to become inde- pendent as soon as possible.
By looking at all three core considerations together, we have some decisions to make about setting goals toward greater independence for the toddlers. Respecting cultural and social contexts means we begin by talking to families,
Family & Cultural
Responsiveness
Age Context
Individual Focus
D.A.P.
FIGURE 2-1 There are a variety of early childhood programs to fit the needs of children and their families.
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41C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
perhaps at a parent meeting, in which families are invited to share their child-rearing practices from their cultural viewpoint. Once we have an understanding of what fami- lies expect and want, we have an opportunity to work to- gether to negotiate a solution that will be beneficial both for the toddlers and for the families. When developmen- tally appropriate elements are taken into consideration, the bonds between families and teachers are strengthened and the best interests of the children prevail.
Guidelines for DAP DAP provides the context for learning environments in which children’s abilities are matched to the developmental tasks they need to learn. DAP is based on what we know about how children learn and what we know about indi- vidual children and their families. This collective knowl- edge is applied to each decision that is made about the program. Copple and Bredekamp (2009) suggest five key areas of practice that guide the decision-making process.
1. Creating a Caring Community of Learners begins with programs that support and value all children, regardless of age, ability, gender, or racial and ethnic
background and where respectful, cooperative, and positive relationships create optimum learning con- ditions. The learning environment has a positive emotional climate that supports the enjoyment of learning and fosters each member’s well-being.
2. Teaching to Enhance Development and Learning includes a balance of teacher-directed and child- initiated learning, time for in-depth exploration, integrated curriculum, and scaffolded learning.
3. Planning Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals reflects the knowledge of how children learn, what they learn, and when they learn it. Articulated goals include standards to be met. Curriculum relates to children’s interests and needs and includes all devel- opmental domains.
4. Assessing Children’s Development and Learning is on- going and monitors each child’s progress in meeting program goals. Assessment methods include obser- vations and work samples and the results are used to plan curriculum that further the effectiveness of classroom experiences.
5. Establishing Reciprocal Relationships with Families means developing collaborative relationships with families that promote a sense of partnership based on mutual need, understanding, and negotiation.
Each chapter of this text, individually and collectively, supports and demonstrates these five guidelines for developmentally appropriate practices in developmen- tally appropriate programs.
DAP in Action Developmentally appropriate principles reflect the many intentional decisions teachers make based on their knowl- edge of how children learn and grow. Developmentally appropriate principles benefit children in many ways:
1. In constructing their own understanding of con- cepts and from instruction by more competent peers and adults.
2. Through opportunities to see connections across disciplines through integration of curriculum and engaging in in-depth study.
3. With a predictable structure and routine in the learning environment and from the teacher’s flexibil- ity and spontaneity in responding to children’s emerging ideas, needs, and interests.
4. By making meaningful choices about what children will do.
5. From situations that challenge children to work at the edge of their capacities and from ample oppor- tunities to practice newly acquired skills.
A developmentally appropriate program takes into consider- ation this child’s age, individual abilities, and the culture of her home and family.
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42 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
What DAP Looks Like ● Programs and curriculum respond to the children’s
interests as well as their needs.
While digging in the sand pit, four children uncover water. Others rush to see it. The teacher sees their in- terest and asks them about the bridges and tunnels they are starting to build.
● Children are actively involved in their own learning, choosing from a variety of materials and equipment.
Some children search the yard for materials that will bridge the water. Others go inside to find the big book on bridges. Still others dig in other areas of the sandpit to find more water and to try building tunnels for the water. One child finds a walnut shell and floats it on the water. The teacher encourages and supports each child’s involvement.
● Play is the primary context in which young children learn and grow.
Each day, the children rush outside to see their bridges and tunnels. The teacher has helped them find materi- als that will act as a cover over the bridge. Inside, sev- eral children are making dolls from twigs and fabric scraps to use in the project.
● Teachers apply what they know about each child and use a variety of strategies, materials, and learning ex- periences to be responsive to individual children.
Josephina is drawing a picture of the bridge and is having trouble with the arches. Knowing that Josephina is some- what shy and uneasy in large groups, the teacher asks Aldo (who is easygoing and loves to draw) to look at Josephina’s picture to see if he might help her. The two children focus on the drawing, each making observations that help Josephina take the next step in her artwork.
● Teachers consider widely held expectations about each age group and temper that with challenging yet achievable learning goals.
In preparation for a field trip to see two bridges that are near the school, the teacher sets out her expectations (walk with a buddy, stay together, stay on the sidewalk, do not run, etc.). Because this is their first field trip of the school year, the teacher rehearses the children for several days prior to the trip. Music and rhythm accom- pany them as they practice walking with a friend and play number games of “two-by-two” during group times.
● Teachers understand that any activity has the po- tential for different children to realize different learning from the same experience.
After the field trip, Josephina draws a different type of arch for her bridges. Selena, Gracie, and Sam take over the block corner to build bridges and tunnels; three others join them. Maddie finds a book on flowers; they look like some of the flowers she saw on the way to the bridges. Reilly wants to play London Bridge at group time.
● All aspects of development—physical, social- emotional, cognitive, and language—are integrated in the activities and opportunities of the program.
The bridge project promotes physical (walking, digging), cognitive (learning how bridges and tunnels are built, researching in books), language (construction terms, such as piers, spans, suspension), social-emotional (pairing up two-by-two), and creative (drawing a bridge, adding flowers, trying tunnels).
Each of these examples shows how to meet the needs of all children, no matter their abilities and background. Keep in mind that while each principle defines one par- ticular factor, all of the principles are interrelated and that cultural and social differences, for instance, are a factor in all of the principles.
Early Childhood Core Programs From the types available, to the numbers of children who attend these schools, the name of the game in early child- hood programs is diversity. The range can encompass a morning nursery school for toddlers, a primary school classroom, an infant-parent stimulation program, or a full child care service for 3- to 6-year-olds. Some programs
Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Curriculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Prac- tice in an Early Childhood Program.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, reflect on the following questions:
1. What examples of developmentally appropriate prac- tices did you see or hear mentioned by preschool teacher Ke Nguyen and her colleagues? Compare and contrast your observations with the text.
2. how would you judge the quality of this program? What are some of the criteria you would use?
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43C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
run for only a half-day; others are open from 6:00 AM until 7:00 PM. Still other centers, such as hospitals, accept children on a drop-in basis or for 24-hour care. Child care arrangements can range from informal home- based care to more formal school or center settings. Reli- gious institutions, school districts, community-action groups, parents, governments, private social agencies, and businesses may run schools.
Factors That Determine Types of Programs Programs in early childhood settings are defined by many factors, and each is an integral part of the mission of the program. Any given program is a combination of these factors and each has an impact on the quality and type of learning that takes place. Some of the factors that influence programs are:
1. Ages of the children who are being served 2. Philosophical, theoretical, or theological ideals 3. Goals of the program 4. Purpose for which the program was established 5. Requirements of sponsoring agency 6. Quality and training of teaching staff
“One of the most profound aspects of education in the United States today is its cultural complexity” (Hyun, 2007). The need for consistency between a child’s home culture and school, what Hyun calls “culturally congruent learning,” challenges today’s teachers to be cul- turally responsive in all areas of teach- ing. Culturally appropriate practice is the ability to go beyond one’s own sociocultural background to ensure equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for all. This concept, developed by Hyun (1998, 2007), expands DAP to address cultural com- plexities that emphasize the adult’s ability to reflect more than a single perspective or knowledge. Preparing teachers and caregivers for multicul- turalism is not just about becoming sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity,
religion, socioeconomic status, or sex- ual orientation, according to Hyun. It is also related to an understanding of the way individual histories, families of origin, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet different from others. Through such insights, teachers are able to help all children develop a sense of their own self- identity as they respond to the emerg- ing identities of others.
Teachers support a more culturally congruent atmosphere when they ad- dress the social and cultural context in which children live by asking themselves:
1. Do the activities and materials help children see the relationship between what happens in school and the lives of their home and community?
2. Does their learning create new possibilities for multicultural understandings?
3. Is the inclusion of cultural knowledge and materials done without demeaning or devaluing a child’s heritage?
4. Do the activities and materials support one culture’s domination over others?
There are many ways to meet the third core component of DAP that highlight the importance of connect- ing a child’s sense of cultural continu- ity between home, school, and com- munity. Interview a teacher of an early childhood program about how their program promotes cultural congruity. Would you add any questions to the previous list?
Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP)
DIvERSITy
Individual attention and warm relationships are essential components of every program.
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44 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
7. Shape, size, and location of physical environment 8. Cultural, ethnic, economic, and social make-up of
the community 9. Financial stability
Programs for young children also exist to serve a number of needs, which impact programs goals and mis- sion. Some of these are:
● Caring for children while parents work (e.g., family child care homes or child care centers)
● Enrichment programs for children (e.g., half-day nursery school or laboratory school)
● Educational programs for parent and child (e.g., parent cooperatives, parent–child public school programs, or high school parent classes)
● An activity arena for children (e.g., most early childhood programs)
● Academic or readiness instruction (e.g., primary grades and many pre-kindergarten programs)
● Culturally or religiously specific programs (e.g., a school setting with a definitive ethnic focus or a church-related school that teaches religious dogma)
These programs generally reflect the needs of society as a whole. Millions of mothers of children younger than age 6 are in the labor force. Early childhood programs pro- vide a wide range of services for children to meet the de- mands of working parents. In 2008, 78 percent of mothers with children from ages 6 to 17 were in the labor force, compared with 64 percent of mothers with children younger than the age of 6 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011).
