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Chapter 5 The

Communication Process

5-2

Communication

 Passing of information or exchange of ideas

 Process of establishing a commonness of thought

between a sender and a receiver

 Success depends on the:

 Nature of the message

 Audience’s interpretation

 Environment in which it is received

 Major barrier - Language

5-3

A Model of the Communication Process

5-4

Basic Model of Communication

Source

• Person or organization that has information to share with another person or group of people

Encoding

• Putting thoughts, ideas, or information into a symbolic form

Message

• Contains the information or meaning the source hopes to convey

5-5

Graphic

• Pictures

• Drawings

• Charts

Verbal

• Spoken Word

• Written Word

• Song Lyrics

Musical

• Arrange- ment

• Instrum- entation

• Voices

Animation

• Action/ Motion

• Pace/ Speed

• Shape/ Form

Verbal Graphic Musical

There are many forms of message encoding

Encoding

5-6

Basic Model of Communication

 Channel: Facilitates communication between sender and receiver

 Non-personal channel or mass media

 Lacks direct, interpersonal contact between the sender and receiver

 Personal channel - Direct communication between two or more persons

 Word-of-mouth (WOM): Informal communication among consumers about products and services

 Buzz marketing: Generating positive word-of-mouth discussion

5-7

Personal Channels Personal Channels

Communications Channels

Nonpersonal Channels

Personal Selling

Word of Mouth/Mouse

Print Media

Broadcast Media

5-8

Basic Model of Communication

 Viral marketing: Propagating marketing-relevant

messages with the help of individual consumers

 Factors affecting success

 Message characteristics

 Individual sender or receiver characteristics

 Social network characteristics

 Seeding: Identifying and choosing the initial group

of consumers who will be used to start spreading the

message

5-9

Basic Model of Communication

 Receiver: Person with whom the sender shares

thoughts or information

 Decoding: Transforming the sender’s message into

thought

 Heavily influenced by the receiver’s field of

experience

 Field of experience: The experiences, perceptions,

attitudes, and values a person brings to the

communication situation

5-10

Basic Model of Communication

 Noise: Unplanned distortion in the communication

process

 Occurs because the fields of experience of the

sender and receiver don’t overlap

 Response: Receiver’s set of reactions after seeing,

hearing, or reading the message

 Feedback: Receiver’s response that is

communicated back to the sender

5-11

Methods of Obtaining Feedback in the

Response Hierarchy

5-12

Implications of the Traditional

Hierarchy Models

 Delineate the steps involved in taking potential

purchasers from unawareness of a product to

readiness to purchase it

 Identify which stage in the hierarchy a potential

buyer is in

 Used as intermediate measures of communication

effectiveness

5-13

Evaluating Traditional Response

Hierarchy Models

 Cognitive stage

 Represents what the receiver knows or perceives

about the particular product or brand

 Affective stage

 Receiver’s feelings or affect level for the particular

brand

 Behavioral stage

 Refers to the consumer’s action toward the brand

5-14

Implications of the Alternative

Response Models

 Provide insight into promotional strategies

marketers might pursue in different situations

 Marketers should analyze the following

 Involvement levels and product/service

differentiation

 Consumers’ use of various information sources

 Consumers’ levels of experience with the product or

service

5-15

The Social Consumer Decision Journey

5-16

Cognitive Response Approach

Cognitive responses

• Thoughts that occur to individuals while reading, viewing, and/or hearing a communication

Counterarguments

• Thoughts the recipient has that are opposed to the position taken in the message

• Relate negatively to message acceptance

Support arguments

• Thoughts that affirm the claims made in the message

• Relate positively to message acceptance

5-17

Cognitive Response Approach

Source derogations

• Negative thoughts about the spokesperson or organization making the claims

• Leads to a lower message acceptance

Source bolsters

• Positive thoughts about the spokesperson or organization making the claims

Ad execution-related thoughts

• Affect attitudes toward the advertisement as well as the brand

Attitude toward the ad

• Represents the receivers feelings of favorability or unfavorability toward the ad

5-18

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

 Focuses on the differences in the ways consumers

process and respond to persuasive messages

 Attitude formation or change process

 Depends on the amount and nature of elaboration

that occurs in response to a persuasive message

 Elaboration likelihood is a function of:

