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6 Curriculum and Assessment Photo of a cubby filled with brushes and other art supplies. Socialstock/Socialstock/Superstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to Describe the various forms a curriculum can assume in the classroom. Identify and describe forces that shape curriculum development. Analyze key aspects of both formative and summative assessments, including validity, reliability, and transparency. Define, compare, and contrast traditional quantitative measures with assessment for learning and alternative/authentic assessment. The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—rather how to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men. —John Dewey Teachers make important decisions about what students should learn on a daily basis. However, they do not do so in a vacuum. In this chapter, you will examine the meaning of curriculum, the process of curriculum development, and the forces that shape it. You will discover that deciding what students should learn is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the influence and expectations of several groups in addition to teachers. Expectations range from standards set by state legislatures to national programs to recommendations espoused by professional organizations. In the midst of all these influences, the teacher is expected to be a pivotal player in making curricular decisions. Teachers also determine what their students know or have learned, and this chapter also introduces the role of assessment in the classroom. We have all taken assessments. In fact, a good portion of the time you spent in school likely involved preparing for an exam or waiting for its results. School is typically about defined stages: pre-assessment, teaching, learning, and then post-assessment or evaluation. Assessments are meant as a guide to planning for additional teaching and learning. Thus, it is important that they provide information that will help teachers improve instruction. And yet, if teachers lack understanding of assessment's purposes, they may focus solely on determining what students have or have not learned, with no plans for future learning. If teachers are to prepare students for the changing world they will inherit, they must help them become resourceful, creative, lifelong learners who own their learning by taking responsibility for it. Assessment can play a definitive role in this process, guiding teachers to make curricular and instructional decisions that help their students take responsibility for determining the next steps in their learning journey. 6.1 Defining Curriculum Thus far, we have been using the term curriculum to refer to "the specific content that students are taught." The history of the word, however, is a bit more complex. Originally, the word came from the Latin verb currere, meaning "to run a course." Thus, the original meaning of the word was a course of study. (Note: This Latin derivation explains why the plural form of curriculum is curricula.) A curriculum was originally conceived of as a set of courses that students would complete in a manner similar to running around a track. Completing a course (i.e., passing an examination) was analogous to reaching the finish line. Many still view curricula in this manner. Perhaps you see your own college program of study in this way. Yet, this traditional definition overlooks other aspects of the school curriculum. Therefore, the term curriculum has come to mean much more than the courses students take, even leading to controversies as to its correct definition, with at least 120 definitions by one researcher's count (Marsh, 2004). Here are just a few to demonstrate the differing views and philosophies of those who create the definitions: "Permanent" subjects such as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and the greatest books of the Western world that best embody essential knowledge. Those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society. All planned learnings for which the school is responsible. The totality of learning experiences provided to students so that they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites. What the student constructs from working with the computer and its various networks, such as the internet. (pp. 4–6) Photo of Dr. John Dewey in black and white. Album/Album/Superstock John Dewey was the father figure for American progressive education, and he believed that an educated population provided the foundation for a civilized and democratic society. The first of these definitions assumes that the curriculum should be limited to a few, unchanging, traditional, knowledge-based subjects. The final definition assumes the opposite: that our future 21st century will be nothing but constant change. Each of the definitions is lacking in some fashion. For that reason, for the purposes of this chapter the much more basic definition given above―the content that schools teach―will suffice. Principles of Curricula While we have chosen to use a basic definition of curriculum, there are several principles that can be assigned to it: Planning. A curriculum results from the planning efforts of educators. A well-designed curriculum does not just happen. Forethought must be given to various curricular components (e.g., content, teaching methods, and assessment tools). Purpose. The intended outcome of any planned curriculum is for learning to occur. A simple way to conceive of learning is as a change in some behavior, attitude, knowledge, or skill. Thus, the curriculum is designed to bring about some kind of change. Although learning is the primary goal, more specific objectives (or intended outcomes) also are part of curriculum development. What a school or individual teacher is trying to accomplish drives the curriculum. The basic question in curriculum creation is, "What do students need to know and be able to do?" An extension of the question might pertain to changes in attitude. Focus. Students are the focus of a curriculum—they are the intended audience. Thus, a language arts curriculum for 6-year-old learners will be markedly different from one for 16-year-old students. The developmental needs and abilities of students are a major consideration during curriculum planning. Philosophy or ideology. As evidenced in the curriculum definitions mentioned, educators may have differing views about curriculum development. In addition to those that were listed, some may be highly prescriptive and others more open ended as to goals for students' learning. Fluidity. A curriculum comes to life when it is enacted in the classroom. However, the curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action may differ somewhat. For example, two teachers can take the same curricular content and implement it in their own unique ways. Individual teaching styles (and students' learning styles) have a major impact on how a particular area of the curriculum is delivered. Types of Curriculum Most of the time we associate the word "curriculum" with its traditional meaning and the one adopted by this text: the content that schools teach. Nevertheless, it is important to note that schools have more than one kind of curriculum, particularly because one of them is actually something of a secret! The explicit curriculum is that which is openly and publicly stated (Eisner, 1994). This formal curriculum consists of the courses of study, the curriculum guides, the content of adopted textbooks, and the standardized tests used to measure student achievement. The explicit curriculum is that which exists on paper; it is the official curriculum of a school or school district. It is also made up of teachers' lesson plans and statements about what they intend to teach and the intended outcomes. For example, a teacher's presentation to parents at the annual "Back to School" night concerning what their children will learn that year would constitute the explicit curriculum. The implicit curriculum, which some call the "hidden curriculum" or "informal curriculum," consists of what is indirectly taught. The implicit curriculum is what a school teaches "because of the kind of place it is" (Eisner, 1994, p. 93). In other words, if it is the "kind of place" that values cooperative learning, desks will probably be placed in groups that encourage working together. If, on the other hand, the teacher wishes the students to understand that he or she is the authority figure, desks will be placed in rows facing the teacher's desk at the front. The teacher's desk will definitely be the largest one in the room, while the cooperative learning teacher may not even have a desk. In addition to furniture configuration, methods of teaching also send messages and educate. Thus, students who are frequently exposed to cooperative activities learn the importance of working together without the teacher giving them a lesson on collaboration; those who listen to the teacher lecture from the front of the room don't need to be told who is in charge. The null curriculum is "what schools do not teach" (Eisner, 1994, p. 97). Eisner pointed out that what schools do not teach often has a more powerful effect than what they do teach. In particular, he expressed concern about the lack of attention schools give to the "cultivation of imagination," as well as the neglect of such subjects as law, anthropology, and the fine arts (Eisner, 1979, p. 97). Therefore, the null curriculum is that which is absent or overlooked, and Eisner's observations of more than 30 years ago remain true today. Subjects most related to the cultivation of imagination such as art, music, dance or movement, and drama have continued to disappear from many or most schools. Educators also recognize a fourth type of curriculum—the extracurriculum. This consists of all the "extras" or outside activities sponsored by schools, such as chess clubs, debate teams, sports teams, and Spanish clubs. Many high school students find the extracurriculum the most powerful aspect of their school experience. A similar model, called the co-curriculum, includes outside activities that are tied