week 5
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chapter_03.pdf
Students With Specific Learning Disabilities
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Pre-Test
1. Students with SLD have been eligible for special education services since PL 94-142. T/F
2. Students with SLD struggle with one academic area. T/F
3. Students with SLD have a parent or a sibling with SLD. T/F
4. SLD is easy to diagnose because schools only have to administer two tests. T/F
5. Students with SLD require specialized instruction. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the areas of difficulty for SLD.
2. Discuss the historical context of SLD before PL 94-142.
3. Identify the characteristics of students with SLD.
4. Describe the factors that have been identified as causes of SLD.
5. Discuss how students are diagnosed with SLD.
6. Explain the general education teacher’s responsibility in helping a student with SLD.
7. Discuss classroom strategies that are helpful for teaching students with SLD.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 What Is a Specific Learning Disability?
Introduction
Learning to read and write is difficult for a lot of students. Many agonize over learning how to solve math problems, too. Did you ever struggle with one of these subjects in your school career? Maybe you had trouble in middle school when algebra was introduced. With effec- tive instruction, however, your knowledge of algebra probably improved. Your struggle to learn algebra was only temporary.
Imagine what life would be like if your learning difficulty had continued. Students with specific learning disabilities have learning difficulties that are not temporary, because their brains work in different ways.
In this chapter you will learn about the characteristics of students with specific learning disabili- ties (SLD), the causes of these disabilities, and how they are diagnosed. Strategies for teaching these students vary by grade level and type of subject. To be an effective teacher of students with SLD, you’ll want to understand the problems and tailor your instruction to best accommo- date them for each student.
3.1 What Is a Specific Learning Disability?
A specific learning disability (SLD) is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes (i.e., thinking, problem solving, remembering) used in receiving, understand-ing, storing, and responding to information. It affects the academic skills of a student, so students with an SLD may struggle with reading, writing, spelling, mathematics, listening, or speaking—or with more than one of these skills.
Defining SLD Struggling with writing or listening, or with math or reading, does not necessarily indicate that a student has an SLD. In fact, at some point, almost every student will struggle with one of these skills. It is when the difficulties are severe enough to interfere with learning in the classroom that a student may be diagnosed with an SLD.
A student cannot be diagnosed with an SLD if his or her difficulty mainly stems from visual, hear- ing, or motor disabilities, rather than disorders in psychological processes. Unlike some disabili- ties, such as deafness or physical disabilities, an SLD is not visible. This makes it more difficult to know which students may have an SLD.
Students with SLD must have average or above average intelligence (i.e., a student with SLD can- not have an intellectual disability). The student’s SLD, however, inhibits acquisition of new knowl- edge or skills and contributes to performance below that of students without an SLD.
A student with an SLD needs to access information in a different way than students without SLD. Researchers have demonstrated that students with SLD benefit tremendously from small-group or individualized instruction (e.g., Swanson, 2001; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000). However, even with effective instruction, an SLD does not disappear; a student can learn to successfully adapt, but there is no “cure.”
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 What Is a Specific Learning Disability?
As you will learn throughout this book, many students have more than one disability. The most prevalent comorbid disability (a disability that occurs at the same time) for students with SLD is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, or ADHD (see Chapter 5). Almost half of students with SLD also have a diagnosis of ADHD (Pastor & Reuben, 2008).
SLD and IDEA 2004 In IDEA 2004, which includes SLD as one of 13 disability categories, specific learning disability is defined as “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understand- ing or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.” To have an SLD under IDEA 2004, students must demonstrate difficulty in one or more of the following areas:
• Oral expression—the ability to express your thoughts and needs by talking; for exam- ple, asking questions in class or talking with a student at lunchtime.
• Listening comprehension—the ability to understand information presented orally; for example, answering an oral question or lining up at the door when the teacher verbally prompts.
• Written expression—the ability to express thoughts and needs by writing; for exam- ple, writing a persuasive essay or answering questions by writing.
• Basic reading skill—the ability to understand the relationships between letters, sounds, and words; for example, using knowledge of letter sounds /c/ /a/ /t/ to sound out the word cat or recognizing that a makes different sounds (e.g., apple is different from ate).
• Reading comprehension—the ability to understand information presented in text; for example, explaining the action of a sentence or retelling a story after reading it.
• Mathematics calculation—the ability to perform mathematical tasks with operations; for example, solving 24 + 57, or 1 1/4 – 1/2, or 129 ÷ 13, or counting to 100 by 3s.
• Mathematics reasoning—the ability to solve mathematical problems presented within different contexts; for example, solving word problems or understanding geometric proofs.
As you can see, SLD are categorized into difficulties in language, reading, and mathematics skills. Those related to reading are the most often diagnosed (Fletcher, 2005; Wanzek & Kent, 2012).
According to IDEA 2004, students cannot be diagnosed with an SLD if the root cause of their dif- ficulty can be pinpointed to one of the following:
• Visual, hearing, or motor disability (e.g., deafness, visual impairment, spina bifida) • Intellectual disability (i.e., low intellectual functioning) • Emotional disturbance (e.g., anxiety disorder, conduct disorder) • Cultural factors (i.e., the student’s cultural background is quite different from the school,
and the student has not had many opportunities to learn within the school’s culture) • Environmental or economic disadvantage (e.g., the student has moved schools four
times in a school year, or the student lives in extreme poverty with little access to food, or the student was involved in a car accident and missed 60 days of school)
• Limited English proficiency (i.e., the student’s first language is not English, and the student is still learning English)
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 How Has the SLD Field Evolved?
Some schools use more formal terms to describe SLD. The following are names for disabilities that might fall under the category of SLD:
• Dyslexia: A language and reading disability that causes students to struggle with reading and writing.
• Dyscalculia: A mathematics disability that causes students to struggle with understand- ing mathematical concepts and completing mathematical tasks.
• Dysgraphia: A writing disability that causes students to write illegibly. • Dysphasia or Aphasia: A disorder related to difficulties understanding spoken language
and poor reading comprehension that causes students to struggle with communication and understanding.
• Central Auditory Processing Disorder: A disorder of processing and remembering tasks that are related to language.
• Visual Perceptual or Visual Motor Deficit: A deficit related to reversal of letters, inabil- ity to copy, or losing place in text.
Prevalence of SLD SLD affects approximately 5% of school-age students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Some researchers (Geary, 2004; Shalev, 2004), however, believe the rate to be slightly higher, because diagnostic criteria for SLD vary by state, which leads to a wide variability in the reported number of students with SLD in schools (approximately 3% in Kentucky to almost 9.5% in Rhode Island). IDEA 2004 now allows Response to Intervention (RTI) as an alternative method of SLD diag- nosis, and policymakers and researchers believe this may lead to a decrease in the percentages of students diagnosed with SLD, particularly as teachers use more evidence-based practices.
Boys are diagnosed with SLD more often than girls (see Figure 5.1 in Chapter 5); this is likely due to identification methods (Siegel & Smythe, 2005). For example, Siegel and Smythe (2005) tested a large number of students over several years. The number of boys and girls who performed low on the academic assessment was the same. In schools, however, where tests are administered to determine SLD status, boys may have a more difficult time with the tests—or perhaps teachers are more likely to notice boys struggling with an academic task because they often “act out” more than girls (Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).
3.2 How Has the SLD Field Evolved?
Until the middle of the 20th century, students with SLD were often considered to be lazy and underachieving; some students were categorized as having mental retardation (intel-lectual disability). Some of these students were educated in special schools or institu- tions, but many were excluded from any school at all. In the late 19th century, the initial work with students with learning disabilities centered on students who demonstrated average intelligence but struggled with reading and writing—in other words, those with SLD.
One of the earliest pioneers who differentiated learning disabilities from mental retardation (now called intellectual disability) was a German physician, Adolph Kussmaul. Kussmaul was the first physician to write about signs of heart disease and diabetic comas, and he also developed an inter- est in language disorders. In 1877, he wrote about patients with an inability to form sentences and
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
patients with “word blindness” who could read and speak but not understand spoken language (Lawrence, 2009).