Special Program Features A program usually has any number of goals or missions. One mission may be to encourage children to learn from one another. This philosophy has two important features that are reflected in many early childhood programs. The following two sections describe how mixed-age group- ings and looping contribute to the goals of the program.
Mixed-Age Groupings Placing children of several age levels into the same class- room is called mixed-age grouping. In these classes, younger children learn from older children and older children learn by teaching younger children. This prac- tice is often referred to as family, heterogeneous, vertical, or ungraded grouping and has been around for many years. The one-room schoolhouse, the schools of Reggio Emilia, Waldorf schools, and Montessori programs re- flect mixed-age groupings. The age range among children in mixed-age groups varies, and there is usually a differ- ence from 2 to 4 years.
There are many advantages to mixed-age groups:
● The program is geared toward the needs of each child’s developmental level and pace, allowing chil- dren to advance as they are ready.
● A sense of family and community is fostered through caring and a sense of responsibility toward one another. Siblings may be in the same class.
● Social skills are enhanced as children learn from and model interactions with children of different ages.
● A wide range of behaviors, learning styles, and tem- peraments are valued and accepted. Older children learn patience as they help younger children prob- lem solve. Younger children are challenged by older peers who teach them more complex activities.
● Cooperative learning is encouraged. ● Teachers come to know and understand children in
greater depth that allows them to build programs and curriculum well-suited to each child’s strengths and challenges.
There are challenges associated with mixed-age groupings. The potential for older children to take over and/or overwhelm the younger ones is real, as is the pos- sibility that younger children will pester the older chil- dren. This requires monitoring by the teaching staff, and the Reggio Emilia schools offer a good model of this process. In these Italian programs, older children have the responsibility to work with the younger children, explain- ing things and helping them find appropriate roles to take in their projects.
The academic and social advantages of mixed-age grouping cannot occur without a variety of activities from which children may freely choose and the opportunity for small groups of children to work together. Teachers must be intentional about encouraging children to work with others who have skills and knowledge they do not yet possess, and teachers need adequate preparation to suc- ceed with a mixed-age group.
It is easy to see how mixed-age groupings reflect the principles of Dewey, Piaget, Gardner, and Vygotsky, whose “zone of proximal development” is made more available through the interactions of peers as well as adults. The practice of mixed-age grouping has much to commend it and must be seriously addressed as an issue in programs for young children.
Looping: Continuity of Care The practice of keeping a teacher and the same group of children together in the same class for at least two years is called looping. As with mixed-aged grouping, it is an old idea revisited to provide greater continuity of care and education. Today, looping is customary in the Waldorf
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45C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
schools, Reggio Emilia programs, and Montessori, and it has emerged in other programs for a number of reasons. Proponents of looping suggest that it:
● Offers stability and emotional security to children and allows them to grow at their own rate.
● Gives teachers a greater opportunity to get to know children and therefore be able to individualize the program for them.
● Fosters better social interactions among children and strong relationships between teachers and families.
● Allows children to experience being both the young- est and the oldest in the class as students move on and new students join the group.
● Enhances a sense of family and community within the classroom.
In the schools in Reggio Emilia, infants and toddlers are kept in the same class with the same teachers for three years to provide a family-like environment. Loop- ing is often paired with multi-aged classrooms, which further extends the natural, family-like atmosphere.
Critics of looping cite the need for experienced teach- ers who enjoy teaching across the age levels and who can work with the same children over an extended period of time. Looping does not fit all teachers and all children, and it could be offered as an option for parents and teach- ers to meet the needs of those who believe its advantages are worthwhile.
Any of the following early childhood programs may include mixed-age groups and looping. The educational and philosophical goals of the program determine what features to include.
The Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education The following sections explore the different types of programs available to families. Each has unique charac- teristics, emphases, and challenges.
Traditional Nursery School/Preschool The traditional nursery school/preschool exemplifies a developmental approach to learning in which children actively explore materials and in which activity or learn- ing centers are organized to meet the developing skills and interests of the child. Most of these programs serve children from 2½ to 5 years of age.
The philosophy of these schools is best described by Katherine Read Baker in her now classic book The Nursery School: A Human Relationships Laboratory (1950). First published more than sixty years ago, this book serves as an
encyclopedia of the traditional nursery school, its methods, and its philosophy, reflecting the influence of Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori.
The idea of a school as a place of human activity mir- rors the thoughts of Dewey, Piaget, Erikson, and others. Baker develops this philosophy fully with an educational model that emphasizes the human needs, growth pat- terns, and relationships in a young child’s life.
Developmentally, a traditional nursery school focuses on social competence and emotional well-being. The cur- riculum encourages self-expression through language, creativity, intellectual skill, and physical activity. The ba- sic underlying belief is the importance of interpersonal connections children make with themselves, each other, and adults.
The daily schedule (see Figure 2-2) reflects these beliefs. Large blocks of time are devoted to free play, a time when children are free to initiate their own activi- ties and become deeply involved without interruptions, emphasizing the importance of play. In this way, children learn to make choices, select playmates, and work on their interests and issues at their own rate. A dominant belief is that children learn best in an atmosphere free from excessive restraint and direction.
Typically, there is a balance of activities (indoors and out, free choice, and teacher-directed times) and a wide va- riety of activities (large- and small-muscle games, intellec- tual choices, creative arts, and social play opportunities).
A nursery school is often a half-day program, but many offer extended hours.
The Role of the Teacher The role of the teacher and methods of teaching are important factors in a traditional nursery school. They assume that young children need individual attention and should have personal, warm rela- tionships with important adults. Therefore, the groups of children are generally small, often fewer than 20 in a class.
9:00 Children arrive at school 9:00–9:45 Free play (indoors) 9:45 Cleanup 10:00 Singing time (large group) 10:15–10:30 Toileting/snack time (small group) 10:30–11:30 Free play (outdoors) 11:30 Cleanup 11:45 Story time 12:00 Children leave for home
Half-Day Schedule
FIGURE 2-2 A sample schedule for traditional half-day nurs- ery schools is the core of early education programs.
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46 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
The teacher–child ratio is low, as few as 6 to 10 children for each teacher. Teachers learn about children’s develop- ment and needs by observation and direct interaction, rather than from formalized testing. They work with chil- dren individually and in small groups and often teach through conversation and materials. Teachers encourage children to express themselves, their feelings, and their thinking. Such rapport between teacher and pupil fosters self-confidence, security, and belonging. Proponents of the traditional nursery school believe that these feelings pro- mote positive self-image, healthy relationships, and an encouraging learning environment.
Universal Preschools Increasing numbers of school dis- tricts offer pre-kindergarten programs for 4-year-olds, although some include 3-year-olds as well. Depending on their goal, these programs fall somewhere between tradi- tional nursery schools and not quite full-day care. For some, the focus is to promote school readiness; others give priority to children at risk for school failure, children who come from families in which English is not spoken, or low-income families. Universal preschools for 3- and 4-year-olds could meet the growing demand for child care in families where both parents work outside the home. In states in which early education has achieved a level of support, all 4-year-olds are eligible for enrollment, regardless of income. The concept for universal pre- schools is and will be a continuing issue (see Chapter 15 for further discussion).
Child Care Centers By definition, a child care center is a place for children who need care for a greater portion of the day than what the traditional nursery school offers. The school sched- ule is extended to fit the hours of working parents. A longer day means that ordinary routines such as meals and naps are woven into the program. These full-day op- tions are also educational settings, echoing but extending the curriculum of a half-day program.
Child care needs are met in many ways, from center- based care to family settings. Child care centers can in- clude preschools, employer-sponsored care, Head Start, for-profit and nonprofit institutions, religious institu- tions, colleges, YMCAs, public schools, social service agencies, and family child care.
Full-day child care is not a modern phenomenon. Some of the first nursery schools in England operated from 8:00 AM until 4:00 or 5:00 PM. (as noted in Chapter 1). Child care centers often serve infants and toddlers, as well as 2½- to 5-year-olds. Many offer kin- dergarten, before- and after-school options, and summer programs.
Scheduling Compare the nursery school schedule (Figure 2-2) with the child care schedule (Figure 2-3). The morning starts slowly. Children arrive early be- cause their parents must go to work or school. The center may supply breakfast, midmorning and midaft- ernoon snacks, and a noon lunch. A nap period for one to two hours for all the children gives a needed rest and balances their active, social day with quiet, solitary time. The program also includes extended experiences outside the school—field trips, library story hour, or swimming lessons—because children spend the major portion of their waking hours on-site. As the day draws to a close, children gather together quietly, with less energy and activity.
routines, such as eating, provide a balance to an active and busy day at the child care center.