to a school's academic classes, or formal curriculum. For example, if a school teaches drama and also has a drama club, then the club would be co-curricular. On the other hand, a chess club at a school would be considered extracurricular because there is no corresponding chess class. Some educators prefer co-curricular activities to extracurricular, reasoning that they are more integral to education and extend student learning. One of the most educationally powerful activities that might be designed either as extracurricular or as co-curricular is service learning. Although its roots are in the early 20th century with John Dewey's views on experiential education, today's service learning began its development in the 1970s (Berman, 2006). As such, there are schools, or programs within schools, that require community service experiences for high school, or even middle school, graduation. These may not be connected to academic courses and can therefore be defined as extracurricular. Alternatively and more commonly, service learning projects are designed as required elements within specific classes. These then are co-curricular activities. While there is no single model for implementing such a service learning project, or any specific subject area that it must be tied to, most projects share common elements (Berman, 2006): Selecting the need for service. Teachers and students together choose a project "that balances student interest, community need, and authentic learning" (p. xxiv). Finding a community partner. When students help with making final choices, "they learn more about problem solving, decision making, and cooperative action" (p. xxiv). Aligning the service experience with educational goals. The teacher focuses the students' attention on both their service goals and the content standards of their course. Managing the project. Berman states that "frequent assessment, review, and revision of the plan keep a project on course" (p. xxiv). Fostering reflective student learning throughout the project. Students keep reflective journals and other types of documentation related to both academics and service. Speaking for older students in particular, one educator (Andrews, 2013) has stated that the skills they acquire through co-curricular activities "give students the best chance of shaping their future" (para. 1) because they expand on and deepen the in-class experience. The five steps just described demonstrate the truth of this statement. Assess Yourself From the several definitions given of the word, how would you define curriculum? Recall a learning experience from elementary, middle, high school, or even college that resulted from an implicit, or hidden, curriculum. What effect did it have on you? Why do you think you still remember it? What extracurricular or co-curricular activities did you participate in when you were in school? In what ways did you feel that these activities either enhanced or detracted from your academic classes? 6.2 Developing Curricula Image of a page with a cursive practice template. Ann Cutting/Exactostock/Superstock The choice of what to include or exclude from the curriculum can be a contentious one, as seen in the debate surrounding recent moves by states to end the teaching of cursive handwriting in public schools. The most helpful structure for curriculum development can be described as a framework, particularly when it is viewed as "a springboard and focus for teachers. To a certain extent, [frameworks] are a tool of control and direction. Yet, they can also be a stimulus for evoking creative ideas and activities" (Marsh, 2004, p. 19). One such systematic process that has been popular in the past and is still well regarded today comes from Ralph Tyler's classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949). This slim volume presents what came to be known as the "Tyler Rationale." It was Tyler's observation that teachers most often got so caught up in simply covering content that they neglected to consider what the final, and rational, goals of learning were to be. He concluded that most teachers and professors "were preoccupied with their immediate tasks and scarcely aware, if at all, of what they wanted students to acquire" (Finder, 2004, p. 21). Today, curriculum design quite regularly starts with the stated goals, and curriculum planners have Tyler to thank for the creation of this model of a framework. Curriculum development according to Tyler (1949) should be based on the following four questions: What educational purposes does the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler, 1949, p. 1) Using these questions as a guide, educators can proceed through four stages as they develop a curriculum. One example given by Tyler of problematic curriculum development was that of a second-grade teacher simply assuming the need to cover the material in her second-grade reader. Using Tyler's 4-step framework (1949), here is how plans might be developed more effectively: Selecting and defining objectives. When choosing objectives, developers should take into account the content to be taught as well as standards, student needs and interests, and the influence of contemporary life. Perhaps the second graders are due to read a fantasy story in which dragons and frogs overcome their self-identification as enemies when the frogs accept an opportunity to save the life of a baby dragon. The teacher knows that most of the children have great interest in dinosaurs and guesses that this interest will transfer easily to dragons. The children's contemporary life is addressed through dealing with issues related to friendship and overcoming fear. The teacher decides to focus on helping the children reflect on these two issues as her teaching objective. Of course, there are standards to meet, and these are inserted automatically through district and school guidelines. Selecting and creating learning experiences. These should be motivating to learners and at an appropriate level for student capabilities. Without this framework, the teacher would simply have the children read the story silently, then out loud, and finally answer content questions to determine understanding. This time, however, she will have children role play the events that lead to overcoming fear in favor of friendship. They will themselves determine plot lines that might differ from the story's and create the dialogue to match. Organizing learning experiences. Plans are made to incorporate a sequence of learning and possible opportunities for curriculum integration. Drama is now added to the reading assignment. In addition, an art project might be a mural or a sequenced set of illustrations that explore the story more fully. Entries in the children's daily journals add writing. Curriculum evaluation. Both student and curriculum are evaluated to determine if original objectives have been met. The teacher will be able to tell, through drama, journaling, and art, if the children are achieving a growing understanding of overcoming fear in favor of friendship. As a long-term goal, she hopes that playground behavior might actually demonstrate what they have learned. She knows that, in a problem situation, she might be able to say as a reminder, "Do you remember how the dragons and frogs showed how to be friends?" Although Tyler's concepts have come under criticism for their lack of flexibility, they remain influential even after many decades, providing a useful framework for planners, whether they be teachers, schools, or system-level personnel. According to a Tyler biographer, "Ralph Tyler's achievements have remained unmatched. . . . It is no wonder that governments, foundations, and seven presidents of the United States sought his counsel" (Finder, 2004, p. 6). More modern frameworks typically contain more components, especially if they are school- or district-wide. A complex version would include: A rationale or platform Scope and parameters of the curriculum area Broad goals and purposes of subjects within the curriculum area Guidelines for course design Content Teaching and learning principles Guidelines for evaluation of subjects Criteria for accreditation and certification of subjects Future developments for the area (Marsh, 2004, p. 21) For a framework to be comprehensive and well developed, it should have strong links between theory and practice, include up-to-date resources, and be inspiring to both teachers and students (Marsh, 2004). Curriculum Orientations Another choice teachers might make when developing a curriculum has to do with how they want the curriculum to be organized. Curriculum development can be subject centered, student centered, or somewhere in between these two extremes. A subject-centered curriculum focuses on the content of various subject areas, whether that content primarily consists of knowledge (such as in history) or skills (such as in keyboarding or physical education). The teacher's job is to deliver instruction or to model skills in order to help students master the content. In a subject-centered curriculum, standardization exists whereby students are taught uniformly a body of knowledge. Traditionally, the curriculum of the typical high school has been more subject centered, with content mastery and course credits emphasized; elementary school curriculum is traditionally less structured. Perspectives in Teaching: Examining the Common Core Elementary school administrator Ryan Stanley and teacher Scott Lyons reflect on the Common Core and how it has changed curricula. Critical Thinking Questions Common Core has changed the way today's students are being tested. In what ways are the tests different from, and similar to, your own childhood testing experiences? In what ways do you believe your teaching will be affected and inspired by the Common Core expectations for learning and testing? In recent years, the concept of a structured national core curriculum for both elementary and high school has taken hold in the United States. Known as the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI), the end product thus far includes curriculum goals for language arts and literacy and for