Another German physician, Oswald Berkhan, described patients with difficulty reading and compre- hending text in 1881. Six years later, another German physician, Rudolf Berlin, formally coined the term dyslexia after he worked with a patient who demonstrated nor- mal intelligence but could not read or write. At the turn of the 20th century, others (e.g., William Evans Bruner, James Hinshelwood, and W. Pringle Morgan) wrote about students with apparent learning disabilities and methods to help such students (Courtad & Bakken, 2011).
In the United States, with the introduction of compulsory school attendance in the first half of the 20th century, teachers were faced with teaching a wide variety of students in the classroom. They noted that some students who seemed to be of average intelligence had great difficulty learning. In 1963, Samuel A. Kirk first used the term learning disabled to describe students who struggled with reading and language and required special education (Danforth, Slocum, & Dunkle, 2010). This recognition of learning disabilities spurred the founding of the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, which later became the Learning Disabilities Association of America, an important advocate for the edu- cation of students with learning disabilities.
The Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969, which became part of the Education of the Handicapped Act of 1970, formally defined learning disabilities and mandated that schools provide special education services to students with learning disabilities. The definition was as fol- lows: a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken and written language. These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic. It was not until the passing of PL 94-142 in 1975, however, that federal legislators recognized specific learning disability (SLD) as a separate disabil- ity category in the law that governs how schools provide services to students with special needs.
3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Each student with an SLD has his or her own set of difficulties. Some students may struggle only with reading or language, while others may struggle with reading, mathematics, and spelling (Hanich, Jordan, Kaplan, & Dick, 2001; Mather, 2003). Students with SLD may also exhibit nonacademic difficulties that relate directly or indirectly to their academic difficulties.
Ralf Hettler/Getty Images
The middle of the 20th century brought about change for students with SLD. Before that time, many students with SLD attended public school classrooms, but their educational needs were ignored. Other students with SLD could have been excluded from classrooms, such as this one, because schools did not have to provide an education to students who had learning difficulties.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Challenges With Reading Students with an SLD may struggle with a wide variety of skills that contribute to success with reading. Students may not understand that letters make sounds. They may have difficulty decod- ing, blending, rhyming, pronouncing words, differentiating homophones, increasing their reading rate, or comprehending text. Students may also have difficulty remembering words and the mean- ings of words, as well as interpreting punctuation (Bryant, Bryant, & Hammill, 2000; Jiménez- Fernández, Vaquero, Jiménez, & Defior, 2011; Williams & Lynch, 2010).
• Understanding that letters make sounds. Students may not understand that the let- ter a makes a specific sound—and in English, it makes several different sounds. For example, the a in apple sounds different from the a in made.
• Decoding. Students with difficulties decoding have difficulty with phonemes, the smallest units of sound that a word can be broken into. (The word dog for example, has three phonemes: /d/ /o/ /g/). As a result, they often struggle with sounding out words.
• Blending. When students have difficulty combining letter sounds or phonemes into words, they struggle with what is referred to as blending. For the word dog, students need to take the /d/ sound and combine it with the /o/ sound and combine that with the /g/ sound.
• Rhyming. Students may have difficulty knowing that pan rhymes with can and man. Rhyming is a fundamental skill in reading and spelling because it helps students understand patterns. For example, if a student understands that pan, can, man, and tan all rhyme, she should be able to decode these words and spell them fairly easily.
• Pronouncing words. Students may struggle to pronounce words, whether they are simple, such as dog, or more difficult, such as extermination.
• Differentiating homophones. Students may confuse homophones (e.g., their, there, they’re) and have trouble with their meanings and spellings.
• Increasing reading rate. Students with an SLD may read at a much slower rate than others. Their reading may sound choppy and fragmented, and the slower rate may cause difficulty with comprehension.
• Comprehending text. Students have difficulty understanding the meaning of words, sentences, and paragraphs. When asked to explain the main idea of a paragraph, stu- dents may not be able to tell the who, what, when, where, and why of the paragraph. Poor comprehension may be due to a lack of fluent oral reading skills, silent reading skills, or both.
• Remembering words. In reading, many words, such as the, that, and around, appear often in text, so it is best for students to memorize and recognize these words on sight—which is why these words are called sight words, and avoid wasting time sounding them out. Some students struggle with remembering sight words, which causes slower rates of reading and comprehension.
• Remembering the meaning of words. Students may struggle to recall the definitions of words, and this causes difficulty with comprehension.
• Interpreting punctuation. Students may overlook periods or other end punctuation. This can make it hard to understand what is being read.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Challenges With Oral Language Students with an SLD may experience difficulty with skills related to oral language, such as express- ing ideas, sequencing, structuring words and sentences, and memorizing facts.
• Expressing ideas. Some students understand a concept or know an answer but exhibit difficulty explaining it orally. For example, a student may have written an essay explaining the parts of a cell, but not be able to explain cell parts when the teacher asks in class.
• Sequencing. Students might have trouble placing events in a proper sequence. They might tell stories out of order or with major parts missing.
• Structuring words and sentences. Students may have difficulty with grammar when they speak. They may leave off (or add on) endings to words (e.g., saying “I pass the football” instead of “I passed the football”).
• Memorizing facts. As information is presented orally or within text, students may struggle to memorize facts or definitions.
Challenges With Writing Students with an SLD may exhibit difficulty with tasks related to writing. They sometimes experi- ence difficulty writing by hand (in particular, with reversals of letters and numbers), establishing effective posture and grip of writing utensil, increasing their speed of writing, and copying. Students can also struggle with encoding, structuring sentences, and organizing written words or ideas.
• Writing by hand. Students may struggle to print or use cursive letters. For example, some students use an inappropriate combination of uppercase and lowercase letters. Students may also have difficulty keeping letter size uniform or writing legibly. These problems may be a sign of fine motor problems, which require specialized instruction. Students may write letters and symbols backwards (e.g., b for d or 2 for 5).
• Establishing effective posture and grip. Students may exhibit strange body posture and hand position when writing with a pencil or pen.
• Increasing their speed of writing. Students with writing difficulties may write consider- ably slower than students without writing difficulties. Like difficulty with letter forma- tion, this may be a sign of fine motor problems.
• Copying. Students may have difficulty copying onto paper what a teacher has written on the board or is displaying on a document camera.
• Encoding. Spelling words may be difficult for some students. Encoding involves either spelling words by sight or spelling by breaking a word into phonemes.
• Structuring sentences. Some students may struggle to reproduce common sentence structure or word order. For instance, they may write “Dan goes to the store” as “Dan to the store goes.” Students may omit words and use poor grammar when they write.
• Organizing written words or ideas. When writing on a piece of paper, students may struggle to write on the lines (see Figure 3.1) or keep their writing centered on the paper. Again, this is a possible sign of fine motor problems. Students may also struggle with the organization that goes into writing a paragraph or a story (e.g., topic sen- tence, developing sentences, closing sentence).
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Figure 3.1: SLD and Handwriting
This student has an SLD and struggles with writing. Notice how many of the letters are formed backwards and how the student has difficulty writing in a straight line. This student’s brain is likely sending mixed messages with regard to letter shape and writing.
Challenges With Mathematics Students with an SLD could have trouble with mathematics tasks, such as counting, understanding symbols, writing numbers and symbols, recalling basic facts, understanding place value, solving word problems, organizing work, and increasing the pace of work (Auerbach, Gross-Tsur, Manor, & Shalev, 2008; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2008).
• Counting. Students may have difficulty counting. Some students may not know the proper order for counting (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10), while other students may miscount (e.g., saying “2, 4, 5, 6, 7”), double count (e.g., saying “1, 1, 2, 3, 4”), or not understand that counting helps shows an amount of a set (e.g., saying “1, 2, 3, 4. There are 3 items altogether”).
• Understanding symbols. Some students may have trouble with symbolic thinking; for example, they may not understand that 2 represents two items and is written as two. Some students may struggle with connecting second to 2. Students may also misinterpret operational symbols (e.g., +, –, ?, ÷), leading to difficulty with solving mathematics problems.
• Writing numbers and symbols. Students might have difficulty knowing how to write the number symbols. Some students reverse numbers (e.g., 2 for 5 and 6 for 9), which can cause a myriad of difficulty. Some students might have trouble turning larger num- bers presented orally into written numbers (e.g., writing “six hundred five” as 6005).