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7:00–8:30 Arrival/breakfast; limited indoor play 8:30 Large group meeting 8:45–9:45 Free play (inside) 9:45 Cleanup/toileting 10:00 Snack time (small groups) 10:15–11:30 Free play (outside) 11:30 Cleanup/hand-washing 12:00 Lunch 12:30 Toothbrushing/toileting 1:00–2:00 Nap time 2:00–3:00 Free play (outside) 3:00 Group time 3:15 Snack time (small groups) 3:30–5:00 Inside and outside free play/library
hour 5:00 Cleanup 5:15–5:30 Departure
Full-Day Schedule
FIGURE 2-3 A typical full-day care schedule. Most child care programs combine education and caring for basic needs.
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47C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
Licensing Licensing is the process of fulfilling the legal requirements, standards, and regulations for operating child care facilities. There are no national standards or policies regarding licensing of child care facilities in the United States. Many local and state governments require licensing of child care centers and family child care homes, but there is no central licensing agency in every state. Depending on the state, a license may be issued by the Department of Health, Department of Education, or Department of Social Welfare.
Children spend long hours in child care, and many programs are sponsored by a variety of agencies such as churches, public schools, and private for-profit firms. With this diverse mix, a universal set of standards for licensing is imperative to ensure the best possible care for all children who need these services.
Staffing The staff in a full-day setting is often called on to deal with the parenting side of teaching. Children in full-day care may need more nurturing and clearer con- sistency in behavioral limits. At the same time, they need individual flexibility, understanding, and regular private time with caring adults.
Parents’ needs also may be greater and require more of the teachers’ time. Child care parents may require ex- tra effort; they have full-time jobs as well as child-rearing responsibilities draining their energies. It takes a strong team effort on the part of the teacher and the parent to make sure the lines of communication stay open and that families and schools are mutually supported.
The teaching staff has staggered schedules, a morning and an afternoon shift. Administration of this type of pro- gram is therefore more complex. An effort must be made to ensure that all teachers get together on a regular basis to share the information and details about the children in their care. Both shifts must be aware of what happens when they are not on-site to run the program consistently. (See Chapter 15 for further discussion on child care issues.)
Family Child Care In family child care, the provider takes care of a small number of children in a family residence. The group size can range from two to twelve, but most homes keep a low adult–child ratio, enrolling fewer than six children. It is reminiscent of an extended family grouping.
More than 1.7 million children are in family child care arrangements (NACCRRA, 2010). The home set- ting, sometimes right within the child’s own neighbor- hood, offers an intimate, flexible, and convenient service for working parents. Children in a family child care home can range from infants to school-age children who are cared for after regular school hours.
The developmental ranges that family child care pro- viders must meet may range from infancy up to 12 years, which poses a challenge to develop experiences and ac- tivities for a mixed-age group of children. Family child care providers work and live in the same environment posing logistical problems of storage, space definition, and activity space. Often, family child care providers care for their own children within their programs, leading to problems with separation and autonomy of their chil- dren and providing enough time to the child as a parent. Family child care providers are administrators and man- agers, as well as teachers and caregivers, faced with bud- gets and fee collections.
Advantages Family child care is good for children who do well in small groups or whose parents prefer to place them in a family-style setting. This is especially true for infants and toddlers. Family child care homes often sched- ule flexible hours to meet the needs of parents who work. The wide age range can be advantageous as well. Consis- tency and stability from a single caregiver throughout the child’s early years and a family grouping of children pro- vide a homelike atmosphere that is especially appropriate for infants and toddlers.
Family child care providers own and operate a small business in their homes. Providing child care is a way for women who want to remain at home with their children to contribute to the family income. Meeting the require- ments for licensing; fulfilling all the administrative tasks of a business and an educational program; and keeping current with the local, state, and federal tax requirements are part of the professionalism required for this type of child care arrangement.
Challenges Many homes are unregulated; that is, they are not under any sponsorship or agency that enforces quality care, and many are exempt from state licensing. Family child care providers often lack knowledge of child development and early education and are not required to take courses. The National Association for Family Child Care has established an accreditation system and pro- motes high-quality family child care through profes- sional development, public education, and policy initia- tives (NAFCC, 2011).
Family child care providers can feel isolated from oth- ers in the child care field. A hopeful sign, however, is that more articles on family child care are being included in professional publications, and early childhood conferences and workshops are now including issues related to the family child care provider. This type of care could be a star in the galaxy of child care options. Small and personalized, it offers parents an appealing choice of home-based care. It
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48 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
is obvious, though, that further regulation of standards, availability of training for providers, and an awareness of the advantages of family child care need to be addressed. For those who need child care, this should be a viable alternative; for those who want to work at home, this type of career should be given serious consideration.
The options for child care are many. In Figure 2-4 the choices that parents make when looking for child care are addressed.
Variations of Core Programs There are many variations of the core programs that pro- vide care and education for young children. These pro- grams differ primarily due to the sponsoring agencies, the children they serve, their underlying mission, and whether or not they are nonprofit or for-profit organizations.
head Start: An Early Intervention Model In 1965, the federal government created the largest pub- licly funded education program for young children ever. Head Start began as part of this country’s social action in the “war on poverty,” and the implications of the pro- gram were clear: If at-risk poverty-stricken children could be exposed to a program that enhanced their schooling, their intellectual functions might increase, and these gains would help break the poverty cycle.
Over the past 40-plus-year history, Head Start has served more than 27 million children and their families
(Head Start, 2011). The success of Head Start can be attributed to its guiding objectives and principles, most expressed through:
● Its comprehensive nature. The child is seen as a whole, requiring medical, dental, and nutritional assessment, as well as intellectual growth. Extensive health, education, and social services are offered to children and their families.
● Parent participation and involvement. Head Start expects parents to serve as active participants and get involved in the program at all levels: in the classroom as teacher aides, on governing boards making decisions about the program, and as bus drivers and cooks.
● Services to families. Many of the comprehensive ser- vices offered to children are extended to parents as well to assist them in their fight against poverty. Paid jobs in the program, continuing education, job training, and health care are some of the support services families received.
● Community collaboration. Interest and support from the local community help Head Start respond to the needs of the children and families it serves. Public schools, religious institutions, libraries, ser- vice clubs, and local industry and businesses help to foster responsible attitudes toward society and pro- vide opportunities for the poor to work with mem- bers of the community in solving problems.
● Multicultural/multiracial education. Since its incep- tion, Head Start has sought to provide a curriculum that reflects the culture, language, and values of the children in the program. Head Start efforts in this regard have been the models for other early child- hood programs.
Relatives
Child Care Centers
Family Child Care Homes
Multiple Arrangements
With Father
No Regular Arrangements 11.4%
25.4%
24.6%
8.8%
33.7%
39.9% (29.5% with Grandparents)
FIGURE 2-4 Child care options. (Data from: U.S. Bureau of Census. “Who’s Minding the Kids?” Childcare Arrangements, Spring, 2005. Survey of Income and Program Participation. retrieved August 2011.)
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49C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
● Inclusion of children with special needs. Since 1972, Head Start has pioneered the inclusion of children with disabilities in its classrooms. By 2009, 11.5 percent of Head Start enrollment consisted of chil- dren with disabilities (Head Start, 2010).
● Ecology of the family. Head Start programs look at children within the context of the family in which they live and view the family in the context of the neighborhood and community. This concept of taking the many forces that work against low-income fami- lies and viewing them as interrelated is a key factor in Head Start’s success (see also Chapters 1 and 15).
The success of Head Start led to the creation of three specific programs that furthered the goals of Head Start: Parent & Child Centers, which serve infants and toddlers and their families; the Child and Family Resource Pro- grams, which provide family support services; and the Child Development Associate credential, which provides early childhood training and education for Head Start teachers.
It should be noted that, at the beginning, one aim of Head Start was to change the language and behavior pat- terns of the low-income children served, many of whom came from minority groups, and to resocialize them into cultural patterns and values of the mainstream, middle class. Head Start was a “compensatory” program, and the implications were that children from poor or minority families were unprepared for the demands of school in terms of language and cognitive skills, achievement, and motivation. This widely held perspective of the 1960s was known as the “cultural disadvantage” model, which suggests that any language, cognitive, or relational style that differs from the Anglo, mainstream, middle-class
style is necessarily detrimental to rather than supportive of the educational process.
Contrast this view with the more recent, pluralistic perspective, called the “cultural difference” model, which affirms that no one way of “behaving and believing” should be required for successful participation in school or soci- ety. Figure 2-5 summarizes today’s Head Start programs.
Early Head Start Early Head Start was established in 1994 as part of the Head Start Reauthorization Act. This program serves low-income families with infants and toddlers and preg- nant women and is based on Head Start’s four corner- stones: child development, family development, staff development, and community building.
Nine principles guide the efforts of Early Head Start: 1) high quality; 2) prevention of developmental con- cerns and promotion of healthy child development; 3) posi- tive relationships and continuity in care-giving; 4) parent involvement; 5) inclusion; 6) culture; 7) comprehensiveness, flexibility, responsiveness and intensity to respond to fami- lies needs; 8) smooth transitions into Head Start programs; and 9) collaboration with local communities to maximize resources available to families.