mathematics (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). According to the CCSSI, the standards are: Research and evidence based Clear, understandable, and consistent Aligned with college and career expectations Based on rigorous content and the application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills Built upon the strengths and lessons of current state standards Informed by other top-performing countries to prepare all students for success in our global economy and society (Common Core State Standards Initiative, n.d., para. 6) In addition, the CCSSI states that the mastery of each standard is essential for success in college, career, and life in today's global economy. . . . With students, parents, and teachers all on the same page and working together toward shared goals, we can ensure that students make progress each year and graduate from high school prepared to succeed in college, career, and life. (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014, para. 3–4) The approach taken by the CCSSI is a national effort that exemplifies a subject-centered curriculum. A student-centered curriculum, on the other hand, focuses more on the process of learning and emphasizes affective goals in addition to cognitive and psychomotor outcomes. The view of children's development is largely constructivist. Constructivism, as discussed in Chapter 3, supports a student-centered curriculum whereby students "construct" their own meaning from knowledge. In a student-centered curriculum, there is a greater focus on individual student growth and subjective perspectives. The teacher's role is that of a facilitator who guides students' development. The curriculum of elementary schools traditionally has been more student centered, with a greater focus on designing activities that match students' needs and interests. State Board of Education member Lee Baxter holding up a page from Oklahoma's plan for curriculum development. Associated Press Lee Baxter, an Oklahoma State Board of Education member, with a page from that state's plan for curriculum development. The path from educational research to legislation and implementation is complex. One way to create a student-centered curriculum is to ignore subject divisions in favor of focusing on topics of interest with what is called an integrated curriculum. This approach has long been used at early childhood sites, was adopted somewhat later by elementary schools, and has been attempted most recently in secondary education and even colleges. Its major characteristics include being a curriculum that is based on student interests while incorporating specific subject matter, having learning goals that pertain to the topic being studied instead of relating to test preparation, and focusing where possible on applications to real life. Subjects can be combined at various levels of integration. In one model, skills are nested within an academic subject. For example, a social studies project could be designed to promote group work skills by having students work in teams. In another model, several learning experiences are gathered together based on a theme. This model is most often used for younger children when attention need not be paid to specific academic subjects. A popular choice of theme includes a focus on a current season, for example, "The Changes We See in Fall" or "The Flowers of Spring." A third model of curriculum integration is to weave a theme or topic throughout a number of academic subjects. For example, a scientific study of butterflies is expanded to include experiences in art, music, and literature (Krogh & Morehouse, 2014). It takes creativity and extra effort, but teachers can design an integrated curriculum while still meeting the requirements of local, state, and national standards. It should be noted that the requirements of the CCSSI do not include structuring subjects individually; rather, they do allow for the flexibility provided by an integrated curriculum. Nevertheless, this approach is under siege given the issues of high stakes testing and accountability. The future of integration will depend on [teachers'] commitment, their ability to marry standards into curriculum integration and the kinds of support they receive from administrators, parents and other stake holders as they plan and execute integration. (Etim, 2005, p. 10) Building Your Portfolio One of the things that will make you stand out as a teacher will be your ability to develop engag-ing lessons that complement the curriculum and vision of your district/building/grade level team. Take some time to write down your ideas on how present curricula should be changed to better prepare students for living in an information age and competitive global economy. Bloom's Taxonomy: A Tool for Curriculum Development A helpful tool for planning curriculum is Benjamin Bloom's (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain, typically known as Bloom's taxonomy (see Figure 6.1). This classification system offers a way of conceptualizing the thought processes involved in different learning tasks. Bloom and his colleagues borrowed the term taxonomy from biology to ensure consistency of meanings regarding educational objectives. They were impressed with biologists' use of taxonomies and their agreed-upon terminology and definitions. Bloom stated that his goal in helping to create the taxonomy was to help "facilitate communication" across the educational landscape (Bloom, 1956, p. 11). Bloom's work has had a far greater impact on the educational field than simply facilitating communication. It has become a staple in education and is still consistently used by teachers to define how well a skill or competency is learned or mastered. In fact, Bloom's work introduced the idea that thinking and its related skills have a hierarchy that moves from simple to complex knowledge and from low- to high-order levels of thinking. This system classifies and defines intellectual behaviors that are important in learning. In particular, his work focused on classifying objectives into three overlapping domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. In the cognitive domain, there are six levels in Bloom's original taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. A revision of Bloom's taxonomy changed the names of the levels to verbs, rather than nouns: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, creating, and evaluating. Each level requires a different and, as it moves higher, more complex thought process. In recent years, educators have altered the taxonomy slightly, reversing the order of creating and evaluating. They have become "convinced that to come up with something new is more challenging than evaluating what already exists" (Heacox, 2002, p. 68). Teachers can use Bloom's taxonomy to make curricular decisions that ensure students move beyond the knowledge level and incorporate higher-order thinking. For example, let's say a teacher is planning a unit on the Civil War. She could ask her students to "list three causes of the Civil War," which would be a knowledge-level objective. This might be an appropriate question at the beginning of the students' study. It would also be the right level to ask of a cognitively challenged student. She could also ask students to "compare and contrast the Civil War with the War of 1812 in terms of military equipment, strategy, and leadership." This objective would be at the analysis level. Bloom's taxonomy helps teachers develop curricula that challenge students to think, whether they are capable of higher-level thought or only of more basic levels. Figure 6.1: Curricula and Bloom's taxonomy The verbs in this figure suggest what skills a student should learn or master in relation to each of Bloom's six categories of educational objectives. The revision of Bloom's taxonomy uses verbs rather than nouns (e.g., "creating" instead of "synthesis") and considers "creating" as more complex than "evaluating." Verbs related to Remembering include copy, memorize, recognize. Verbs related to Understanding include identify, describe, distinguish. Verbs related to Applying include demonstrate, dramatize, do. Verbs related to Analyzing include calculate, compare. Verbs related to Evaluating include assess, criticize, predict. Verbs related to Creating include compose, generate, write. Building Your Portfolio Bloom's taxonomy, although more than a half century old, is still widely known and used among educators. It will be helpful for you to understand and be able to apply its ideas in your teaching. Select a grade and subject you would like to teach. Narrow your choice to a project of interest to you and your potential students. List an activity that would be appropriate for each of the cognitive levels (remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, creating). Influences on Curricula Without a doubt, teachers play a critical role in making curricular decisions. Although the teacher may not have selected the textbook, he or she decides in what order to present the content, what chapters to omit, what topics to emphasize, and how much time to spend on each section. The teacher decides, as well, what technology will enhance the textbook's information. Also of importance, according to much research, are students' learning styles (Marsh, 2004). When adapting available materials, teachers must be willing and able to pass curricula through the filter of their own students' learning styles, needs, interests, and abilities. They must be able to design a curriculum, not merely implement it. A curriculum is also shaped by a teacher's philosophy. A teacher who believes that the purpose of education is primarily to teach students to think critically will plan different activities than will the teacher who thinks mastery of a body of knowledge is most critical. A teacher whose philosophical orientation is progressive might focus on educating the whole child and thus would include topics that reflect societal issues that affect students (e.g., environmental education). A teacher whose philosophical bent is essentialist might stress students' intellectual