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
• Recalling basic facts. Students who struggle with math- ematics often have difficulty memorizing and recalling basic facts (e.g., 7 + 8, 12 – 7). When students have to take time to figure out or count the answer to a basic fact, it diminishes their capacity to solve more complex math- ematics problems.
• Understanding place value. Students may not realize that the same 10 number symbols (0–9) can be used to represent any number, so they struggle with numbers greater than 9. Students may also not understand regroup- ing where “carrying” or “bor- rowing” is necessary (e.g.,
knowing that 10 ones is the same as 1 ten), which leads to computation difficulties. • Solving word problems. Students can demonstrate difficulty in solving word problems, or
mathematical problems embedded within text. Many students struggle with the reading and comprehension of the text. Some find it tricky to understand which numbers and information are relevant and which operations are necessary to answer word problems.
• Organizing work. When students do not properly line up numbers for computation as they write them, the disorganization can cause mistakes. In Figure 3.2, 12,397 + 4,203 will be easier to solve in Example B than in Example A because the numbers have been properly spaced and aligned.
• Increasing the pace of work. Students with an SLD may work mathematics problems at a much slower rate than students without an SLD.
Figure 3.2: SLD and Organization of Math Work
Nonacademic Challenges
Just as many typical students have problems with reading, writing, spelling, mathematics, listen- ing, or speaking at some time during their schooling, many, if not all, students exhibit one or more nonacademic characteristics that make learning difficult at some time during their school career. These characteristics include cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral characteristics. Students might have problems with attention, organization, or frustration, for example. When these characteristics are displayed on a consistent basis and combined with some of the aca- demic difficulties discussed, then a student may be said to have an SLD.
1 2 3 9 7B. 4 2 0 3+
A. 12397 + 4203
Fancy Collection/SuperStock
When students have difficulty with mathematical concepts and procedures, manipulatives (i.e., tools) can be used to help them see how math works. This student is using an abacus to practice counting skills. By touching and moving each bead, the student can learn how to give one “count” or number to each bead.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 What Are the Characteristics of Students With SLD?
Nonacademic characteristics that students with an SLD may exhibit:
• Distracts easily; for example, student stops working when another adult walks into the classroom.
• Has a short attention span; for example, student only focuses on a task for a few minutes.
• Has difficulty adapting to change; for example, student struggles when switching from a geography lesson to a mathematics lesson.
• Is restless or impulsive; for example, student fidgets or leaves seat frequently. • Has difficulty listening and following directions; for example, student forgets teacher
directions to (a) put backpack away, (b) get out homework, and (c) start journal entry. • Gets frustrated easily; for example, student stops working when a task is difficult, or
student circles answers on a difficult test without trying to answer each item. • Has difficulty knowing left and right; for example, student walks the wrong way in
library after librarian says, “Detective novels are on the right.” • Has poor eye-hand coordination; for example, student struggles with placing coins in
specific coin slots on a game. • Has delayed or immature speech; for
example, student uses a “baby voice” when answering questions.
• Has immature expressive language; for example, student can’t answer basic questions about a story.
• Is disorganized; for example, student’s locker is disheveled, and the student cannot find appropriate materials.
• Has difficulty finishing assignments on time; for example, student consistently finishes tasks after the rest of the class.
• Has poor social skills; for example, stu- dent has difficulty making friends.
• Has difficulty with self-regulation; for example, student struggles with com- pleting a five-step task on his own.
During the evaluation of a student for a possible SLD, the evaluation team needs to make sure that the cause of the student’s difficulty is a specific learning disability and not another disability. For example, most of the characteristics of ADHD are nonacademic characteristics of people with SLD. Because almost half of students with an SLD exhibit inattentive or hyperactive characteristics of ADHD, the evaluation team cannot assume the student does not struggle with attention issues as well as learning difficulties.
Corbis/SuperStock
Many students with SLD have difficulty keeping their materials and school work organized. Students may have a disorganized desk, or their work on notebook paper might be disorganized. Teachers can help students with organizational skills so that students can focus more on their academics.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 What Are the Causes of SLD?
3.4 What Are the Causes of SLD?
An SLD may have a number of causes. The brain, heredity, and the environment may all play a role. Scientists and researchers have not determined which of these factors is the most salient and whether an SLD is caused by one factor or a combination of factors. The Role of the Brain Researchers have determined that the brain plays a role in SLD. For example, in Finland, students with learning disabilities and their siblings (without an SLD) participated in MRI brain scans. The siblings of students who had an SLD had more brain abnormalities than non-siblings without SLD (Mannerkoski et al., 2009). This study indicates that some brains are wired in ways that contribute to SLD. Multiple studies have demonstrated differences in the brain activity of students with an SLD versus without SLD (Davis et al., 2011; Kucian et al., 2006; Landi, Mencl, Frost, Sandak, & Puch, 2011; Simos et al., 2006).
Most researchers believe that an SLD is caused by malfunctions in the way that the brain receives, stores, retrieves, and produces information (Rissman, 2010). These four ways the brain interacts with information can also be referred to as input, integration, memory, and output.
Figure 3.3: The Brain
The brain is a complex system that helps us receive, store, retrieve, and produce information. While scientists know that different parts of the brain have different functions, they have not pinpointed the parts of the brain related to SLD.
Prefrontal area
Temporal lobe
Auditory
Visual
Visual association
Parietal lobeFrontal lobe
Sensorimotor area
Frontal eye field
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 What Are the Causes of SLD?
Input involves information coming into the brain, and perception is how information is interpreted in the brain. Most often, information is delivered to the brain via sight (visual perception) or sound (auditory perception). Students with an SLD may struggle with the perception of one or both of these types of input. Students who struggle with visual perception may find it hard to distinguish between different symbols. For example, a student may understand g to be p or q. They may also have difficulty focusing on the words on a page. Students who struggle with auditory perception may demonstrate difficulty with interpreting the phonemes or sounds of words. They may also become overwhelmed by too many sounds occurring at the same time.
The second way the brain interacts with information is integration—it stores and organizes that information. Remembering information in a sequence is much easier than trying to produce it haphazardly. Some examples of sequences that you know are the alphabet, the days of the week, or the multiples of five.
Students with an SLD may struggle with sequencing and organizing information. They may lose or misplace items or finish assignments late. Students with an SLD may also have difficulty with abstraction, which can affect their social interactions. As just one example, these students may find it tricky to understand when something is a joke or when a pun is used.
Three types of memory help students store and retrieve information. The first is working memory, which involves the brain working with small pieces of information. When completing a computa- tion problem, for example, the brain may keep basic facts and knowledge about a regrouped 10 in working memory. The second kind of memory is short-term memory, in which the brain keeps information for a short amount of time, without transitioning it to long-term memory. For example, a student remembers four digits of a phone number just in time to dial the number. The student probably cannot remember the four digits five minutes later. The third kind of memory is long-term memory, where the brain stores information for future use. For example, a student remembers his home phone number and uses this information when sharing the phone number on college applications or with friends.
The fourth way the brain interacts with information is output—how a person provides information from the brain. One type of output is language output. Students with an SLD may find it difficult to think of an answer and find the correct way to provide that answer at the same time. Another type of output is motor output. Students who struggle with motor output may have trouble with writing, coloring, or using scissors.
The Role of Heredity Research shows a strong genetic component of SLD. Parents who struggled with a learning disabil- ity are more likely to have a child with a learning disability (Landerl & Moll, 2010), and researchers of siblings and twins have confirmed this link by showing that siblings and twins have a greater likelihood of having an SLD if their sibling has one (Del’Homme, Kim, Loo, Yang, & Smalley, 2007; Kovas & Plomin, 2007). Scientists and researchers are only just beginning to understand the spe- cific genes and factors that may contribute to SLD. Over the next few decades, they will likely discover a lot more about the connection between heredity and SLD.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
The Role of Environmental Factors Environmental factors that may contribute to SLD include the following (Courtman & Mumby, 2008):
• Malnutrition—for example, a mother is malnourished when pregnant, and the baby’s brain does not develop appropriately, or a student does not receive proper nutrition during important growth stages.
• Chemicals or toxins in the environment—for example, a student ingests lead paint, which may cause nerve or brain damage.
• Radiation—for example, a student is exposed to radiation, and the radiation may cause brain damage.