Evaluating Early Intervention Effectiveness The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project was not a Head Start program but had an enormous impact on policy makers and government officials and affected Head Start funding in significant ways.
There are similarities among all programs, but the relation- ship among parents, children, and caregiver is the universal consideration.
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Enrollment 904,153 children
Ages Enrolled 5-year-olds: 3% 4-year-olds: 51% 3-year-olds: 36% Under 3: 10%
Race/Ethnic Population Native American/Alaskan Native: 4% Hispanic/Latino: 35.9% Black/African American: 30% White: 39.9% Asian/Pacific Islander: 2.3% Biracial/Multiracial: 7.8% Other: 16.7%
A Picture of Head Start
FIGURE 2-5 head Start continues to be a vital program that serves the needs of a diverse population. This information is for the fiscal year 2010. (U.S. Department of health and hu- man Services, the Office of head Start, 2011.)
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50 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study. This project presented the most convincing evidence to date of the effectiveness of early intervention programs for low- income children. Started in the 1960s, it is the first longitudinal study to measure the effects of preschool education and to track the children from preschool years through age 27.
Children from one randomly assigned group were placed in high quality early childhood programs at age 3; the other group did not attend preschool. The results showed great differences between the children who had the advantage of a high quality program and those who did not. Low-income children who had at- tended preschool significantly outperformed those who had not.
The children attending the preschool program were better educated, spent fewer than half as many years in special education programs, had higher earnings, were less likely to receive welfare, and were five times less likely to be arrested. Gender differences were also noted. Preschool program girls had a significantly higher rate of graduation than did the girls who did not attend pre- school, whereas, in comparison, preschool program boys completed slightly less schooling than nonpreschool boys (Weikart, n.d.).
Not only did this study underscore the need for high quality preschool programs for children who live in pov- erty, but it also demonstrated the potential impact that Head Start had on the country’s future. It is the first study of its kind to suggest the economic impact of early intervention. Because most of the children in the high quality early childhood program required less remedial education, had better earning prospects, and were less costly to the welfare and justice systems, early interven- tion in education was shown to be cost-effective.
Head Start Today Head Start has had a rocky history, its contributions notwithstanding. Struggling against budget cuts and controversy over its effectiveness, Head Start has under- gone program improvements and expansions.
The original vision of Head Start was improved and expanded for the 1990s as a model that challenges the effects of poverty and promotes physically and mentally healthy families. Head Start has a formidable challenge ahead as it protects the high quality of its original char- ter while expanding and increasing services. As the early childhood field has become more professionalized, so has Head Start. By 2013, all Head Start head teachers will be required to have a bachelors’ degree, continuing its efforts as a model of effective early intervention, child care, and education.
Variety of Early Childhood Program Options Early childhood programs take many forms and allow families to choose the best option to meet their needs. Variations of the core programs are outlined in Figure 2-6.
Infant/Toddler Programs The inclusion of infants and toddlers in group care is the result of more mothers in the workforce. Infant/toddler programs may be full-day centers or they may be part- time. Most are a combination of physical care coupled with intellectual stimulation and development.
Parent relationships are an especially important part of any program for babies and toddlers. The general inten- tion of these centers is to provide care that is supplemental to family life and that supports the child’s family structure. To do that, the caregiver at an infant/toddler center:
● involves the parents in the everyday decisions about the care of their child,
● provides them with information about the child’s day, and
● strengthens the child’s sense of belonging to that particular family.
Philosophy of Infant/Toddler Care Through the insights of Piaget and Erikson (see Chapter 4) and continuing research in brain development, we have come to view the infant as an involved person, one who ex- periences a wide range of intellectual and emotional abilities. Although they may appear to be helpless beings, babies are in fact persons with feelings, rights, and an individual nature.
Caregiving routines are at the heart of the infant/ toddler program and are the curriculum foundation for this age group. The challenge is to find ways to use these daily routines to interact, develop trust and security, and provide educational opportunities. In many cases, the caregiver’s role extends to helping parents use these same common occurrences to promote the optimal develop- ment of their child. Magda Gerber, a pioneer in infant care, coined the term educaring to describe the relation- ship between an infant and an adult. Observing, listening, and reading babies’ cues are key elements in educaring.
Gerber’s philosophy is based on the use of responsive and reciprocal interactions in which baby and caregiver learn about each other. Communicating through care giv- ing routines (diapering, feeding) in one-to-one intense and focused interactions is a foundation of Gerber’s ap- proach to caring for infants and toddlers (Gerber, 1979).
More recently, The Program for Infant/Toddler Care (PITC) has gained attention for its philosophy of a
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relationship-based curriculum. Caregivers get “in tune” with each infant and learn from the child what he or she needs, thinks, and feels. They design environments that offer appropriate developmental challenges and strengthen the child’s family and cultural identity. Care- givers study the infants and reflect on and record what they observe for future learning encounters (The Pro- gram for Infant/Toddler Care, 2011).
Unique Characteristics Infant and toddler programs differ from preschool pro- grams in a number of ways. There is a greater need for security, exploration, and social-emotional growth. In- fant and toddler programs reflect these needs by:
● Creating a stable environment with low staff turn- over and low caregiver–child ratios.
FIGURE 2-6 There is a diverse array of programs that are considered variations on the core of early childhood education.
Chart of Variations of Early Childhood Programs
Type Sponsor Ages Schedule Key Characteristics Settings
Parent cooperative
School districts, private owners
Preschoolers; often mixed-age groups
Full-day and/ or half-day
Parents commit to teach- ing in the classroom on a regular basis; regular parent education meetings; time-consuming; lower costs
Community centers, privately owned buildings, churches, synagogues
Laboratory schools
College or university
Preschool, infant/toddlers
Full-day and/ or half-day
Students and teachers often participate in teacher training and research activ- ities; offer model programs
Located on or near campus
Employer sponsored
Individual busi- ness or corporation
Infant/toddlers, preschooler, school age
Full-day and/ or half-day
Is an employee benefit option for parents; may be available as a voucher for any child care arrangement
Often on or near job site; hospitals, facto- ries, and government agencies, as well as child care centers and family child care homes
For profit (proprietary)
Corporations and individuals
Infant/toddler, preschool, kin- dergarten, before-school and after-school ages
Full-day and/ or half-day
May be part of a national/ regional chain or individu- ally owned; great variety of services and programs offered year-round; major purpose is to make a profit
Individual centers owned by franchise or corporation
Nonprofit centers
Community, churches, syna- gogues, gov- ernment agencies
Infant/toddlers, preschool, school age
Full-day and/ or half-day
Subsidized by sponsoring organization or govern- ment agency, which often provides low or free rent
Community buildings, government office buildings, churches, synagogues
Programs in religious institutions
Religious organization
Infant/toddler, preschool, school age
Full-day and/ or half-day
May be a community out- reach program where no religious dogma is taught or may be part of the min- istry of the sponsor and include religious dogma in the curriculum; tends to be one of the largest provid- ers of child care in the United States; tax exempt as a nonprofit; sharing space with congregational programs may be difficult
Churches, synagogues
Before- school and after-school care
Public schools, community organizations, YMCAs, YWCAs, churches, synagogues
Preschool and elementary school ages
Before and after school hours
Safe place for children during parent’s working hours; may provide holiday, vacations, and summer programs
Schools, community centers, YMCAs, YWCAs, child care centers
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52 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
● Providing more one-to-one physical care. ● Ensuring immediate response from adults. ● Following up with parents and families on a daily
basis. ● Using ordinary routines as learning opportunities. ● Developing skills that go beyond teaching: mother-
ing, being a playmate. ● Promoting intentional rather than discovery learning. ● Developing finely tuned interpretation skills to rec-
ognize need and distress signals in young children. ● Understanding the significance of cultural sensitiv-
ity as children gain a sense of their own identity.
An important consideration in infant care is the daily separation of parent and child. As you will learn in Chapter 4, attachment is the deep bond and personal relationship that connects infants to the important people in their lives, such as parents and caregivers. The more secure the attachment, the more positive effects it has on the child. Research on the influence of daily separation suggests that it is the quality of care that im- pacts attachment security. When the caregiver–infant ratio is low and the caregiver’s interactions are warm, positive, and knowledgeable about child development, children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development thrive (McCartney et al., 2007).
The distinction between programs for infants and those for toddlers is also important. Just as a scaled-down version of preschool is not a toddler program, neither is a scaled-down version of a good day for toddlers an appro- priate model for infants. The mobility of the toddler, for instance, requires different amounts of space and time in the schedule than those required for infants. Routines are also the focus of the toddler’s day but in a different way. Mealtimes and toileting provide daily opportunities for toddlers to explore and to express their emerging sense of self. Hand-washing—even eating—becomes a time to fill, to taste, to dump, and to pick up. Again, the curriculum emerges from a developmental need toddlers have of “Me! Mine!” To foster that independence, that wanting to “do it myself,” routines that allow for experimentation, mistakes, and messes make a good toddler curriculum. Good pro- grams for infants and toddlers, then, are distinctly arranged for their developmental needs and are not simply modified versions of what works well in a program for 3-year-olds.