development and emphasize teaching facts. The decisions that teachers make regarding content have implications not only for students but also for colleagues. What if a third-grade teacher decided not to teach a county-mandated study of the multiplication process? What would her students do when they reached fourth grade? How would this teacher's decision affect the work of the fourth-grade teachers? (Consider yet another scenario in Case in Point: A Teacher's Right to Choose later in this section.) Teachers' desire for autonomy in curriculum decision-making must be balanced with the best interests of students, other teachers, parents, and additional public education stakeholders such as future employers. Photo of a teacher in an empty classroom. Photosindia.com/Photosindia.com/Superstock The decisions we make as teachers affect not only our students, but also our colleagues; the impact of our choices can be felt long into the future. However, there are other influential factors as well. For example, one such influence is tradition. The public generally expects that schools will teach the basics: reading, writing, and arithmetic. At times, the reasoning "We have always taught X, so it must be important" can block curricular reform efforts. Another example might be called "social forces." Changes in society often are reflected in the school's curriculum. When our economy was more agriculture based, the curriculum of the basic R's was sufficient. The curriculum must be responsive to the changing times and demands of society. For example, units on drug education were added to the school curriculum in the late 1960s as a result of the widespread use of illegal drugs in the United States. More recently, AIDS education has entered the curriculum because of the increasing number of individuals with this disease. Furthermore, technology is changing not only the content of curriculum but also the process of curriculum development. With the click of a mouse on the Internet, teachers and students have access to information that either was unavailable in the past or would have taken significant time and energy to locate. Of even greater influence on the curriculum in recent years have been standardized tests. From the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation of the George W. Bush years, to the revised version of the Obama administration known as Race to the Top (RTTT), states are requiring students to score well on mandated tests in order to receive federal funding for their schools. The content of these high-stakes tests is having an impact on the curriculum as well. It is often said that "what gets measured is what gets taught." If proper punctuation is tested, then teachers will emphasize this skill in their teaching. The impact of NCLB and RTTT has been criticized by those who say that teachers feel obligated to teach to the test. When instructional time focuses on preparing students to pass standardized tests, other curricular areas are neglected. The difficulty lies in the inability of tests to measure all learning. However, the increasing use of performance-based tests as critical to obtaining funding is changing what and how schools teach. Finally, politics plays an enormous role. Until recently, each state had adopted its own standards, so there had been little consistency across states about what was taught at each grade level. However, the introduction of the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) was intended to replace the individual state standards currently in place and bring consistency regarding what students need to learn and how assessment takes place. Proponents of countrywide standards point to the fact that American students are being outperformed by those in other countries and that the inconsistency between state standards is contributing to our students being outperformed. They argue that, for our students to be competitive in the global economy, there must be a consistent set of standards across the country (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014). Opponents of consistent national standards have long argued that each state has its own unique and diverse needs and should design its standards based on those needs. The argument is often made that education is a fundamental right of the state, and therefore the decision as to what the standards should be lies with how each state defines them (Schencker, 2012). States that make this argument have often refused to join others in the creation of a core curriculum. In addition, other states have come to believe that the national government has co-opted a movement that was originally created by and among the states without such interference. Some of these states have subsequently also dropped out. The ensuing political battles have made it difficult to identify at any particular time how many states currently participate in the CCSSI. The curriculum governing your state or workplace may tell you what to teach, but remember that how you teach is up to you. As we have mentioned earlier in this chapter, as well as throughout Chapter 3, educators must be aware of how each student learns best, what motivates him or her to learn, and what environmental factors and personality traits will affect learning. Case in Point: A Teacher's Right to Choose? After reading the district's curriculum guide for 10th-grade biology, Carla, a newly hired science teacher, announces to a colleague next door, "I don't care what the school board tells me to teach; I am going to decide what to teach my students in biology. I'm the one who specialized in this area; therefore, I'm the one most qualified to determine what students need to know. Don't you agree with me on this?" When her colleague expresses some doubt, Carla challenges her to a contest: They will see whose students score best on the state test in May. Carla is confident she will win. Questions to Consider As a teacher, how much freedom do you think you will have to make decisions like this? If you believe that requirements from the school board, state, or federal government will hinder your students' academic progress, what will you do? Do you think Carla might win? Or not? What are your reasons? 6.3 Defining Assessment [E]ducators must critically examine facts and theories and not be dazzled by tests just because they look scientific or because governors, or legislators, and community leaders believe that tests reveal "the truth" about children's learning. —Constance Kamii Assessment refers to the process used to determine, in measurable terms, the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs of the learner (Poehner, 2007). For many of us, the conventional memory of school involves a teacher teaching and students taking tests. There were quizzes, pop quizzes, essay exams, final exams, midterm exams, unit tests, spelling tests, multiplication tests, and so on. They all had one thing in common: They provided a mechanism for the teacher to measure the level of mastery of a subject or skill. Photo of a Scantron exam page. iStock/Thinkstock Strategies used to assess learning undergo a constant process of reevaluation and revision. These assessments were likely seen as being separate from the process of teaching and learning. That is, the role of assessment was not an integral part of learning, but rather a separate element that came after the teaching and learning occurred. Again, think back to your experience in school. It was likely that at the end of a unit of study you took a test and received a grade. The assessment or test you took did not change the process of teaching and learning. That is, as far as you could tell, no changes in instruction occurred because a new unit of study began, and the test did little to inform the teacher's future practice. What was occurring was an assessment of learning—using assessment to measure how much students have learned up to a particular point in time. Times have changed—the focus of using assessments is no longer to simply capture a point in time, although it can be that. Now, however, we also speak of assessment for learning. In other words, the assessment is designed to help guide the teaching and learning process, not just to evaluate where a student is in his or her knowledge acquisition. Before we discuss the process of assessment for learning, let's look at common types of assessments and how they compare to one another. In general, assessments can be compared through a few lenses—the frequency with which they are administered, their use by teachers and students, and the scope of what they cover and don't cover. There are two types of assessments that are frequently used in education that you will need to become familiar with. They are called formative and summative assessments. Each has its own important role, and both are part of a comprehensive system of using assessment in the classroom. Formative Assessment Formative assessment is used to inform future practice. Its goal is to improve teaching and learning. An assessment is considered formative when its information is fed back into the system and improves performance in some way (Wiliam & Leahy, 2007). It is administered during the instructional process and may be immediately used to make adjustments to form new learning (Shepard, 2008). Formative assessment is arguably the most significant type of assessment because it is used to inform learners and teachers about the progress students are making and about the next steps in the learning process (Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan, & Brown, 2010). Formative assessment can take the form of quizzes, anecdotal notes written by teachers or students, reflective journals, short tests, homework, and assignments (see Table 6.1 for additional examples). However, it is essential to note that formative assessment is not a product, despite what the companies that market them as products may say. Rather, it is how the results are used that determines whether the assessment is formative or not (Chappuis, 2005; Chappuis & Chappuis, 2011; Chappuis, Stiggins, Chappuis, & Arter, 2011). Let's take, for example, the