 Motivation

 Ability

5-19

Counterarguments Support arguments

Source derogation Source bolstering

Thoughts about

the ad itself

Thoughts about

the ad itself

Source bolsteringSource derogation

Support argumentsCounterarguments

Affect attitude toward the ad

Cognitive Response Categories

Product/Message Thoughts

Source-Oriented Thoughts

Ad Execution Thoughts

5-20

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Focuses on the way consumers respond to persuasive

messages, based on the amount and nature of elaboration

or processing of information

Peripheral route – ability and motivation to process a message is low; receiver focuses more on peripheral cues than on message content

Central route – ability and motivation to process a message is high and close attention is paid to message content

Routes to Attitude Change

5-21

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

 Basic routes to persuasion

 Central route to persuasion: Ability and

motivation to process a message is high and close

attention is paid to message content

 Peripheral route to persuasion: Ability and

motivation to process a message is low

 Receiver focuses more on peripheral cues than on

message content

 Peripheral cues lead to rejection of a message

5-22

Implications of the ELM

 Customers level of involvement has important

implications for marketing communications

 High involvement - Sales presentation should

contain arguments that are difficult to refute

 Low involvement - Peripheral cues are more

important than detailed message arguments

 Effectiveness of message depends on customers

route to persuasion

Chapter 6 Source,

Message, and Channel Factors

6-2

Persuasion Matrix

Helps marketers see how each controllable element interacts with the consumer’s response process

6-3

Decisions Evaluated with the Persuasion Matrix

Receiver/

comprehension

Can the receiver comprehend the

ad?

Channel/

presentation

Which media will increase

presentation?

Message/

yielding

What type of message will

create favorable attitudes or

feelings?

Source/

attention

Who will be effective in

getting consumers’ attention?

6-4

Source

 Person involved in communicating a marketing

message

 Direct source - Delivers a message and/or endorses

a product or service

 Indirect source - Draws attention to and enhances

the appearance of an ad

6-5

Skill

Knowledge

Expertise

Unbiased

Trustworthy

Objective

Unbiased

Trustworthy

Expertise

Skill

Knowledge

Source Credibility

Source

Information

6-6

Source Credibility

 Extent to which the recipient:

 Sees the source as having relevant knowledge, skill,

or experience

 Trusts the source to give unbiased, objective

information

 Internalization: Adopting the opinion of a credible

communicator and the belief that information from

this source is accurate

6-7

Source Credibility

 Enhanced by:

 Applying expertise and trustworthiness

 Using corporate leaders as spokespeople

 Limitations

 High- and low-credibility sources are equally

effective when arguing for a position opposing their

own best interest

 Sleeper effect: Persuasiveness of a message

increases with the passage of time

6-8

Source Attractiveness

 Attractiveness: Characteristic that encompasses

similarity, familiarity, and likability

 Identification: Receiver is motivated to seek some

type of relationship with the source

 Adopts similar beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or

behavior

6-9

Source Attractiveness

 Enhanced by:

 Applying similarity

 Using celebrities as spokespeople

 Understanding the meaning of celebrity endorsers

 Limitations of celebrities as spokespeople

 Overshadow the product

 Overexposure

 Target audiences’ receptivity

 Risk to the advertiser

6-10

Source Attractiveness

Resemblance

between the

source and

recipient of the

message

Similarity

Knowledge of the

source through

repeated or

prolonged

exposure

Familiarity

Affection for the

source resulting

from physical

appearance,

behavior, or other

personal traits

LikeabilitySimilarity Familiarity

6-11

Trust

Risk

Familiarity

Likability

Choosing a Celebrity Endorser

Factors

Match w/audience

Match w/product

Image

Cost/ROI

6-12

Top Celebrity Endorsers

 Top male endorsers

 Tiger Woods

 Phil Mickelson

 LeBron James

 Peyton Manning

 Top female endorsers

 Maria Sharapova

 Jennifer Lopez

 Venus/Serena Williams

6-13

The celebrity’s behavior may pose a risk to the company

The target audience may not be receptive to celebrity endorsers

The celebrity may be overexposed, reducing his or her credibility

The celebrity may overshadow the product being endorsed

The target audience may not be receptive to celebrity endorsers

The celebrity may be overexposed, reducing his or her credibility

The celebrity may overshadow the product being endorsed

Risks of Using Celebrities

6-14

Meaning Movement and

the Endorsement Process

6-15

Source Power

 Source is capable of administering rewards and

punishments to the receiver

 Depends on a source’s perceived control, concern,

and scrutiny

 Compliance: Receiver accepts a source’s

persuasive influence and acquiesces to his or her

position

 To obtain a favorable reaction or to avoid

punishment

6-16

Perceived control

Perceived concern

Perceived scrutiny

Perceived control

Perceived concern

Source Power

6-17

Message Factors

• Order of presentation

• Conclusion drawing

• Message sidedness

• Refutation

• Verbal versus visual messages

Message structure

• Comparative advertising

• Fear appeals

• Humor appeals

Message appeals

6-18

Message Structure

 Order of presentation - Strongest arguments should

be presented early or late in the message but never

in the middle

 Primacy effect: Information presented first is most

effective

 Recency effect: Last arguments presented are most

persuasive

 Depends on:

 Target audience’s receptivity to the message

6-19

Message Structure

 Length of the message

 Medium used to communicate the message

 Conclusion drawing - Messages with explicit

conclusions are more easily understood and

effective in influencing attitudes

 Depends on:

 Target audience

 Type of issue or topic

 Nature of the situation

6-20

Message Structure

 One-sided message: Mentions only positive

attributes or benefits, effective if target audience:

 Already holds a favorable opinion about the topic

 Is less educated

 Two-sided message: Presents both good and bad

points, effective when the target audience:

 Holds an opposing opinion

 Is highly educated

6-21

Message Structure

 Refutational appeal: Communicator presents both

sides of an issue and then refutes the opposing

viewpoint

 Verbal versus visual messages - When verbal

information is:

 Low in imagery value, use of pictures increase

immediate and delayed recall

 High in imagery value, addition of pictures do not

increase recall

6-22

Recall and Presentation Order

R e c a ll

Beginning Middle End

6-23

Fear Appeals

Comparative Ads

Fear Appeals

Comparative Ads

Message Appeal Options

Humor Appeals

• May stress physical danger or

threats to health

• May identify social threats:

disapproval or

rejection

• May backfire if the level of threat is

too high

• May be especially useful for new

brands

• Often used for brands with small

market share

• Frequently use in political

advertising

• They can attract and hold attention

• They are often the best remembered

• They put the consumer in a

positive mood

6-24

Message Appeals

 Comparative advertising: Directly or indirectly

naming competitors in an ad and comparing one or

more attributes

 Fear appeals: Evoke an emotional response to a

threat and arouse individuals to take steps to

remove the threat

 Effective when the recipient is:

 Self-confident and prefers to cope with dangers

 A nonuser of the product

6-25

Message Appeals

 Protection motivation model - States that ads using

fear appeals should give the target audience

information on the:

 Severity of the threat

 Probability of its occurrence

 Effectiveness of a coping response

 Ease with which the response can be implemented

6-26

Figure 6.5 - Relationship between Fear

Levels and Message Acceptance

6-27

Message Appeals

 Humor appeals - Humorous ads:

 Attract and hold consumers’ attention

 Put consumers in a positive mood

 Increase consumers' liking of the ad and their feeling toward the product

 Distract the consumer from counter arguing against the message

 May wear out faster than serious appeals

 Wearout: Tendency of a commercial to lose effectiveness when seen or heard repeatedly

6-28

Humor Appeals Advantages and

Disadvantages

Advantages

• Aid with awareness and attention

• Aid name and simple copy registration

• Aid retention

• Aid persuasion to switch brands

• Create a positive mood that enhances persuasion

Disadvantages

• Harm recall and comprehension

• Harm complex copy registration

• Do not aid persuasion in general

• Do not aid source credibility

• Not very effective in bringing about sales

6-29

Channel Factors

 Personal versus nonpersonal channels - Information

received from personal channels is more persuasive

than that received from the mass media

 Effects of alternative mass media

 Differences in information processing

 Self-paced - Readers process the ad at their own rate and

study it as long as they desire

 Externally paced - Transmission rate is controlled by the

medium

6-30

Self-Paced Media

Self versus External Paced Media

• Newspapers

• Magazines

• Direct Mail

• Internet

• Radio

• Television

Externally Paced Media

vs.

6-31

Channel Factors

 Effects of context and environment

 Qualitative media effect: Influence the medium has

on a message

 Image of the media vehicle affect reactions to the

message

 Clutter: Amount of advertising in a medium

 All the nonprogram material that appears in the

broadcast environment