Kindergarten The kindergarten year is one of transition from early childhood programs into a more formal school setting and is considered the first year of formal teaching. Kindergarten programs abound throughout the United States. They are found in elementary public and private
schools, religious institutions, and as part of preschool child care centers.
Length of Day The length of kindergarten programs is under debate in many states and schools districts. A few states require a full-day kindergarten and nearly all states offer only half- day kindergarten. Some states do not offer kindergarten at all. Kindergarten may be mandatory for 5-year-olds in some states and not in others.
Too often the arguments regarding the costs of such programs overshadow a more basic question: What are the best and most appropriate kindergarten programs, teaching methods, and curricula, regardless of the length of day? The following should be considered in response to this question:
● The purpose of the kindergarten program. How will the kindergarten program foster the goals in appro- priate curricula and adapt to the needs of children? The goal should begin with the child and build the program to fit the child’s needs, skills, and develop- ing abilities.
● The effects of a full day on children. Many children have already been in a child care setting for up to 10 hours a day and have shown they thrive in programs that are suited to their ages, development styles, and needs. There is no question that most children can handle a full-day kindergarten program, providing it is adapted to their age, interests, and abilities.
● The needs and concerns of families. Some families may want a full-day program because they work and need a safe and nurturing place for their children. Others who do not work outside the home may want to keep their children with them a while
Active involvement with people and objects helps infants and toddlers develop feelings of self-identity, curiosity, and creativity.
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53C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
longer. Families need to have a choice about the type of program that best suits their family.
● The effect on teachers. A full-day kindergarten means that class is extended for a longer period of time, providing opportunities to improve the quality of the program by individualizing the curriculum. Teachers in half-day kindergartens often teach one class in the morning and one in the afternoon. The negative effects on planning, continuity, parent rela- tionships, and individualizing curriculum are obvi- ous, not to mention the risk of teacher burnout.
● The concerns of the administration. The cost- effectiveness of extending a kindergarten program all day undoubtedly requires more staff, more sup- plies and equipment, and greater food-service costs. The policy makers in any school setting must take these into account along with the other issues, but one would hope they are not limited by them.
● The nature and quality of the extended-day pro- gram. Often, in programs in which children are in half-day kindergarten, the quality of the extended-care part of their day is not equal to their school experience. In many extended-day programs, the staff is untrained, has a high turnover rate, and does not reflect the same program goals for the kindergartener.
School Entry Age Most states establish an arbitrary date (e.g., September 1) by which children must be a certain age to enter kinder- garten. Lowering and raising the age for beginning kin- dergarten is debated frequently. Some parents hold chil- dren out of kindergarten for one year and enroll them when they are age 6, a practice called “redshirting” (Katz, 2000). Teachers retain many children each year in kin- dergarten; and administrators have created an array of kindergarten-substitute programs such as “developmen- tal,” “extra-year,” or “transitional” kindergartens. By the time they finally reach kindergarten, children are now in class with late 4-year-olds and 5- and 6-year-olds—a vast developmental span under one roof. Research shows mixed results for these practices.
Some of the methods used to create more homoge- neous kindergarten classrooms or to raise expectations for kindergarten admittance are:
● Inappropriate uses of screening and readiness tests. ● Discouragement and/or denial of entrance for eligi-
ble children. ● Creation of transitional classes for those who are
considered not ready for kindergarten. ● An increasing use of retention (NAECS/ NAEYC,
2001).
The issue of school readiness has been a hot topic for years. Early childhood professionals agree that children should be able to enter kindergarten when they are of legal age and that schools should be prepared to meet the needs of children where they are in their development. Instead schools have developed a variety of methods noted earlier to create more homogeneous classes rather than address the variety of developmental stages of children of kinder- garten age. There are many reasons children enter school without the resources and tools to succeed, such as poverty, language and cultural differences, access to high-quality early education programs, and lack of effective early inter- vention that includes comprehensive services. These are the necessary tools children need to be ready for school.
Curriculum: Developmental or Academic? Critical issues such as school-entry age and length of school day are related to kindergarten curriculum issues. Kindergarten programs range from relatively traditional classes to highly structured, academically oriented classes. Over the past 20 years, the push to teach separate skills, such as reading, writing, and math, has created more and more academically focused kindergartens in which work- sheets and teacher-directed lessons are the norm. As kindergartens have changed, there is greater pressure on teachers to accelerate children’s learning. Hatch (2005) cites three specific changes that have altered the course of kindergarten programs:
1. Children today experience very different childhoods than even a decade ago.
2. Knowledge of how children learn and develop has expanded.
3. The standards-based reform movement has changed expectations for kindergarteners by imposing arbi- trary standards of performance. This increases the academic expectations on them and the pressure on teachers to comply with regulations.
It is clear that Froebel’s “children’s garden” has wan- dered far from its child development roots. Curricula in which play is not respected as a vehicle for learning, read- ing is taught as a separate skill, and attempts are made to accelerate children’s learning are at odds with kindergar- ten history. Revisit Chapter 1 and read again about Froebel, Dewey, Piaget, Patty Smith Hill, Susan Isaacs, and other pioneers and their approach to learning. Edu- cating the whole child is very much in evidence in their work as is their basic connection to child development theory and research. (For further discussion on the nega- tive effects of early academics, see Chapter 3 for develop- mental ranges and Word Pictures for appropriate expec- tations. In Chapter 6, the related questions of standardized
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54 S E C T I O N 1 ● What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
testing and screening are discussed. In Chapters 10 and 15, related issues are explored.)
Kagan and Kauerz (Gullo, 2006) provide four reflec- tions on what kindergartens can and should be in the future. They integrate concerns about the developmen- tally appropriate integrity of kindergartens and the dom- ination of imposed standards and testing:
1. Kindergarten must remain “special,” that unique year in which play is a legitimate medium for establish- ing children’s learning patterns, and in which curric- ulum, standards, and assessments are in sync with preschool and first grade.
2. Kindergarten must keep the child front and center, even with the new emphasis on content. Curriculum must address the full range of developmental do- mains (social, emotional, cognitive, and physical) to prepare children for more formally taught content. Children’s curiosity, enthusiasm, initiative, and will- ingness to learn must be nurtured to enhance their overall ability to learn.
3. Kindergarten must acknowledge and support differ- ences in the needs of children and their families.
Different learning styles in children must be ad- dressed as well as family needs for flexibility in the structure, such as full- or half-day sessions.
4. Kindergarten must foster positive relationships be- tween the children and their teachers, between fam- ilies and the school, and between the school and the community. The success of these relationships can help establish trust and respect that last throughout the child’s school years.
Kindergarten is a significant transition in the lives of children and families and a critical year in a child’s growth and development. It should be made available and acces- sible to all children in the United States.
Early Elementary/Primary Grades Early childhood is defined as children from birth through age 8. Often overlooked as part of a comprehensive view of young children are first through third grades, serving chil- dren from ages 6- to 8-years-old. These grades focus on the basic academic skills of reading, writing, math, science, so- cial studies, art and drama, health and safety, and physical
Neuroscience has established the fact that the brain is constantly changing. This plasticity means that the brain is always adapting and reorga- nizing on a daily basis. New connec- tions are being created by everyday ex- periences and learning is taking place. Brain plasticity persists into adulthood but is especially pronounced in the early stages of life. At the same time the brain is growing, it is pruning itself, getting rid of unused synapses in a “use it or lose it” function. If the brain is rewiring itself so extensively in the preschool and early elementary years, and requires meaningful, positive expe- riences to grow, it begs the question: “Why is redshirting, or keeping children back one year, still being practiced?” It would appear that redshirting is actu- ally counterproductive because it de- prives the child of a challenging and stimulating school environment. The best way to give children the greatest
opportunity to learn is to put them in their age-appropriate classroom setting as soon as possible where their brains are immersed in growing, learning, and changing.
The issue of school readiness has been a hot topic for years. Early child- hood professionals agree that children should be able to enter kindergarten when they are of legal age and that schools should be prepared to meet the needs of children where they are in their development. This is sup- ported by recent brain development research that stresses stimulation and challenges as a way to foster brain growth and learning. Instead, schools have developed a variety of methods noted earlier to create more homoge- neous classes rather than address the variety of developmental stages of children of kindergarten age. (See fur- ther discussion of school readiness in Chapter 15.)
There are many reasons children enter school without the resources and tools to succeed, such as poverty, lan- guage and cultural differences, access to high-quality early education pro- grams, and lack of effective early inter- vention that includes comprehensive services.
Readiness has been defined as ready children, ready families, ready communities, ready early care and edu- cation, and ready schools (Rhode Island KIDS COUNT, 2005). All of these are necessary if we want all chil- dren to be ready for successful school experiences that use their brain poten- tial to greatest advantage.
Questions 1. When might it be appropriate to de-
lay a child’s entry into school? 2. Why do disadvantaged children
have the most to lose from delayed entry into school?
Redshirting and Readiness
B R aIN Research Says...