time-honored aspect of homework. While its usefulness has been hotly debated (Cooper, 2007; Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006; Kohn, 2006; Marzano & Pickering, 2007), its purpose is the key area to focus on when determining if homework is formative in nature. For example, if its purpose is simply to give students something to complete at home, it is not particularly useful and is not a formative assessment. However, if students are asked to use the homework in preparation for a class discussion, or to analyze a concept and bring back questions that will inform future teaching and learning, then it is formative. Table 6.1: Examples of formative assessment Name of assessment Purpose Actual use in classroom Quizzes To get a quick update on the learning process Teacher or students grade quizzes and determine which types of problems they answered correctly and which they did not. Results guide the teacher's decisions for next steps, and the students learn their strengths and weaknesses. Feedback is immediate. Running record reading assessment To give an update on strengths in reading or reading level, and what areas need to be focused on Students and teachers have a clear understanding of their reading level in order to choose "a just right" book to read as well as which specific areas require attention. Feedback is immediate. Thumbs up or thumbs down To give the teacher information on whether the class understands the topic at hand Students put their thumbs up or down to let the teacher know whether they understand the concept at hand. Teacher can shift the lesson in the moment. Journal reflection To provide an opportunity for students to share their thoughts (using blogs or paper) and for the teacher to read student reflections Teacher has the ability to use reflection to assess multiple aspects of learning and hear complete thoughts from each student. A great way to check for misunderstandings and clear up misconceptions in future lessons. Show and response Using a mobile device, slates, or individual whiteboards, students list their answers and show them. Teacher receives immediate feedback regarding a concept being taught and an opportunity to shift lesson in the moment. Spotlight: Formative Assessment Instructional services administrator Shelley Petersen and first-grade teacher Monica Tech explain formative assessment and provide examples. Critical Thinking Questions Monica tells us that she and her students plan together what their new learning goals will be, based on their formative assessments. In your view, are first graders too young to take on such responsibilities? What adjustments might need to be made for such young children to succeed at them? Quizzes are typically thought of as a way to grade children on how well they have completed a learning project. Your textbook, however, suggests that they are appropriate for formative assessment, simply telling student and teacher what new goals might be important for future learning. What methods might you use to help your students avoid the discomfort, and even fear, that comes from thinking of quizzes as having evaluative power? Summative Assessment In contrast to formative assessment, the purpose of summative assessment is to determine a student's overall achievement level in a specific area of learning at a particular time (Black, Harrison, Hodgen, Marshall, & Serret, 2010; Harlen, 2004, 2005). Summative assessments provide a summary of the information that students know, understand, or can do (Black & Wiliam, 2009). Summative assessments include state assessments, district benchmark or interim assessments, end-of-unit or chapter tests, end-of-term or semester exams, or records that are used for accountability for schools (Annual Yearly Progress) and students (report card grades). Summative assessments are not made for adjustments in the teacher's curriculum design or lesson plans; formative assessments accomplish this. Summative assessments are tools used to help evaluate the overall effectiveness of programs, school improvement goals, alignment of curriculum, or student placement in specific programs (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2007). Summative assessments can take the form of examinations, term papers, course projects, portfolios, or even final performances. Summative assessment is about judging the final product or the sum of what a student has learned up to a point in time. Put another way, summative assessment is used to award a grade, score, rating, or even a certificate at the end of a time period. Table 6.2 demonstrates how and where summative assessments might be used. Table 6.2: Examples of summative assessment Name of assessment Purpose Actual use in classroom Exam To understand the level of learning on a unit of study or at the end of a specific period of time by providing a grade or performance level indicator Students receive a grade or performance level indicator that identifies how well they learned the covered material. State standardized test To determine if students have learned what they were supposed to learn in a specific grade or content area and to provide a comparison between students Results are used to gauge students as meeting or not meeting standards and to determine school success and whether school will receive rewards or consequences. District assessment To determine student mastery of skills based on standards or specific outcomes Results are used to judge student performance and teacher success in helping students reach academic goals and standards. Presentation of a project To determine student understanding of an in-depth study Oral presentations, role plays, written reports, etc. demonstrate student success in understanding the studied material. Summative feedback is high stakes when compared to formative assessment. It goes far beyond the teacher and students using assessments to make curricular judgments and adjustments. For instance, companies rely on the results of summative assessments, such as licensing tests, to gauge the quality of a potential employee. Teachers have to pass a range of high-stakes tests to prove their competency and earn a license. Depending on whether teachers want to teach multiple subjects, as one would do in elementary school, or a single subject in middle or high school, they are required to pass a basic skills test, a specific subject-level test, or courses or a test related to teaching students who are English language learners. Each state has different requirements, but there is often a multitude of tests a teacher must pass in the process of becoming licensed. This also occurs in a range of other fields and professions. While summative assessment occurs at the end of a unit or course of study and formative assessment occurs during the learning process, there are times when the lines between what is summative and what is formative blur. For example, the results of a summative assessment, while having an important element of finality to them, can still be used to inform future teaching just as the results of formative assessments do. Spotlight: Summative Assessment Instructional services administrator Shelley Petersen explains summative assessment and provides examples. Critical Thinking Questions Just as formative quizzes can provoke feelings of discomfort, so can final examinations used for summative evaluation. Nevertheless, such exams are often necessary and important. What do you believe that you, as a teacher, can do to help your students successfully face their exams with confidence and courage? As a teacher education student, you too must face various summative evaluations, including throughout your teaching career in some states. What are techniques you use to ensure your own confidence and courage? If you feel under-equipped in this regard, now is a good time to add new ideas to help you. Validity, Reliability, and Transparency What would make one assessment better than another? At one level, we might consider which assessment provides the most information and feedback or which is the most efficient and provides the most flexible way to capture students' thinking. On another level, we might think about which is the easiest to grade and will provide the most direct feedback to the teacher and the student. Each of these factors is important and merits consideration. But perhaps the most important factors are whether the assessment is valid, reliable, and transparent. The validity of an assessment tool is the extent to which it measures what it was designed to measure (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2010). For example, a test of reading comprehension should not require students to compute mathematical formulas; a test measuring sixth-grade scientific skills should not include eighth- or ninth-grade science skills. On the surface, this may seem rather obvious. However, creating a valid test may be more difficult than you think. Take for example Ms. Lee, a first-grade teacher, who wants to assess her students' knowledge of subtraction processes. Students are given an assessment consisting of several word problems involving subtraction. Do you think this type of test will measure students' mastery of this skill? Is this a valid test? To answer this question, picture yourself as a first grader who is just learning to read, although you have successfully memorized the required subtraction facts and have a clear understanding of the processes. Now, you are faced with an unexpected reading challenge and become so overwhelmed with it that you are unable to concentrate on the subtraction. Further, Ms. Lee's instructions about subtraction processes did not include making decisions related to story problems. In two major ways, this test lacks validity; depending on how students face up to the reading challenge, it may or may not assess their knowledge of the subtraction processes. An assessment is reliable when it yields consistent results over time. This is important because of the need to ensure a cycle of continuous teaching improvement. If an assessment produces significantly different results over time, even though