• A mother’s excessive alcohol or drug use during pregnancy—for example, a mother drinks too much alcohol, and the baby does not develop in a typical manner.
• Anything that deprives the brain of oxygen—for example, a baby’s umbilical cord acci- dentally gets wrapped around the baby’s neck during delivery, and the lack of oxygen causes damage to nerves and the brain.
• Second-hand smoke—for example, excessive smoke in the house causes damage to a child’s brain.
• Poor instruction in school (see the RTI section later in this chapter)—for example, an ineffective teacher only showed movies during class time and did not cover any of the sixth-grade standards in science.
3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
The first indicators that a student in the general education classroom might have an SLD are often persistent difficulty with academic tasks and performance below grade level. As in all special education evaluation procedures, the general education teachers, school adminis- trators, or parents or guardians can request that the identification process begin.
If personnel from the school suggest an evaluation, it must take place within 60 days of refer- ral. This prohibits schools from delaying identification. Parental consent must be obtained within those 60 days, before the evaluation takes place; if a parent or guardian does not grant consent, a school district can initiate due process procedures to circumvent the parent’s consent refusal. A team of school officials then evaluates the student using a variety of data sources to deter- mine if an SLD is present. The process can follow either the IQ/achievement discrepancy model or Response to Intervention (RTI).
IQ/Achievement Discrepancy Before IDEA 2004, all students with learning disabilities were identified using an IQ/achievement discrepancy formula (see Chapter 1). Students needed to demonstrate a “severe discrepancy” between their intellectual ability and their actual achievement in the classroom.
As discussed in Chapter 1, critics of the discrepancy requirement claimed that schools were waiting too long (i.e., sometimes years) to identify students with learning disabilities, resulting in the waste of precious time for providing quality special education instruction. Critics also charged that some students were misidentified as having an SLD (due to assessment bias) when the students did not
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
have learning disabilities (Kavale, Spaulding, & Beam, 2009). For example, students with English as their second language may have been misidentified because they scored lower on an assess- ment in English than they would have scored on a assessment in their native language (Fletcher & Navarrete, 2003; Sullivan, 2011; Waitoller, Artiles, & Cheney, 2009). Not all researchers, how- ever, agree that the IQ/achieve- ment discrepancy model is a bad idea (Kavale, 2005). For example, once a student is referred for an evaluation, the IQ/achievement model allows psychologists and teachers to identify students quickly, and students can receive appropriate special education ser-
vices soon after testing and diagnosis. With this model, however, students are often not referred for evaluation until they have been in school for several years.
If schools choose to use the IQ/achievement discrepancy model, four criteria must be met before determining whether a student has an SLD (Restori, Katz, & Lee, 2009).
1. The school must establish a discrepancy between the student’s cognitive ability and academic achievement. Most often, cognitive ability is determined through an intelli- gence test (e.g., Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children, Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Skills). Academic achievement is assessed through a standardized achievement test (e.g., Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, Iowa Test of Basic Skills, Stanford Achievement Test, Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement).
2. After the tests are administered, the school determines whether a discrepancy exists between ability and achievement. A discrepancy is noted by examining the standard scores on the assessments. Generally, a discrepancy of 1.5 or 2 standard deviations or 15–25 stan- dard scale points is used (Kavale, 2005). States vary in their definitions of discrepancy.
3. The school must determine whether the student requires special education services. 4. The school must ensure that the student does not meet exclusionary criteria. This means
that the student’s SLD cannot be the result of a sensory disorder, intellectual disability, emotional disturbance, disadvantaged background, or inadequate instruction.
If all four of these criteria are met, a student can qualify for special education under IDEA 2004.
. Richard T. Nowitz/CORBIS
This student is taking a test administered by a school psychologist. If the school uses the IQ/achievement discrepancy model as a way to identify students with SLD, then this IQ test, along with an academic assessment, could help determine whether the student has an SLD.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
Response to Intervention Some states require schools to use Response to Intervention (RTI) (sometimes called Responsive- ness to Intervention) as the method of SLD identification, whereas other states leave the decision between RTI and the IQ/achievement discrepancy model to individual districts (Zirkel & Thomas, 2010). If the state does not mandate the method, then schools and districts choose the model that makes the most sense for their students and teachers. For example, some schools may not have the additional resources necessary (e.g., extra teachers) to implement RTI.
Because RTI is a relatively new initiative, the way that educators conceptualize and interpret it will no doubt change drastically over the next decade or so. It is not exclusively a special education initiative—it is an education initiative that combines general and special education because teach- ers from both areas collaborate to provide appropriate tiers of services to students (Hazelkorn, Bucholz, Goodman, Duffy, & Brady, 2011).
The core idea of RTI in assessing disabilities—in this case SLD—is that determination of a disabil- ity is made by seeing whether a student responds to quality instruction (Mellard, McKnight, & Jordan, 2010). RTI mandates that evidence-based practices be used at every level to ensure that poor or inadequate instruction is not the reason a student is identified with a disability. RTI also emphasizes early intervention. Proponents of RTI claim the model does not wait for students to fail (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). It can be used in elementary, middle, or high school, but it is most com- mon at the elementary level.
Typically, RTI is used to determine whether a student has an SLD in reading, mathematics, or writ- ing. RTI can be used, however, to determine whether a student has other kinds of disabilities—for example, a behavioral disorder—that warrants special education services. See Chapter 4’s discus- sion of identifying behavioral difficulties with RTI.
RTI Tiers A typical RTI model incorporates three tiers (Lembke, Garman, Deno, & Stecker, 2010)—as shown graphically in Figure 3.4—though some models incorporate more (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006).
Tier 1 In the typical three-tier model, Tier 1 (also called Primary Intervention) takes place in the general classroom. At Tier 1, the general classroom teacher implements evidence-based practices or interventions. Teachers test all students in the classroom using a progress monitoring measure—a quick test given every week or two to better monitor students’ progress in the classroom. Students who score below a specific cut-off are deemed to be “possibly at risk.” This select group of students is then given progress monitoring measures for a longer period, usually for 6 to 10 weeks.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
Figure 3.4: RTI Tiers
This triangle is often used to describe RTI. At the bottom, or widest part of the triangle, is primary intervention. The middle is secondary intervention, and the top is tertiary intervention. As the triangle gets smaller, the percentage of students receiving that type of intervention shrinks.
The goal of the monitoring is to determine which students demonstrate response at Tier 1 and which students demonstrate nonresponse. Response is determined by student growth (i.e., slope) and end scores, as shown in the graphs in Figure 3.5. The student’s slope indicates whether a stu- dent’s scores are increasing, flat, or decreasing. End scores are the scores students should reach in order to demonstrate adequate learning. Students who demonstrate response (i.e., adequate slope and adequate end score) to the instruction in the general classroom (i.e., Tier 1) stay in Tier 1. Students who demonstrate nonresponse (i.e., inadequate slope and inadequate end score) begin to receive additional Tier 2 instruction.
Core instruction
and intensive interventions
1-5% Tier 3
Core instruction and targeted interventions
5-10% Tier 2
School-wide interventions
80-90% Tier 1
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
Figure 3.5: Progress Monitoring Graphs
Graphs can be used to show two students’ progress in Tier 1. Student 1 has demonstrated response, via an adequate slope and end score, at Tier 1. The threshold for adequate slope is provided by the company that produces the progress monitoring measure. (For example, adequate slope for this student may be one word each week.) Student 2 has not demonstrated adequate response because their slope and end score are below expected levels. This student will begin to participate in Tier 2 tutoring.
Tier 2 Tier 2 (Secondary Intervention) is for students who did not demonstrate adequate response to Tier 1 instruction. These “nonresponders” will receive instruction that often involves small-group tutoring that occurs several times a week over a period of 8–20 weeks during the school year (McKenzie, 2009). The small-group instruction is typically conducted by a general education teacher, a special education teacher or paraprofessional, or a reading or mathematics intervention teacher. A paraprofessional is an aide or assistant who knows how to work with students (and they have often received certification as a paraprofessional), but this person is not a certified teacher.