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55C h A P T E r 2 ● Types of Programs
education. Although these subjects are usually taught sepa- rately, the curriculum should be integrated so that children learn subject matter through a variety of activities.
Unique Characteristics Dramatic changes are taking place in the primary-age child. Children this age are eager to learn and are devel- oping logic and reasoning skills as they move from Piaget’s preoperational stage to one of concrete opera- tions (see Chapter 4). Their learning tasks are more dif- ficult than in kindergarten and require greater persis- tence and effort. Starting at about age 6, children begin to plan out and think through their actions and take others’ views into consideration. As they grow more in- dependent in their learning, primary-age children like choosing their own tasks, working cooperatively in small groups with their classmates, and participating in plan- ning each day’s work. Group discussions and planning projects address the child’s needs to be part of the plan- ning process. Enhancing the child’s enthusiasm for learn- ing is a primary task for the teachers of this age group.
Play for the primary-age child now revolves around rules that accompany organized games, board games, and cards. Learning still takes place through indepen- dent exploration and manipulation of materials, so class- room centers are an important part of the environment. The classroom itself may be more structured but it is important that developmentally appropriate early child- hood principles, practices, and environments are applied through third grade.
The Challenge of Academic Standards Teaching in the primary grades presents challenges due to the pressure of local, state, or national standards that dictate what children need to learn at this age and grade
level. All states now have these standards for each grade level and each subject matter. As a result, teachers may have little or no control over what they teach and the unfortunate result may be a curriculum that “teaches to the test”; that is, one that stresses only the subject matter on which the child is tested. The best curriculum for the primary-age child is one that is in alignment with the standards so that the subject matter matches what the standards say children should know and do at this grade and subject level. Accountability through learning standards continues to have a strong impact on the early elementary years. (Further discussion of early learning standards and their effect on teaching and learning is discussed in many of the following chapters.
School-Age Child Care Before-school and after-school programs are designed for children before they start or after they finish their regular academic day. This type of care is usually available for children from ages 5 to 12. There are 8.4 million children participating in after-school programs, and that number continues to grow (America After 3PM, 2011).
Staff for after-school programs comes from a variety of backgrounds, most of which include some experience with children, such as teachers, recreation specialists, or specialists within the arts. As with most child care pro- grams, however, high turnover and low wages affect the quality of the service. Finding qualified staff is the major challenge facing school-age providers, along with finding space and funding (Neugebauer, 2007).
Two national organizations, the National School-Age Care Alliance and the National Institute on Out-of-School Time created an accreditation system for after-school care. Their goals are to set professional standards, accredit high quality programs, and support program improvement.
There is a critical need for safe, recreational programs for after-school care. America After 3 PM reports that more than 25 percent of America’s school children are on their own in the afternoons. These self-care children are a young and vulnerable population. Children need the safety, the creative opportunity, and the emotionally supportive relationships that out-of-school care can provide. These programs are natural extensions of responsible child care and are essential services to children and their families.
homeschooling The homeschool movement began in the 1950s as an alternative to public education. Today, approximately 1.5 million students are homeschooled, nearly 3 percent of the school age population. The majority (84 percent) of homeschooled children receive all of their education
Kindergarteners are able to enjoy close friendships.
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at home, whereas some attend school part of the time (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2011).
Three reasons why parents select homeschooling are for the school environment, to provide religious instruc- tion, and dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available elsewhere. From 2003 to 2007, the percentage of students whose parents reported that religious instruction was the most important factor increased from 73 to 83 percent (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011).
The educational philosophies and methods used in homeschooling are widely diverse and range from pre- packaged curriculum that parents buy to “relaxed home- schooling” and “unschooling” (Cloud & Morse, 2001). The “relaxed” or “natural” homeschooling method involves real- life projects as teaching opportunities, such as taking care of the farm animals or building a table. “Unschooling” uses no curriculum plans, and children pursue their own inter- ests. If some of this seems familiar, you might want to look back at Chapter 1 and review the various educational phi- losophies on which early childhood programs are based.
Some concerns expressed by educators regarding homeschool educational programs include: 1) lack of quality control due to varying regulations; 2) lack of socialization opportunities for students; 3) lack of sports opportunities; 4) the extreme time commitment de- manded of parents; 5) lack of accountability, regulations, and policies surrounding homeschooling; and 6) the loss of revenue for public education.
Assessing Program Quality Each week, more than 12 million children younger than the age of 5 are in some type of child care arrangement (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010) and each of these early child- hood settings differs in the level of quality they provide. What does it mean to have a “high quality” program that benefits children and their families?
Indicators of Quality Early childhood programs vary greatly in their educational goals and practices, their methods of instruction, and even in the kind of social “mood” or atmosphere they create.
Yet the quality of these programs is based on three essential factors:
1. The teacher–child ratio; that is, the number of chil- dren cared for by each staff member
2. The total size of the group or class 3. The education, experience, and training of the staff
The importance of these three factors cannot be un- derestimated, and they underscore each of the criteria in the DAP box “High-Quality Programs 5 DAP.” The fol- lowing 10 criteria are found in every chapter throughout this text.
as a beginning kindergarten teacher Shawndra wants to establish ap- propriate and positive relationships with her students. Before school starts, she interviews two experienced teachers to see what experience has taught them. Mac, a long-time second grade teacher, tells her to earn children’s respect by having fair, clear, and consistent class- room rules. Mattie, who has taught kin- dergarten for three years tells Shawndra that being well prepared but flexible are the keys to good relationships with students.
These conversations prompt Shawndra to reflect on her own life as a student and look at her former teachers and how they created a
respectful and supportive classroom atmosphere. One teacher stands out in her mind, her preschool teacher when Shawndra was 5-years-old. Mrs. Olivera’s classroom was fun and fasci- nating (Ah, Mattie’s point about prep- aration and flexibility!) and classroom rules were at a minimum (Mac is right: consistency is important). Most of all, Shawndra felt involved in the life of the classroom.
During the first week of school, Shawndra and her students had several brainstorming sessions about classroom behaviors and what kind of a climate they would like to create. By the end of the second week, the students unani- mously agreed to a short list of rules they
felt were important. What Shawndra suc- ceeded in doing, by asking the class for their opinions and taking ownership of the rules, was to let students know she respected them and believed in their innate abilities to work together and got them involved.
Think About This 1. Do you think Shawndra’s solution
worked? Why? Why not? 2. What do you think were the most im-
portant suggestions that formed Shawndra’s decision?
3. How can Shawndra’s experience help you plan for creating successful rela- tionships with children in your class?
A Thoughtful Beginning
Teaching With INTENTION
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research Studies on Quality Every day, scores of parents search for affordable pro- grams and reliable providers. A study by the National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies (NACCRRA, 2008) polled more than 1,000 parents nationwide to find out what parents want in child care. Quality was mentioned more than any other issue.
Issues That Affect Quality The focus of the child care issues centers on a few core problems that threaten the quality of child care through- out the country:
● The annual turnover rate for child care staff is more than 30 percent (Whitebook & Sakai, 2004). Minimal benefits, lack of health care, and low wages account for this high rate of turnover.
High-Quality Programs = DAP
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has established a list of criteria for high-quality early childhood programs. These criteria are used for accreditation of programs by NAEYC and are based on a consensus of thousands of early childhood professionals (NAEYC, 2005).
1. Relationships. Positive relationships help children develop personal responsibility, self-regulation, constructive interactions, and academic mastery. Warm sensitive relationships help children feel secure and develop a positive sense of self, respect for others, and the ability to cooperate.
2. Curriculum. The curriculum draws on research for concepts, skills, and methodology that fosters children’s learning and maximizes learning through time and materials as well as provides learning opportunities for children individually and in groups.
3. Teaching. Developmentally, linguistically, and culturally appropriate teaching practices enhance children’s learning, as does multiple instructional methods, including teacher-directed, child-directed, and structured and unstructured learning opportunities. Teachers reflect the children’s backgrounds, needs, interests, and capabilities in their instructional approaches. When more than one teacher is in the classroom, a team teaching approach is used.
4. Assessment of Child Progress. Appropriate and systematic assessment measures, which are culturally sensitive, inform needs. Assessments aid in identifying children who need additional instruction and/or intervention and further assessment.
5. Health and Safety. A healthy state of well-being enhances a child’s ability to learn. Adults help protect children from illness and injury and help them make healthy choices for themselves.
6. Teachers. The teaching staff is educationally qualified, knowledgeable, and professionally committed to supporting children’s learning and development, as well as families’ diverse needs and interests. The teachers who have specific preparation in child development and early childhood education are more likely to have warm, positive interactions with children, promote richer language experiences, and create a higher quality
learning environment. Ongoing professional development ensures that teachers reflect current research and best practices.
7. Families. Good family relationships are collaborations between home and school and reflect family composition, language, and culture. They are based on mutual trust and respect in recognition of the primacy of the family in the life of the child.
8. Community Relationships. The program establishes relationships with and uses the resources of the community to realize program goals. By helping to connect families with a variety of resources, the children’s health and development is enhanced.