it is given in similar circumstances, the results become questionable and data analysis becomes ineffective. Reliability is also important because others, such as parents, students, governments, and the wider community, depend on the results to make a wide range of decisions for the future, such as whether a student is admitted to college or is promoted to the next grade. Ms. Lee has realized that her test was not a valid one, and she has created a new version that focuses solely on subtraction processes. No stories are included. She is comfortable with the test's validity. Meanwhile, as might be expected, the children are learning more subtraction facts as the days pass. Ms. Lee wants to know if her approach will stand the test of time: Is the assessment not only valid but also reliable? This Friday, she will give a similar assessment incorporating this week's new subtraction facts. On Monday, Ms. Lee will give the same assessment again as a check-up. If the Monday scores are about the same as they were on Friday, she will know that she has created a reliable test. Finally, an assessment must be transparent so that students, parents, and the community are aware of what students are expected to learn and what success looks like. Let's return to Ms. Lee's class and her subtraction lessons. It is safe to assume that students and parents were aware that the assessment would focus on subtraction because the class had been working on the unit for some time. Simply put, transparency means that students and parents are aware of what learning is expected and what is being assessed. Our role as teachers, particularly when giving assessments, is not to trick students or to create tests that are intentionally difficult or cumbersome in nature, but rather to partner with students and give them a clear and transparent roadmap for learning and success. Transparency within the community at large is also important. This means that parents, community members, and school board members are aware of test results and what schools are doing in regard to them. Part of this need is in response to the political climate surrounding assessments in education today. There has been much controversy throughout the history of assessment in the United States. A test means something much different in a classroom now than it likely did 40 years ago. Then, you might have taken a teacher-designed test every 6 weeks to evaluate your comprehension. Today, it is likely that the test will be standardized, with the same version given across an entire district or state. Ms. Lee is less likely to have created her own test, unless she did it to prepare her class for the upcoming standardized district assessments. Pressures from society and parents, as well as the increased pressure from politicians, have framed how students' assessments are given, reviewed, and viewed today. 6.4 Using Assessment Effectively There are few areas of education that are as contentious and often controversial as the role of assessments. The subject evokes strong emotions and reactions from teachers, administrators, students, and the general public. For years, the controversy over high-stakes testing has had proponents arguing the importance of holding districts, schools, teachers, and students accountable for learning (Evers & Walberg, 2004; Madaus, Russell, & Higgins, 2009). On the other hand, opponents have argued that the emphasis on high-stakes testing has narrowed the focus of teaching and forced teachers to teach to the test (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008). Policy debates swirl at the national, state, and local levels as to what the results imply and whether these tests are too stringent, focus on the right factors, or should simply be discarded. The fervor behind these debates is not without cause; assessment results have enormous implications. At the state and national levels, high-stakes assessments provide data that are used to make decisions on a range of issues. For instance, in addition to using data to decide which schools may receive rewards or penalties based on test results, realtors and businesses tout the desirability of a neighborhood based on local school assessment results. People move to neighborhoods based on test scores. In today's information age, assessments provide more than just data for a point in time; they serve as actionable information for individuals—from students to teachers, administrators, and community stakeholders. At the classroom level, parents and students judge progress and success on assessment results, while teachers use them to make a variety of judgments and decisions regarding student achievement and what subjects need to be the focus of classroom instruction. Assessments have an impact on students' sense of self and on their identities. After all, from a young age, we are often acculturated into thinking of ourselves as being part of the high or low group, based on scores received on assessments. Can you recall being in a group in school based on your perceived learning ability? What role did assessments play in how you, your parents, or your teachers judged your performance and standing in class? Assessments communicate important messages to us (Wiliam, 2011). Thus, when considering assessments, we must ask some fundamental and important questions: What is the purpose of the assessment that we are giving? Do we want an assessment of learning or for learning? How will the results of the assessments be used? Who will see the results, and will these individuals be provided any guidance in understanding or using the results? Lastly, will the results ultimately, and perhaps most importantly, help students improve and achieve greater success? Limitations of Standardized Testing Many states have developed accountability systems to gauge student performance, providing a grade for each school based on standardized test results. The intent has been to measure school quality and hold schools accountable for student success in reaching state standards. There is often a vast difference between intent and result, unfortunately. One unintended result has been states lowering their academic standards to ensure an increased passing rate on standardized tests, thus avoiding possible consequences for falling short of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act's Race to the Top (RTTT) requirements. A study by the U.S. Department of Education (2009) shows that nearly a third of states lowered their academic proficiency standards in an effort to avoid possible sanctions from NCLB. Consider also the effect of standardized test results on curriculum and instruction. Each year, students take year-end standardized tests; the intent is not only to determine what students have learned, but also to gauge the strengths and weaknesses in teaching—and thus make improvements for the following year. However, the results of these year-end assessments generally arrive months after the test is given, typically in the summer. If students did poorly in the reading comprehension section, it is too late to make changes to instruction or to focus students' attention on areas of needed improvement. It is like comparing apples and oranges: Data are analyzed using a group of students who have moved on and are used to plan instruction for a group of students who likely have different needs and abilities. Assessment for Learning Arguably, the most important element of an assessment is how it guides the learner and teacher in the next steps of the learning process. Take, for instance, a reading test a teacher might give in first grade. Once the assessment is complete, the teacher has current and relevant information to help make instructional decisions for those students. For example, the teacher may realize that it will be important to focus the children on blending sounds together, using context clues to understand the meaning of a word, or chunking a word into syllables to decode it. Photo of two students examining a DNA model. Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock Effective assessment helps students take control of their own learning. This is, of course, an example of formative assessment. However, while the term has become synonymous with assessment for learning, the principles of assessment for learning actually run much deeper. Assessment for learning is any assessment created to promote students' learning, rather than for the purposes of ranking or certifying competence (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004). Today, assessments must play a central role in shaping teaching and learning and actively engaging students in their own learning process. Assessment in the classroom setting must give rise to students taking ownership of their learning and understanding how to learn, rather than just what to learn. In other words, it must be personal in nature. In the case of the first-grade reading test, the children can and should be made aware of the concepts that must still be mastered. Assessment for learning can be a driving force in helping students become lifelong learners and gets to the heart of what it means to create a positive learning environment. Criteria for Effective Assessment for Learning There are five key elements that are essential for a program that incorporates quality assessment for learning: clear purposes, clear targets, sound design, effective communication, and student involvement (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2006). We will review each element in detail. First, if our purpose is to use assessments to guide instruction and improve student learning, then we have to know why we are assessing students and when it is appropriate. Teachers make a range of decisions, some of which occur daily and some of which occur throughout the week, based on what they learn from their teaching experiences. They change their lessons, focus on targeted skills, or change student groups based on student feedback. Other decisions, such as when they give grades or seek additional support services for students, happen less frequently. Consequently, having a clear purpose