The instruction uses evidence-based practices and takes place during school hours. Many schools set aside “intervention” time for Tier 2 tutoring (Lembke et al., 2010). For example, a school may dedicate 30 minutes at the end of the school day for various interventions for groups of students. Often, students continue to receive Tier 1 instruction while participating in Tier 2 tutoring.
W o
rd s R
e a d
C o
rr e c tl
y
Weeks of Instruction 0 1 201918171615141312111098765432
0
4
8
12
16
20
2
6
10
14
18
Student 1 Student 2
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
Each student’s progress is monitored to determine response. Students who demonstrate response to Tier 2 instruction move back to Tier 1. Students who demonstrate nonresponse at Tier 2 move into Tier 3.
Tier 3 In many RTI models, Tier 3 (Tertiary Intervention) takes place in a special education setting (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). Between Tier 2 and 3, the student is evaluated, and an IEP is developed for the student. The special education teacher conducts Tier 3 services, and evidence-based practices are used to help the student meet IEP goals. The teacher monitors the student’s progress towards those goals.
Progress Monitoring As you learn more about the three tiers in RTI, it becomes obvious that monitoring a student’s progress at Tiers 1, 2, and 3 is important because it helps determine “response” within an RTI model. As most RTI models are trying to determine whether a student has an SLD in reading or mathematics, progress monitoring measures in those areas are most prevalent. Writing and spell- ing, however, can also be assessed using progress monitoring.
A progress monitoring measure is a brief assessment of a student’s growth in reading, math- ematics, writing, or spelling competency. Some of the measurement tests are administered to a classroom of students, while others require administration to an individual student. Progress monitoring measures should be relatively easy to score, and often, software or internet programs assist with the scores.
In an RTI model, progress monitoring measures are administered weekly (if not more often) to provide a sensitive measurement of a student’s progress over time. Every measure should have multiple versions that assess the same topic. In this way, students are assessed on the same skill set (e.g., fourth-grade mathematics problems), but do not have a chance to memorize the measure.
Regardless of the progress monitoring measure used, teachers score the measure and compile the scores to determine response. Generally, at least eight measures (and often, more) should be administered before calculating the slope of a student’s score. Either the company that produces the measure or the school itself provides typical slope and end scores that determine response and nonresponse.
Reading In reading, several progress monitoring measures are available (see Figure 3.6). Measures that assess a student’s letter, sound, or sight word knowledge are typically used at kindergarten or first grade. Another type of reading measure assesses a student’s reading fluency (e.g., Passage Reading Fluency, Oral Reading Fluency) while a third assesses a student’s reading comprehension (e.g., Maze Fluency).
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With Passage Reading Fluency and Oral Reading Fluency, students read text aloud, and the teacher marks words that are read incorrectly or skipped. The student’s score indicates reading fluency. With Maze Fluency, students read a passage silently. In the passage, the student is presented with three word choices after approximately every 7–10 words in the passage. The student has to choose the word that makes sense in the passage. Teachers choose the type of assessment to monitor progress according to the student’s grade level and reading ability.
Figure 3.6: Progress Monitoring in Reading
These worksheets are some examples of many possible ways to monitor a student’s progress in letter identification.
t x vf
m c qe
d j ay
s v fp
t x gb
and 1
at 1
said 1
could 1
than 0
black 1
things 0
find 1
went 1
want 1
going 1
saw 1
room 1
far 1
form 0
government 0
himself 0
sun 1
learn 1
eat 1
car 1
probably 1
taken 1
problems 0
tree 1
hot 1
using 1
main 1
thus 1
comes 0
Student’s Name:
Student’s Teacher:
Date of Evaluation:
Directions: Score 1 for correct response, 0 for incorrect response.
Total score = 23
Source: Adapted from Advanced Applications of CBM in Reading (K-6): Instructional Decision-Making Strategies Manual, National Center for Student Progress Monitoring.
Mathematics Several progress monitoring measures of mathematics are also available. (Some of these are displayed in Figure 3.7.) Measures assessing number identification (e.g., asking, “What number is this?”), comparing numbers (e.g., asking, “Which is bigger: 7 or 2?”), or missing numbers (e.g., requesting, “Say the missing number: 4, 5, __, 7”) are often used at kindergarten or first grade. Measures assessing a student’s computation skills or application of computation skills are used across grade levels. At middle or high school, students use algebra progress monitoring measures.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 How Are Students Diagnosed With SLD?
Figure 3.7: Progress Monitoring in Mathematics
There are many ways to monitor student progress in mathematics—as these examples show, a simple worksheet can be the measurement tool. The worksheet on the left assesses number identification and the one on the top right assesses a student’s ability to produce a missing number in a series.
7 27 1040
17 6 919
7 9 15
19 31 317
19 95 2318
8 65 1048
2 35 9825
2 4 5
22 23 25
11 13 17
5 15 20
5 6 8
9 11 12
17 18 19
14 18 20
15 25 35
2 3 4
15 17 18
4 6 8
15 20 25
70 80 100
Number Identification Missing Number
Source: Adapted from National Center for Student Progress Monitoring
Writing and Spelling To monitor student progress in writing and spelling, teachers provide prompts to students. The students write in responses to the prompts, and the teachers assess the spelling or writing. Teachers often score for correct or incorrect letter sequences (for spelling) or correct or incorrect word sequences (for writing). Correct sequences give the student credit for each letter or word correctly written to the next letter or word. For example, cat has four correct letter sequences marked as ^c^a^t^. Because c is the correct first letter, the student gets credit for one correct sequence. The c and a should be next to one another, so that’s another correct letter sequence. Cat spelled cot would only have two correct letter sequences (i.e., ^c¯o¯t^).
Evidence-Based Instruction Chapter 1 introduced the concept of evidence-based practices, the instructional techniques that have been shown to lead to improved student outcomes. The evidence for this should have been gathered in high-quality research studies. A core principle of RTI is ensuring that evidence-based practices are used across Tiers 1, 2, and 3 in the education of students with SLD.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 How Does SLD Differ Across Grade Levels?
When Are Students Diagnosed? Students can be diagnosed with an SLD at any point in their education, but because SLD involve tasks that are primarily learned in school, students typically are not diagnosed until they have begun formal schooling. Frequently, diagnosis occurs during elementary school, particularly once standardized testing begins. Less commonly, an SLD first becomes evident in middle or high school. Researchers have found that students may develop an SLD in reading later than expected (Comp- ton, Fuchs, Fuchs, Elleman, & Gilbert, 2008) or when learning a foreign language (Sparks, 2009).
Unfortunately, some students with an SLD move through the public school system without ever being properly evaluated and provided with appropriate services. To avoid this problem, teachers must frequently monitor progress and provide aligned support when students show persistent academic difficulty. Documentation of ongoing student performance and corresponding interven- tions is essential to initiate the identification process. This information can help an evaluation team determine whether academic struggle is indeed related to a learning disability so that appro- priate help can begin.
3.6 How Does SLD Differ Across Grade Levels?
Students with an SLD vary in terms of strengths and needs, depending upon the age of the student. Many students with an SLD are not identified until elementary school, but some young children may receive services in preschool settings. At the secondary level, teachers need to prepare students to transition into life beyond high school.
Early Childhood Most young children do not participate in academic activities that indicate the presence of an SLD to a teacher, but there are some other warning signs that may indicate such a disability. Young children at risk for an SLD may start speaking later than other children. They may struggle with understanding directions. These children may also have difficulty with fine-motor skills, such as holding a pencil. Sometimes, the children will struggle with gross-motor skills, such as walking or standing. When interacting with other young children, children with an SLD may demonstrate a lack of appropriate interaction or response to others.
As outlined in IDEA 2004, districts and schools may choose not to identify a child with an SLD at such an early age. If an evaluation team, however, determines that the child would benefit from early childhood special education services, a preschool or school-sponsored program can provide those services to a child under the category of developmental delay.
A child may have a developmental delay when the child does not meet typical developmental benchmarks, such as gross- and fine-motor skills or speech and hearing skills. Only students from age 3 through 9 can be categorized as having a developmental delay. After the age of 9, the IEP team should determine whether the student does indeed have a disability and whether special education services should be continued.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 How Does SLD Differ Across Grade Levels?