9. Physical Environment. A safe, healthy, and accessible environment and well-maintained indoor and outdoor areas foster learning, health, and safety for young children. The design of the facilities and the activities support a high-quality program.
10. Leadership and Management. The program effectively administers policies, procedures, and systems that support a stable staff and strong personnel, fiscal, and program management. Effective governance and structure, program accountability, positive community relations, and a supportive workplace create a high- quality environment for all.
Visit an NAEYC accredited early childhood site and a nonaccredited program. Use these 10 criteria to assess the overall quality of the program. How do these programs compare? What issues seem to be the most challenging in meeting the standards for high-quality in both settings? Do you think accreditation based on these criteria is useful in creating high-quality? In promoting DAP? Why? Why not?
Quality early care and education contribute to the healthy cognitive, social, and emotional development of all children but particularly those from low-income families. The cost of child care is disproportionately high for poor families, so those who might benefit the most have the most difficult time affording quality care. Good, affordable, accessible child care that meets the increasing needs of American families is one of today’s most crucial issues. Observation tools that measure quality in early childhood programs is discussed later in the chapter under “How to Evaluate a Program.”
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● Twenty percent of child care center teachers have a high school diploma or less and 43 percent of assis- tant teachers have a high school diploma or less. Forty-four percent of family child care providers have only a high school diploma (NCCRRA, 2010).
● Average earnings of child care workers are $9.70 per hour or $20,350 annually. Preschool teachers earn $12.80 per hour or $26,610 per year (NCCRRA, 2010).
The triple threats to child care—quality, cost, and compensation—are discussed further in Chapter 15.
Highlights from three long-range research projects support the premise that high-quality child care programs have lasting impact on children’s lives:
1. The Abecedarian Project, conducted by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center at the University of North Carolina, is the first study to track participants from infancy to age 21. The children were considered at risk for potential school failure.
Important factors in determining quality were in place to ensure success: staff experience and education, little or no staff turnover, small teacher–student ratios, group size, and parent participation. Significant bene- fits for the children enrolled in the program for five years included the likelihood of attending a four-year college and delaying parenthood until after high school. Moreover, by age 15, twice as many of the chil- dren who did not receive intervention services had been placed in special education programs than those who had been in child care. By age 21, most subjects were either gainfully employed or in college. Only 30 percent of the child care children had to repeat a grade in school compared with 56 percent of the others.
2. The Children of the Cost, Quality, and Outcomes Study Go to School (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber & Howes, 2001), tracked children from child care years through second grade. The findings noted that: ● Children who receive good, quality child care had
better social and cognitive skills in kindergarten and beyond.
● Children who were at risk gained the most from positive child care experiences and sustained these gains through second grade.
● Children who had closer relationships with their child care teachers had better behavior and social skills through second grade.
3. A 25-year federally funded study at the Child- Parent Centers in Chicago is the longest follow-up ever of an established large-scale early childhood program. According to Reynolds, Temple, Ou, Arteaga, and White (2011), the participants showed
higher levels of education, socioeconomic status, and better jobs, as well as lower rates of substance abuse, grade retention, drop-out rates, arrest, and incarceration than those who did not attend an early childhood program that offered comprehensive ser- vices to children and families.
All three of these studies show positive economic benefits of quality early childhood education.
The Process of Assessing Programs As educators, we are constantly evaluating, judging, and rating areas such as:
● Curriculum. Will this language game help develop the listening skills of 3-year-olds?
● Materials and equipment. If we order the terrarium, will there be enough money for the math lab?
● The environment. Should the children begin school with free play or a group time? Where can we store the nap cots? Do the cubbies create a hazard out in the hallway?
● Children’s behavior. Evan and Francie interrupt each other too much. Should they be placed in separate work groups?
● Teacher effectiveness. Yolanda still finds it difficult to lead a group time. How can she be supportively challenged?
As a process, an assessment involves making deci- sions, choices, and selections. In its simplest form, it is a process of appraisal. A good assessment encourages posi- tive change. It is easy to continue the same program, the same teaching techniques, year after year when a school is operating smoothly. Sometimes it is not clear what—or how—improvements could be made. A regular assess- ment process keeps a system alive and growing and helps to give meaning and perspective to children, teachers, and programs. An assessment that helps clarify issues and ideas brings renewed dedication and inspiration.
Why Program Assessment is Important There are four major reasons for making an annual as- sessment of a program for young children.
To Gain an Overview Evaluating a program gives an over- view of how all the various components function together. The fundamental questions are: Is this a good place for children? Would you want your child to be here? What is a high-quality program for young children? Looking at children, teachers, and the total environment, a program evaluation reveals the environment as an integrated whole. These assessments add an awareness of how one area is
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related to another and how the parts mesh in a particular setting. Such evaluations, then, are the standards of qual- ity and include:
● Children’s progress ● Teacher performance ● Curriculum development ● The financial structure ● Family involvement ● The community at large ● The governing organization of the school
In program evaluations, each of these is assessed for how it functions alone and how each works in concert with the others.
To Establish Accountability A program evaluation es- tablishes accountability. This refers to a program’s abil- ity to answer to a controlling group or agency, for in- stance, the school board or the government office or the parents and the community in which the program oper- ates. These groups want to know how their funds are being spent and how their philosophy is being expressed through the overall program.
To Make Improvements Program evaluations are an op- portunity to take an objective look at how the goals of the school are being met. A good evaluation supports the strengths of the existing program and suggests areas in which changes might improve overall effectiveness. An in- depth assessment increases the likelihood that program goals and visions are realized. The evaluation helps deter- mine the direction the program may take in the future.
To Acquire Accreditation Evaluations are a necessary step for some schools that wish to be approved for certi- fication or accreditation by various organizations or
government agencies. Such groups require that a school meet certain evaluation standards before the necessary permits are issued or membership is granted. Agencies, such as a state department of social services or depart- ment of education, often license family child care homes, whereas private schools may need to follow certain crite- ria to be affiliated with a larger organization (such as the American Montessori Society).
The National Academy of Early Childhood Programs, a division of NAEYC, has established an accreditation system for improving the quality of life for young children and their families. The accreditation system articulates standards for physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development of children in group care. The academy es- tablished goals for accreditation on the basis of 10 criteria, which are outlined on page 57.
Essential Steps Before You Begin To ensure the most productive assessment, take the fol- lowing steps:
1. Set goals. Without evaluation, goals are meaning- less. Evaluation helps shape a goal into a meaningful plan of action. To be useful, an evaluation must in- clude suggestions for improving the performance or behavior. The assessment tool that only describes a situation is an unfinished evaluation; goals for im- provement must be established.
2. Define expectations. In every early childhood set- ting, more than one set of expectations is at work. The director has job expectations of all the teachers. Teachers have standards of performance for them- selves, the children, and parents. Parents have some expectations about what their children will do in school and about the role of the teachers. Children develop expectations regarding themselves, their parents, teachers, and the school. A good evaluation tool outlines clearly and specifically how expecta- tions have been met in a system of mutual account- ability. Evaluations provide information by which to rate performance, define areas of difficulty, look for possible solutions, and plan for the future.
3. Be inclusive. A good evaluation instrument should be culturally appropriate and recognize the many ways that a program can be multicultural and anti-biased in its operations. In Chapter 9, you will learn about anti-bias and inclusive environments. (See Figure 9-4 for a checklist for creating an inclusive setting.)
4. Define the objectives. A program evaluation begins with a definition of the program’s objectives. Know- ing why a program is to be evaluated indicates how to tailor the procedure to the needs and characteristics
Evaluations are part of everyday life in an early childhood set- ting. Observations highlight ways to improve the program.
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The Physical Environment ____ Are the facilities clean, comfortable, safe?
____ Are room arrangements orderly and attractive?
____ Are materials and equipment in good repair and maintained?
____ Is there a variety of materials, appropriate to age levels?
____ Are activity areas well-defined?
____ Are cleanup and room restoration a part of the daily schedule?
____ Are samples of children’s work on display?
____ Is play space adequate, both inside and out?
____ Is personal space (e.g., cubby) provided for each child?
The Staff ____ Are there enough teachers for the number of children?
____ How is this determined?
____ Are the teachers qualified? What criteria are used?
____ Is the staff evaluated periodically? By whom and how?
____ Does the school provide/encourage in-service training and continuing education?
____ Do the teachers encourage the children to be independent and self-sufficient?
____ Are the teachers genuinely interested in children?
____ Are teachers aware of children’s individual abilities and limitations?
____ What guidance and disciplinary techniques are used?
____ Do teachers observe, record, and write reports on children’s progress?
____ Are teachers skilled in working with individual children, small groups, and large groups?
____ Does the teaching staff give the children a feeling of stability and belonging?
____ Do teachers provide curriculum that is age-appropriate and challenging?
____ How would you describe the teachers’ relationships with other adults in the setting? Who does this include, and how?
____ Can the teaching staff articulate good early education principles and relate them to their teaching?
Parent Relationships ____ How does the classroom include parents?
____ Are parents welcome to observe, discuss policies, make suggestions, help in the class?
____ Are different needs of parents taken into account?
____ Where and how do parents have a voice in the school?
____ Are parent-teacher conferences scheduled?
____ Does the school attempt to use community resources and social service agencies in meeting parents’ needs?
The Organization and Administration ____ Does the school maintain and keep records?