for the assessment and its results will be critical to ensuring that teachers focus on the right factors and use time and resources well. Just as important as having a clear purpose is having clear targets for what is to be learned, and the assessment must match the learning target. After all, teachers should not assess an undefined goal or something that has not been outlined to the students as the area of focus. Many times, the instruction in the classroom does not match the focus of an assessment. The third component of an effective assessment plan is a soundly designed assessment. When using or creating an assessment, it is important to ask whether the assessment will produce accurate and usable results for both teacher and student. It is also important to determine whether the results will provide the type of information needed to serve the intended purpose. Given the range of assessments that are available, it is important to ensure the right assessment is chosen for the right purpose. Once the assessment is complete, effectively communicating the results is also essential to helping students make progress. After all, the results will be used to drive improvements in student learning and instructional practice. The communication must, however, be tailored to the group of students who will receive the results. This means teachers need to consider the level of details to share, the language used (technical and nontechnical), the message to share, the timing of sharing the information, and its format. All of these factors will have an effect on how students internalize the information. Lastly, the focal point of the process should be student involvement. In the classroom, assessment is no longer something that the teacher alone should control. In fact, students and parents are expected to be able to use many of the assessments given in the classroom to understand the next steps in the learning process. Students should be one of the primary consumers of the assessment data. If teachers want students to take responsibility for their learning, students need to be engaged continuously and consciously as instructional decision makers, while teachers become secondary (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2006). In other words, the students now assume responsibility alongside the teacher for their own learning. It is important for students to discover their own learning processes, to assess their own progress, to be actively engaged in learning and generating knowledge, and to have the process become personal. Assessment activities can promote learning if they provide feedback to help students and teachers assess themselves and modify teaching and learning activities appropriately (Black et al., 2004). As we have seen in the first-grade reading example, even very young children are capable of this. Or take, for example, a sixth-grade classroom that is studying ancient civilizations. As part of the introduction of the unit, the teacher sets out the goals for the unit and asks students to take a pre-assessment in which they share their knowledge about history and also identify what they hope they will learn. As a follow-up, the teacher shares with the students the results of the pre-assessment and asks them to partner up to develop a plan for what they need and want to learn. After meeting with the teacher to clarify their plans, the students are then given the freedom to take off on their learning adventure. Throughout the process, there are interim formative assessments that help inform the students of their progress, the knowledge they have gained, and the areas where they need to dig deeper and gain more mastery. In this example, the ownership of the learning is shared by the teacher and student, but the student is empowered to seek out information and uses the assessments as guideposts to determine progress. The change in philosophy that can occur in the classroom with a shift from assessment of learning to assessment for learning can have a definitive impact on the minds and hearts of students. Assessment for learning involves students in their own assessment, which helps to build confidence and maximize their achievement and shows that students are also instructional decision makers (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2006). Assessment Alternatives While traditional quantitative measures—percentages, ordinal rankings, percentiles—are useful in comparing students' performance with that of other students, assessment for learning and authentic assessment take assessment a step further. Authentic assessment is understood to measure accomplishments that are worthwhile, significant, and meaningful, as opposed to those that are simply measured quantitatively. To put it more succinctly, authentic assessment "requires authentic tasks that show students' abilities. Students receive feedback and redirection to allow for growth; students have a part in the process and the outcome" (Janesick, 2006, p. 1). Additionally, authentic assessment can be an activity or challenge "that mirrors those faced by experts in the particular field; it is complex and multidimensional and requires higher levels of cognitive thinking such as problem solving and critical thinking" (Montgomery, 2001, p. 4). Spotlight: Performance-based Assessment At Urban Academy in New York, students are evaluated using portfolios and proficiency requirements, rather than standardized tests. Critical Thinking Questions When students work on group projects and are then evaluated as a group, there may well be some students who contribute less than others. What are ways that individuals can be evaluated in such a case that will be fair to all? Urban Academy continues to battle its exemption from standardized state exams, and Diane Ravitch, a nationally renowned educator, argues against letting the school have that exemption. What side do you find yourself on, and why? Portfolios, according to this chapter, are a well-known alternative approach to evaluation. Consider the age group you hope to teach and list ways portfolios could be used and their likely contents. Will you prefer electronic or hands-on portfolios or a combination? Because an assessment frequently requires some form of performance to qualify as authentic, a synonym for this term is performance-based assessment. The performance is often called a task or a product outcome. Such tasks take more time than quantitative assessments do and lack their efficiency. Grading a task, for example, is not typically a matter of just entering a numerical score on a grade sheet. Rather, it is expected that evaluative commentaries will provide students with deeper and more useful information, but this takes time. Further, such performance evaluations are difficult to rely on when across-grade or across-school evaluations are needed. Thus, although authenticity is welcome for both students and teachers, it does not effectively serve the same purposes as standardized tests. Potential examples of authentic tasks are many and might include the following: Writing or directing a play Creating a video Engaging in a presentation or lecture Constructing some form of artwork Sharing a piece of writing (poetry, journal entries, essays, short stories) Inventing something Making a computer program Creating, testing, and sharing a recipe Keeping a portfolio, either electronic or one containing actual artifacts Portfolios, the final example on this list, are perhaps the most well known of the assessments. They have long existed in fields such as commercial art for which a demonstration of one's capabilities is important for employment or entry into an academic major or institution. In recent years, portfolios have been found useful in education at all levels, from kindergarten onward. There are different types, depending on their primary goals: The working portfolio. For work in progress, a working portfolio can begin as early as kindergarten when children first learn to evaluate their own efforts and performance. Artifacts such as artwork and other projects, writing samples, and mathematics papers can be saved for student reflection done cooperatively with the teacher. As students reflect on their work over time, they can see actual evidence of their progress. The record-keeping portfolio. This portfolio contains report cards, test results, and other records as needed. It is often inserted as a part of a different and larger portfolio. The showcase portfolio. This is the portfolio that demonstrates a student's or job applicant's capabilities. Most frequently, its contents are pulled from the working portfolio with only the very best examples chosen for inclusion. The electronic portfolio. Any of the first three models can be kept electronically, although the younger the student, the less likely that this will be appropriate. Advantages of an electronic portfolio include being able to easily take records when moving from one school to another, the ability to display materials more elegantly, and an opportunity for students to refine their computer skills (Janesick, 2006). While authentic assessments are more closely tied than quantitative assessments are to the reality of what happens in the classroom and to what matters to students, it is important to remember the importance of quantitative assessments as well. The function of portfolios can be expanded by including within them all the results of a student's standardized tests that will be needed in the months and years ahead. These will most likely be inserted within the electronic version of a portfolio. Portfolios can be a useful, even essential, way of preparing for employment as a teacher. In this text, we have provided you with this opportunity, including reflection questions that can be used as entries once your portfolio graduates from being a working portfolio to a showcase. Combining Student-Centered Learning With Authentic Assessment Beginning with the ideas and philosophy of John Dewey in the early 20th century, student-centered learning has often taken the form of projects. At the University of Chicago, where Dewey created a laboratory