Elementary School In elementary schools, students with an SLD often exhibit difficulty learning to read, write, and perform mathematical computations. When learning to read, students with an SLD may struggle to attach meaning to words and break them down into manageable parts. They may have trouble understanding letter/sound correspondence and lack the strong vocabulary important for devel- oping written expression. Students with SLD may struggle to organize their ideas, focus on a topic and clearly present it, and use conventions of writing to support their topic. They can also show difficulty in mathematical fluency and basic problem solving.
By elementary school, impairments in the working memory of students with an SLD can lead to trouble storing and accessing information. Having to spend additional effort to retain and apply past knowledge increases the cognitive load (i.e., memory functioning) required. As a result, stu- dents may experience high levels of frustration and respond by withdrawing, shutting down, or acting out (e.g., throwing a pencil or getting out of a seat) when they find material overwhelming.
Teachers must plan proactively to minimize the frustration students with an SLD often experience. Scaffolding support for students throughout instruction can help students be and feel successful on small tasks. With scaffolding, teachers provide a lot of student support in the beginning, and then they lessen this support as students become more confident with a task. This support both builds student confidence and allows the teacher to identify where understanding breaks down.
Secondary School Most characteristics of elementary students with an SLD are also true of secondary students, who continue to struggle with remedial skills and foundational knowledge, making success in master- ing grade level content even more challenging. In addition to ensuring students acquire any miss- ing prerequisite skills, teachers must also ensure that these students make adequate progress in their grade-level classes.
One important difference between elementary and secondary students with an SLD is their ability to advocate for their own education. Secondary students can and should actively participate in the IEP process. While some elementary students may participate in IEP meetings, the secondary students must start to take ownership for their school and postsecondary decisions. They can do this by going over their starting academic levels, current and future goals, the progress they have made towards their goals, and the actions that led to their success. Students also should understand and be able to explain what having a learning disability means and how it affects academic performance.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 How Does SLD Differ Across Grade Levels?
Transition With the right support and intervention, students with an SLD can experience success throughout their schooling. This includes success in a variety of postsecondary avenues, including college and career. Depending on interest, personal goals, and past academic achievement, students with SLD can have the same options as their nondisabled peers. Teachers have a critical role in ensur- ing all students receive the appropriate instruction to achieve academically. This is especially important for students with SLD, who often require additional academic support. Additionally, teachers should seek to broaden student understanding of possi- ble career options. Students may be unaware of post-secondary options available to them, and increasing this knowledge can help focus and prepare students for this major life transition. This process can be challenging for students with disabilities and their family members (Smart, 2004), making appropriate school support essential.
Students with SLD can learn to manage their individual needs and advocate for appropriate aca- demic supports. College and uni- versity campuses often provide services for students with disabili- ties, and students with SLD are eligible to receive accommoda- tions and modifications on assign- ments and testing.
It is important that post-secondary students with SLD seek out appropriate services, as they may not be as apparent as in K–12 schooling (Cawthon & Cole, 2010). Until high school graduation, stu- dents with SLD are assigned a primary special education teacher or “case manager” who oversees the creation and implementation of the IEP. After graduation, however, these students need to become their own “case managers.” This important shift in responsibility requires purposeful plan- ning and support in the years leading up to graduation, and is referred to as transition planning.
Transition planning officially begins when a student turns 15, often coinciding with the beginning of high school. At this time, a transition plan becomes part of the IEP to ensure that the academic programming that students engage in aligns with long-term goals. As part of the IEP, transition plan decisions reflect input from the student, special educators, general educators, family members, and often the guidance counselor. Considering multiple perspectives in this process improves the comprehensiveness of the transition plan. For example, a student may be unsure of what they would like to do after graduation. Family members and teachers may be able to highlight student
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
By starting early in a student’s school career, the IEP team can help the student prepare for the transition from secondary school to life beyond school. Many students with SLD attend college, like this student, while others choose to directly enter the work force. As part of this student’s transition plan, her teachers worked with her to learn study skills and organizational skills to prepare for the pace of college learning.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
strengths for a guidance counselor to recommend potential jobs or areas of study. This collabora- tion helps ensure that students enroll in the appropriate courses and take advantage of aligned opportunities throughout high school. The purpose of a transition plan is not to prescribe what a student will do after graduation, but to ensure that students with disabilities are able to access and select from as many post-secondary opportunities as possible.
3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
General education teachers need to know how to use appropriate accommodations or mod-ifications to help students with SLD meet and exceed their classroom and IEP goals. Some general strategies are useful for teaching students with SLD, and specific strategies can help in teaching reading, writing, mathematics, and the content areas (e.g., science, social studies).
General Strategies Across preschool, elementary, and secondary levels, teachers can use general principles for teach- ing students with SLD. Some examples include the following:
• Teach goal-driven lessons; for example, a student follows steps to successfully com- plete a specific task (e.g., adding suffixes, writing a personal narrative, conducting a science experiment, multiplying decimals).
• Provide explicit instruction and modeling; for example, a teacher demonstrates a skill with students and then students practice that skill with the teacher.
• Break larger concepts and skills into manageable tasks; for example, a teacher teaches a unit on Europe by first focusing on geography.
• Include meaningful repetition and practice; for example, a teacher has students com- plete a variety of review activities across the school year related to division of fractions.
• Ask targeted questions; for example, a teacher asks specific questions, such as, “What elements make up water?” or “How did the characters become friends in this story?”
• Give feedback frequently; for example, as a student reads aloud, the teacher helps the student with each mispronunciation.
• Constantly analyze and use data to problem solve; for example, a teacher uses prog- ress monitoring data to determine if a student is responding to instruction.
• Increase instructional time; for example, a teacher uses the 10-minute break between lunch and art class to conduct a reading lesson.
• Teach in small groups; for example, a teacher breaks students into smaller groups to provide focused instruction.
Implementing these principles requires constant monitoring of progress to ensure that the teacher is taking the most influential actions to lead to desired student outcomes.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
Teaching organizational skills to students with SLD can further increase their likelihood of success. Helping students create organization systems can help them more readily access past information, improve completion of class assignments and homework, and build valuable habits and traits to prepare for future academic and career opportunities.
Instructing students on how to advocate on their own behalf (i.e., self-advocacy) is another way to increase their success. Students should know their rights under IDEA, what information is written in their IEP and how this contributes to their success, and the services they are entitled to. This information, along with a clear academic purpose, can help students know what to advocate for in their schooling.
Teachers need to motivate stu- dents with SLD in a way that instills confidence, since many students with SLD lack self-confidence or develop anxiety about academic work. Sometimes having a stu- dent work with a partner (instead of alone), work alone (instead of with a partner), choose what book to read or which problem to
complete, or break a large assignment into chunks can improve confidence. (Many of the prin- ciples of differentiation work well for improving student confidence; see Chapter 2.)
Focus on the positive; discourage students from saying negative things, such as “I’m not good at math,” so they can leave negative attitudes about subjects behind. Often, students hear negative comments about reading or math abilities at home from older siblings or parents. Students may develop learned helplessness if they are repeatedly exposed to negative feelings and thoughts related to learning and school. For example, if a student struggles with math facts and keeps performing badly on tests, the student may start to believe that he will not be able to improve his math skills at all. To combat learned helplessness, communicate with family members about building the student’s self-confidence.
For good examples of lessons that employ appropriate strategies for teaching students with SLD, Vaughn, Wanzek, Murray, and Roberts (2012) have put together a teacher-friendly document
. JLP/Jose L. Pelaez/Corbis
Strong communication between the home and school is important to ensuring long-term success for students. This communication is particularly useful when a student has an SLD, since it affects school performance and opportunities after the student leaves school. If the school communicates well with parents and guardians so that all can work together, the outcomes for the student may improve.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
in conjunction with the Center on Instruction. They focus on designing and delivering effective instruction for students with SLD.
Strategies for Teaching Reading The general strategies just discussed apply to teaching reading, writing, and mathematics to stu- dents with SLD. In addition, teachers can implement some effective practices that are specific to reading (Wanzek & Kent, 2012; Watson, Gable, Gear, & Hughes, 2012). Reading instruction for students with SLD should be strategic, targeted, and based on initial diagnostic data. Strategic instruction means the teacher has planned when to teach certain topics so the students build upon previously learned knowledge. Targeted instruction means the teacher should focus on one or two important concepts or skills before moving to the next lesson. Relevant diagnostic infor- mation should take into account student’s initial academic level and actual grade level to inform long-term and daily lesson plans. Reading instruction should include phonemic awareness (i.e., understanding individual sounds called phonemes), phonics (i.e., using phonemes to read and write), high frequency sight words (i.e., words that are difficult to decode such as “the,” “down,” and “because”), vocabulary words, and comprehension strategies.