____ Are scholarships or subsidies available?
____ What socioeconomic, cultural, and religious groups does the school serve?
Checklist for Program Evaluation
____ What is the funding agency, and what role does it play?
____ Is there a school board, and how is it chosen?
____ Does the school serve children with special needs or handicaps?
____ Is the classroom group homo- or heterogeneous?
____ What hours is the school open?
____ What age range is served?
____ Are there both full- and part-day options?
____ Is after-school care available?
____ Does the school conduct research or train teachers?
____ What is the teacher-child ratio?
The Overall Program ____ Does the school have a written, stated educational
philosophy?
____ Are there developmental goals for the children’s physical, social, intellectual, and emotional growth?
____ Are the children evaluated periodically?
____ Is the program capable of being individualized to fit the needs of all the children?
____ Does the program include time for a variety of free, spontaneous activities?
____ Is the curriculum varied to include music, art, science, nature, math, language, social studies, motor skills, etc.?
____ Are there ample opportunities to learn through a variety of media and types of equipment and materials?
____ Is there ample outdoor activity?
____ Is there a daily provision for routines: eating, sleeping, toileting, play?
____ Is the major emphasis in activities on concrete experiences?
____ Are the materials and equipment capable of stimulating and sustaining interest?
____ Are field trips offered?
____ Do children have a chance to be alone? In small groups? In large groups?
Cultural Responsiveness ____ Are multicultural perspectives already incorporated
throughout the school, classroom curriculum, and classroom environment?
____ Do my attitudes (and those of all staff) indicate a willingness to accept and respect cultural diversity? How is this demonstrated?
____ Do classroom materials recognize the value of cultural diversity, gender, and social class equity?
____ Do curricular activities and methods provide children opportunities to work and play together cooperatively? In mixed groups of their choice or at teacher direction?
____ Do schoolwide activities reflect cultural diversity? How is this noticed?
____ Does the program planning reflect the reality (views and opinions) of families and the community?
____ Does the curriculum include planning for language diversity? For full inclusion? (Adapted from Baruth and Manning, 1992, and de Melendez and Ostertag, 1997.)
FIGURE 2-7 Checklist for areas of program evaluation. This checklist can be downloaded from the Education CourseMate website.
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LO 1 High-quality early childhood programs reflect the core elements of developmentally appropriate prac- tices (DAP) by basing the program on what is known about child development and learning, what is known about each individual child, and what is known about the child’s social and cultural context. By following DAP guidelines, early childhood programs maximize the benefits children gain from attending an early edu- cation program. Following the guidelines for develop- mentally and culturally appropriate practice (DCAP) ensures equal and fair teaching and learning experi- ences for all students.
LO 2 The traditional nursery school and its sister programs of child care centers and family child care form the core of early childhood programs. Each has unique characteristics, scheduling, hours of operation, licensing requirements, and a combination of child care and education. The teacher’s role in each setting differs according to the length of day that children at- tend, the number of caregivers, and the needs of par- ents and families.
LO 3 Early childhood programs reach a broad popula- tion and parents have a range of delivery systems from which to choose. An array of programs in parent coop- eratives, laboratory schools, faith-based settings, and before/after school are available and serve children from infancy through elementary school. These pro- grams are under the sponsorship of public and private schools; community organizations; churches; syna- gogues; local, state, or federal governments; corpora- tions; and colleges and universities.
LO 4 A good assessment process evaluates quality ac- cording to established professional criteria that serves as a reference for making changes that improve the teach- ing and learning in that setting. The assessment includes a clear purpose, knowing who and what will be evalu- ated, and what use will be made of the results. Teachers, children, and the program must be assessed individually and then evaluated as a whole. Each supports and de- pends upon the other. An evaluation is a way to look at how these relationships are working. The result is a bet- ter prepared staff and a program of greater quality.
Summary
of an individual school. With the objectives defined, the choice of evaluation instrument becomes clear. If, for example, a program objective is to provide a healthy environment for children, the evaluation tool used must address the issues of health, safety, and nutrition.
5. Choose an evaluation instrument. Evaluation in- struments vary with the purpose of the program evaluation. NAEYC’s accreditation guidelines are effective (described as 10 essentials for high quality programs on pages 57), as are four rating scales developed by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Each focuses on a specific early childhood setting: ● Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale
(ITERS-R), which is designed to assess programs for children from birth to 21 years of age
● Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-R) for preschool through kindergarten programs serving children from 5 to 21 years of age
● Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale (FCCERS-R) for use in homes that serve infants through school-age
● School-Age Care Environment Rating Scale (SACERS) assesses group care programs for children from 5 to 12 years of age
See Chapter 9 for details of how these elements are used in planning environments. Figure 2-6 is a checklist that includes the program areas to include in an evaluation.
Implement the Findings The evaluation process is complete when the results are tabulated and goals are set to meet the recommendations of the evaluation. Program administrators meet with the teaching staff to discuss the challenges highlighted by the evaluation. A process is put into place for addressing the issues, a calendar is established to create a timeline for improvement, the appropriate staff members are as- signed the responsibility for making the changes, and the process begins anew. Evaluations are only as useful as the implementation plan. They can help identify specific concerns, determine the areas of growth and potential development, and be a blueprint for the future.
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Bureau of Labor Statistics‚ www.stats.bls.gov
U.S. Department of Education‚ www.ed.gov
Families and Work Institute‚ www.familiesandwork.org
National Institute on Out-of-School Time‚ www.niost.org
National Network for Child Care‚ www.nncc.org
National Association for Family Child Care‚ www.nafcc.org
Child Care Information Exchange‚ www.ccie.com
National Center for Education Statistics‚ www.nces.ed.gov
Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services‚ www.clas.uiuc.edu
Center for Child Care Workforce‚ www.ccw.org International Nanny’s Association‚ www.nanny.org Head Start/Early Head Start‚
www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs
Helpful Websites
Key Terms developmentally appropriate practice
(DAP) mixed-age grouping looping traditional nursery school child care center
licensing family child care comprehensive educaring attachment kindergarteners
school readiness alignment self-care assessment accountability
1. What are the three core considerations of develop- mentally appropriate practices? How do they con- tribute to children’s learning?
2. What are the core programs of early childhood educa- tion? How are they similar? How are they different?
1. Choose one program and describe why you would like to teach in it. What are the most attractive ele- ments of the program? What are some of the chal- lenges you would have working in such a program?
2. Visit a family child care home. Look at the home as if you were a prospective parent. What did you like most? Least? Is the home licensed? If so, for how many children? After talking with the family child care provider, what do you think are the challenges of this type of program? What do you think are possible solutions to these problems?
3. Visit a Head Start program and a local kindergarten. Compare their programs in terms of appropriate or
3. What are the variations of the core programs and who do they serve?
4. What are three factors that affect the quality of early childhood programs? How do they influence program assessment?
inappropriate curriculum. What are the major con- cerns of the teaching staff in each type of setting? What are the controversies about each of these pro- grams in your community?
4. As you reflect on the various options for teaching in an early childhood program, what are the most im- portant factors a program must have for you to teach in that setting?
5. What aspect of an assessment process gives you the greatest concern? How do you think you will handle criticism?
Review Questions
Observe and Apply
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ChildStats‚ www.childstats.gov U.S. Census Bureau‚ www.census.gov Children’s Defense Fund‚
www.childrensdefense.org
About Homeschooling‚ www.homeschooling.about.com
National Association for the Education of Young Children‚ www.naeyc.org
The Education CourseMate website for this text offers many helpful resources and inter- active study tools. Go to CengageBrain.com to access the TeachSource Videos, flashcards, tutorial quizzes, direct links to all of the websites mentioned in the chapter, downloadable forms, and more.
Afterschool Alliance. (2010). America After 3 PM: Key findings. (2010). http://www.afterschoolalliance.org. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
Baker, K. R. (1950). The nursery school: A human rela- tionships laboratory. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Frequently asked questions, 2010. http://www.bls.gov. Retrieved August 2011.
(The) Carolina Abecedarian Project. (1999). The Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Author.
Cloud, J., & Morse, J. (August 27, 2001). Home sweet school. Time, pp. 47–54.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serv- ing children from birth through age 8. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team. (1995). Cost, quality and child outcomes in child care centers. Denver, CO: Department of Economics, University of Colorado at Denver.
Gerber, M. (1979). Respecting infants: The Loczy model of infant care. In E. Jones (Ed.), Supporting the growth of infants, toddlers, and parents. Pasadena, CA: Pacific Oaks.
Harms, T., Clifford, R. M., & Cryer, D. (1998). Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (Rev. Ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.
Hatch, J. A. (2005). Teaching in the new kindergarten. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Head Start. (2010). 2010 Head Start fact sheet. Washington, D.C.: Head Start Bureau, Department of Health and Human Services.
Hyun, E. (2007). Cultural complexity in early child- hood: Images of contemporary young children from a critical perspective. Childhood Education, 85(5), pp. 261–266.
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