school to test his ideas about project learning, students from kindergarten upward directed much of their own learning. Arguing that such an approach provides the deepest challenge and the most education, Dewey said: To satisfy an impulse or interest means to work it out, and working it out involves running up against obstacles, becoming acquainted with materials, exercising ingenuity, patience, persistence, alertness, it of necessity involves discipline—ordering of power—and supplies knowledge. (1900, p. 37) In the 1980s, the Canadian Sylvia Chard and American Lilian Katz revisited Dewey's project model of education and created an updated version that consists of three basic steps (Katz & Chard, 2000): Phase I: A topic of study is chosen by the teacher, by the students in collaboration with the teacher, or by the students themselves with guidelines given by the teacher. Young students tend to choose concrete topics or objects from nature to study. Older students delve into more complex and sophisticated topics. Phase II: This is the phase where the most work is accomplished. It involves research done at the level appropriate for the students' ages and abilities. As much as possible, it takes place in the field with real people, places, and events, rather than simply in the classroom learning about things that are elsewhere. Phase III: Authentic assessment takes place in Phase III. The previous section in this text ("Assessment Alternatives") lists a number of ideas that would be appropriate for concluding a research project of this sort. An additional and often used assessment in kindergartens and first grades is a role-play center related to what the children have been studying. Similar to the traditional kindergarten housekeeping corner, the role-play center lets children demonstrate through their play that they understand their project at a deep and personal level. At the other end of the school years, high school students might make use of PowerPoint to present their findings to their class or to a larger group as appropriate. The skills involved in preparing and presenting through this method are skills that will be useful in both college and career. Despite the demands and requirements of standards and tests associated with recent federal legislation, student-centered teaching and assessment for learning are recognized by knowledgeable educators as the most effective route to education. It is, in fact, possible to teach and assess in this way and still demonstrate that students can score as high as, if not higher than, students who engage in more rigid approaches to their education. Summary & Resources Chapter Summary A curriculum consists of the course of study, but it is more than that. It can be both explicit and implicit as well as null, and each of these is important to students' education and to teachers' ability to teach effectively. Today's approaches to developing curricula were first created in the early 20th century with influences from John Dewey and in the mid-20th century from Ralph Tyler. Updates since that time have come full circle, with a return to the influence of Dewey. Orientations to curricula include subject centered and student centered. In recent years, a national movement toward a core curriculum has emerged, but objections to some of its elements as well as political considerations have led to difficulties in attaining the original goals. Assessment is an important part of a curriculum and teaching. It too is influenced by political issues, in that national movements favor high-stakes testing while educational research has led to a preference for so-called authentic assessment. For effective assessment, it is important to consider assessment for learning rather than assessment of learning. This is true whether the teacher is engaged in formative or summative assessment, and whether the assessment is by means of tests or by the creation of products or performances. Authentic assessment is especially effective when tied to student-centered learning. One particularly popular approach to this combination is project learning, first introduced by Dewey and updated in the 1980s. Questions for Further Critical Thinking & Reflection From the teacher's standpoint, what would be the advantages and disadvantages of enlisting community and parental input in curricular matters? How has your opinion of assessments changed or evolved by reading this chapter? Do you think both formative and summative assessments have a place in the classroom? Why or why not? Do you think that homework is an appropriate tool for formative assessment? Why or why not? Please expound on your answer with specific examples and reasons. Other than using the assessment process as a means to have students develop responsibility for their own learning, what other strategies do you think would accomplish this goal? How would you teach these other strategies? How would you know if students were successful? Do you think there is good reason to use assessment for learning to support teachers (as well as students)? That is, rather than assess a teacher at one point in time with a summative assessment, should we create a system of formative assessments that provides ongoing feedback to teachers to help guide their improvement? Explain your reasoning. Can you think of a time that you took an assessment with questionable validity? What factors contributed? Do you think it is possible to make each and every assessment a valid test? When students complain that a test was unfair, they usually mean that it lacked validity. What steps might you take to be sure that your tests—both those you create and those that are standardized—are valid? Do you think a specific style of assessment, such as multiple choice, true or false, or essay, offers a more reliable way of assessing student knowledge? Explain your thinking. Do you think there is a difference between the level of reliability a national test must have versus that of a classroom-based assessment? Explain your thinking. Do you believe there should be an element of surprise to tests rather than complete transparency? Explain your thinking. Web Resources ASCD (formerly known as The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development). This international organization has much information on curriculum development, particularly on integrated curriculum. http://www.ascd.org Bridges for Kids Resource Site. This site focuses on children with special needs but has resources for all others as well. It provides up-to-date information on the No Child Left Behind Act and other legislation. http://www.bridges4kids.org/ESEA.html A Brief History of Student Learning Assessment: How We Got Where We Are and a Proposal for Where to Go Next. Richard J. Shavelson's 2007 article provides an overview of the historical forces that have shaped our expectations and uses of assessments and some direction for the future. http://cae.org/images/uploads/pdf/19_A_Brief_History_of_Student_Learning_How_we_Got_Where_We_Are_and_a_Proposal_for_Where_to_Go_Next.pdf Edutopia: An Introduction to Integrated Studies. Based on the viewpoint that integrating subjects produces the best learning, this website features both an article and a video. The information is appropriate for any student. http://www.edutopia.org/integrated-studies-introduction-video Edutopia: Kindergarten Project-Based Learning. This website contains a video about a class of 5-year-olds who enhanced their learning through creating projects. Edutopia's view is that the teacher will have set the children up for lifelong learning by engaging in this methodology. http://www.edutopia.org/kindergarten-project-based-learning-video Additional Resources Here are a few books that offer guidance for curriculum and assessment development. Although two of them have been around for quite a few years, they are still available and are considered useful classics. Dueck, M. (2014). Grading smarter, not harder: Assessment strategies that motivate kids and help them learn. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Jacobs, H. (1995). Mapping the big picture: Integrating curriculum and assessment k-12. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Stevenson, C., & Carr, J. (1993). Integrated studies in the middle grades: Dancing through walls. New York: Teachers College Press. Key Terms Click on each key term to see the definition. assessment The process used to determine the knowledge, skills, or attitudes of the learner. assessment for learning Assessment for the purpose of improving the curriculum, the teacher's teaching methodology, and the students' ability to learn. authentic assessment Assessment that requires students to perform authentic tasks that demonstrate their abilities, rather than take traditional tests. Bloom's taxonomy Created by Benjamin Bloom in the mid-20th century, a pyramid of cognitive activities or tasks that range from simple to complex. co-curriculum Outside activities and school clubs that are tied to classes within the formal curriculum. core curriculum As proposed and developed by a coalition of state governments, literacy and mathematics curricula that are agreed upon as being essential to students' learning. Teaching methods are not part of the requirements. explicit curriculum The publicly stated content that is taught. extracurriculum Outside activities and school clubs that are not tied to classes. formative assessment Ongoing assessment as opposed to final or evaluative assessment. implicit curriculum The hidden curriculum, or what is taught that is not publicly stated. integrated curriculum Content that crosses subject matter and focuses instead on topics of interest. null curriculum What is not taught in schools that, perhaps, should be. student-centered curriculum Content that is at least partly chosen by students because of their interests. subject-centered curriculum Content that is chosen by educators based on their beliefs about what is important for students to learn. summative assessment Assessment that comes at the end of a project, course, term, etc. Contains an evaluative component. Chapter 6 Flashcards