Decoding skills, using phonemes to decipher words, are important to fluent reading and the resultant comprehension of text. Providing phonics instruction aligned to current reading level, repetition of high frequency grade level sight words, scaffolded instruction, and practice with appropriate text can improve a student’s ability to read text fluently and with ease. Knowledge of letter-sound correspondence and the skills of chunking and blending speech sounds can help students decode or “sound out” unknown words.
Pre-teaching of key vocabulary words in a text is another effective strategy. This allows students to understand the meaning of both the word alone, and, when encountered later, its use in the text, which ultimately leads to stronger comprehension. Explicit teaching of vocabulary can be done in sev- eral ways. Teachers can help students learn and retain meaning by using mnemonic devices, picture prompts, and physical motions when introducing vocabulary words. Students can be asked to identify word definitions and practice using the word in ways that result in meaningful, rather than rote, rep- etition. When choosing which vocabulary words to pre-teach, teachers should identify words that are important to the text’s central meaning and that will improve general spoken and written expression.
Strong readers use comprehension strategies (i.e., making connections, predicting, visualizing, questioning, and summarizing) to understand and create meaning out of text. Students with SLD can benefit from explicit instruction on these commonly-used reading comprehension strategies. These strategies should be first taught in isolation, and then used frequently to teach literary ele- ments of a text (e.g., character traits, plot, setting, etc.).
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
Table 3.1: Comprehension Strategies
Strategy Explanation Example
Making connections Student makes connections between text and the student’s self, another text, or the student’s world.
“When the girl lost the race, that reminded me of a time I saw a track person at the Olympics fall during a race. He was sad just like the girl in the story was sad.”
Predicting Students guess what happens next in the text and then check to see if their prediction comes true.
“I’m thinking the astronauts will fix the hole in the space ship’s engine and be able to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere.”
Visualizing Students create mental images to better understand text.
“I am imagining baby bear walking up the stairs to her bedroom to find Goldilocks tucked into a tiny bed with a blue quilt.”
Questioning Students ask questions (that they answer) to understand text.
“Who, What, When, and Where?”
Summarizing Student tells the main points of text in their own words.
“This story was about Ethan. He wanted a skateboard, and his Mom told him he needed to save money to buy the skateboard. Ethan raked leaves and mowed grass, and then he bought his skateboard.”
Comprehension instruction should occur at a student’s current reading level. Students should be able to fluently read a text and spend their energy understanding its meaning rather than decod- ing words. Some students with SLD are on an instructional reading level that is significantly below their current grade level. For example, a fourth-grade student may only be able to read fluently at a second-grade reading level; thus, the student needs to practice using comprehension strategies independently with materials at the second-grade level and with teacher support on materials at or closer to fourth-grade level. Teachers might support these students by reading text aloud so students can practice the skills on grade-appropriate material. Students can also participate in cross-grade tutoring (e.g., a fourth-grade student reads with a first-grade student) to help improve the reading and comprehension skills of the student with an SLD.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
Strategies for Teaching Writing and Spelling Like students with reading difficulties, those who struggle with writing and spelling require spe- cific instruction. Research in writing shows that self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) is a helpful approach for increasing the writing skills of students with SLD (Sandmel et al., 2009). Because writing is an individual task, self-regulation can help keep students on track and check- ing their work (Graham, Harris, & Hebert, 2011). Teachers using SRSD show students how to monitor their own writing progress by following prompts and checking their writing.
Students who struggle with writing often find it difficult to generate the content for writing or to appropriately revise what they have written. SRSD makes the brainstorming process to generate content and the actual writing much more accessible for students with an SLD. It consists of six basic stages of instruction. Teachers activate background knowledge, discuss the strategy, model it, help students memorize the strategy, provide supported practice, and provide independent practice (Mason, Harris, & Graham, 2011).
1. Activate background knowledge. Teachers learn how much students already know about a topic, and they remind students of important writing strategies they already have learned.
2. Discuss the strategy. Teachers discuss a specific writing strategy, such as POW or TREE. 3. Model it. Teachers show students how to use the strategy for writing. 4. Help students memorize the strategy. Teachers help the students memorize the strat-
egy and figure out when the strategy can be used.
From My Perspective: Teaching Reading My name is Devin, and I do research to learn more about SLD in reading. Children with reading disabilities have a very hard time understanding how to sound out the words on the page. Their reading is often slow and inaccurate.
As a reading teacher, I once observed a fourth grader trying to sound out a word; as he did it, he looked at the ceiling instead of the text. It was a fascinating moment. Why would he do that? My answer: He doesn’t trust the English alphabetic sys- tem to help him process the word. He figures he might as well look at the ceiling, because the printed word is not going to help at all!
Of course, we all know that English is a messy language. The letters don’t match the sounds perfectly. Consider all the things ough can say, in rough, though, through, thought, and plough. However, English is more consistent than we often give it credit for. It has what Perfetti (2003) calls “exceptional regularities.”
As a teacher of children with reading disabilities, here are two things you can do for your students. First, help students believe in the letters. Don’t tell them English is messy and hard to learn. That hurts their confidence and makes them ignore the regularities. Second, teach your students the regularities using phonics. Slowly introduce them to more complex patterns so they believe in the letters and also realize that they must pay attention to more than one letter at a time. For example, SH says /sh/; C says /k/ or /s/, depending on the letter that follows it.
If you do these things, your students with reading disability will improve in their reading. Speed may always be difficult for them, but if you help them believe in the letters, their accuracy will certainly improve.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
From My Perspective: Teaching Writing My name is Michael, and I study ways to teach writing to students who struggle with it; many students who have learning disabilities find it difficult. These students often lack knowledge about the fea- tures of good writing. For example, they may not understand that a good persuasive essay includes reasons that support a belief. These students also fail to plan and organize their writing, and often have trouble with the mechanics of writing, such as spelling, punctuation, and handwriting.
Researchers have found that teaching writing strategies is one of the most effective ways to help students with these issues. Writing strat- egies can help students learn to plan, revise, or edit their writing by systematically teaching them steps they can use independently. For example, one strategy for teaching students to write persuasive essays is called TREE. The mnemonic TREE stands for: (continued)
Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock
5. Provide supported practice. As students write, teachers support their efforts and provide real-time feedback.
6. Provide independent practice. Students write and receive teacher feedback after the writ- ing occurs.
In their writing activities, students can use several mnemonics to remember the components of SRSD: POW, WWW, and TREE.
POW: Pick my idea, Organize my notes, Write and say more.
WWW: Who, When, Where
TREE: Topic sentence, Reasons, Explain, Ending
Students need to learn how to apply the chosen strategy (e.g., POW, WWW, or TREE) for each of the main types of writing (often classified as narrative, expository, and persuasive). They also need instruction on how to improve their writing by making more effective word choices and by learn- ing appropriate revision techniques. When teachers teach writing through SRSD’s six principles, students with SLD find it easier to approach a task that is usually difficult.
Another basic component of good writing is the correct spelling of words. Many students with reading or writing SLD struggle with spelling. As it has in other academic areas, explicit instruction has proven to be effective for improving the spelling skill of students with SLD (Sayeski, 2011). This instruction should include studying and practicing spelling by saying the word, writing and say- ing the word, checking the spelling, tracing and saying the word, and then writing the word from memory. It is important that teachers provide corrective feedback at each point that students make a spelling mistake.
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
Tips for the General Classroom Use MORE:
• Monitor student understanding and academic achievement. • Organize instruction that is clear and that logically scaffolds understanding. • Reinforce students’ ability to advocate for what they need in the classroom. • Explicitly state all directions for what and how students should complete tasks.
From My Perspective: Teaching Writing (continued)
• Topic sentence, • Reasons (3 or more), • Explanations for the reasons, and • Ending (conclusion).
Teachers model how students can use the TREE strategy to write down notes to plan what they will include in their essay before they write it. The mnemonic helps students remember the parts they need to include, while the notes provide a record of their ideas if they forget them when they get immersed in the mechanics of writing. Although researchers and teachers agree that good writing doesn’t always fit a formula, strategies like TREE can help students begin to get their ideas on paper.
When teaching a writing strategy to students who struggle with writing, it is important to model the strat- egy, provide plenty of guided practice, and support them until they can use the strategy independently.
Peer tutoring in spelling is helpful. Peer tutoring occurs when students (i.e., peers) are paired together to work on academic tasks. When educators structure peer tutoring, they often pair a stronger student with a weaker student. The students work together in a structured way (i.e., one student is the tutor and the other is the tutee). Students switch roles throughout the peer tutoring session. With peer tutoring, feedback can be provided immediately, so spelling errors are corrected and the student learns from the mistakes.
Mnemonics and rules can also be helpful when improving spelling skills. For example, if a student cannot remember how to spell “because,” the student can use the mnemonic “Big Elephants Can Always Understand Small Elephants.” To remember how to spell “bodily,” a student could learn the rule that “y” always changes to “i” when adding a suffix. Teachers need to focus on important rules, however, and limit the number of rules students are responsible for learning.
Strategies for Teaching Mathematics In mathematics, instruction for students with SLD needs to focus on developing both conceptual and procedural knowledge (Miller & Hudson, 2007). Procedural knowledge deals with the steps necessary to complete a problem, such as 307 – 179. Conceptual knowledge deals with under- standing concepts necessary to complete a problem. Researchers believe that explicit instruction
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
that incorporates the concrete-representational-abstract sequence is beneficial for students with mathematics SLD (Kroesbergen, Van Luit, & Maas, 2004; Miller & Hudson, 2006; Witzel, Riccomini, & Schneider, 2008). Explicit instruction focused on strategies has also proven beneficial (Iseman & Naglieri, 2011; Xin, Jitendra, & Deatline-Buchman, 2005).
The concrete-representational-abstract (CRA) sequence helps students connect concepts to pro- cedures. The “concrete” involves explaining a new concept with hands-on materials. Math manip- ulatives are hands-on tools (e.g., fraction tiles, bean counters, or algebra tiles) that students can use to understand concepts. The concrete materials give students an opportunity to touch and manipulate math problems with the hope that this manipulation will help students understand abstract concepts.
At the “representational” stage in the concrete-representational-abstract sequence, students work with pictures or drawings of the concrete materials to help in their transition away from the “hands-on” and toward problems on paper. Tallies or shapes can be drawn on paper. Many images can be copied from the internet and printed out for student use.
At the “abstract” stage, students should be solving problems written with numbers and symbols on paper. If the students participated in appropriate practice at the concrete and representational states, working in the abstract should be easier. Note that the CRA sequence does not have to be practiced sequentially. For example, teachers often practice with students using manipulatives (i.e., concrete) and then show them the problems using numbers and symbols on paper (i.e., abstract).
To increase a student’s procedural knowledge in math, students need to have problems broken into steps. One way to teach multiple steps is through strategy instruction, which involves teaching students a strategy, or set of steps, to solve certain problems. Mnemonics help students remem- ber strategies, as do simplified steps. Strategies are often used for mathematical problems that involve multiple steps or types of mathematics. An example of a mnemonic strategy that may help students solve a computation problem is the DRAW strategy.
Discover the sign. (Determine the math operation.)
Read the problem. (Read the problem silently or aloud.)
Answer. (Figure out the answer.)
Write the answer.
In addition to the teaching strategies mentioned above, students need to develop fluency with counting and basic facts. Students should be able to fluently count forward (from any starting number) and understand that counting tells you the amount of a set. Students also need to develop fluency with the basic facts, the set of 390 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- sion problems that, when memorized, make solving all higher-level math problems easier.
Lots of authentic practice activities are helpful with developing fluency with the basic facts. The best approach is to practice facts with the student in a way that immediate, corrective feedback can be provided if the student makes a mistake. Practice on paper is not that helpful if the stu- dent’s mistakes are not corrected in a meaningful way. Flash cards are helpful for practice, as are computer-based activities that allow students to practice facts through various games. Teaching students strategies (e.g., counting forward) is also a good way to increase fact fluency (Powell, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2011).
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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 How Do I Teach Students With SLD?
From My Perspective: Teaching Mathematics Hi! My name is Sarah, and I work with kids who have math- ematics disabilities. Most of my work has been with students in grades 1–3. Many of the students I’ve worked with struggle with solving what you would consider “easy” problems. For example, when presented with the problem 3 + 4, students don’t automatically know the answer is 7. Some students may just guess an answer; other students may count out 3 on one hand and 4 on their other hand and then count 7 fingers altogether. While this strategy provides the correct answer, it’s inefficient, and it slows students down if they’re trying to solve a problem like 153 + 74.
Researchers have determined that explicit instruction on mathematical concepts and procedures is very helpful for kids with SLD. For example, to help students improve their knowledge of number com- binations (e.g., 3 + 4), teachers should teach students the concept of adding two amounts. Teachers use manipulatives, such as blocks, and ask students to show each addend (e.g., 3 and 4) with the blocks. Then the teacher prompts the student to push the blocks together (to demonstrate addition) and count the total number of blocks.
Researchers have also learned that practicing addition number combinations on flashcards is an effec- tive way to build student’s fluency with number combinations. The more times a student practices 3 + 4, the better chance the student has to commit the number combination to memory.
It is important that we help elementary students as soon as we see that they are having difficulty with mathematics concepts or procedures. The earlier we can help these students, the better chance they have to avoid lifelong mathematical deficits and anxiety about math!
Comstock Images/Thinkstock
Strategies for Teaching in the Content Areas Many students who have SLD in reading, writing, or mathematics find that those disabilities affect their performance in content areas (e.g., science, history, geography). Most of the general strate- gies and skill-specific strategies outlined for teaching reading, writing, spelling, and math should benefit students who experience difficulties in content classes.
Peer tutoring can also be used when students are assigned readings in science or history classes. Both the stronger and weaker students who participate in peer tutoring benefit from the one-on-one interaction and, often, students explain concepts to other students in more meaningful ways than a teacher can.
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CHAPTER 3Wrap-Up
Case Study: Determining Appropriate Instruction Based on an IEP Jordan is a third-grade student in your general education reading class. Jordan’s IEP states that he has a Specific Learning Disability in reading, with specific difficulties in reading words. According to his present levels of performance, Jordan is significantly behind and is currently on a first-grade reading level. His goal is to grow 1.5 years in reading by the next IEP meeting. Additional information in the IEP shows that Jordan has strong interpersonal skills, gets along well with his classmates, and enjoys classroom jobs/responsibilities. He is generally invested in doing well and gets very excited when he answers questions correctly.
Jordan typically struggles to follow along during reading instruction and often answers comprehen- sion questions incorrectly. This often turns into disengagement or misbehavior during instruction. Your school uses a reading curriculum that all third-grade teachers must follow and most of the texts are on grade level. It is frustrating at times to know that one of the reasons Jordan is off-task is because the material is too difficult.
After Jordan’s IEP was written, he began receiving additional reading instruction with a special edu- cation teacher for one hour at the end of each day. This instruction occurs outside of the general education class, in a small group setting. You and the special education teacher have not found a system to regularly communicate what Jordan is working on during this time, and he is consistently failing his weekly comprehension assessments. This is a concern for both you and the special educa- tion teacher, so you decide to meet and determine what instruction should look like in the general and special setting based on Jordan’s IEP.
Questions to Consider:
First, consider what your contribution might have been at the earlier IEP meeting, as the general edu- cation teacher. What would you have contributed to planning the types of instruction Jordan would receive from the special education teacher during the daily one-hour time block, as well as during the time with you in the general classroom? Now, consider the suggestions you will make to the special education teacher when you meet again.
1. Should she focus on practicing and reviewing skills from the daily reading lesson, using third- grade material? Why or why not?
2. Should she focus on improving Jordan’s word reading abilities through phonics instruction, using first-grade material? Why or why not?
3. Should she use some combination of both? Something completely different? What could this small group instruction look like?
Wrap-Up
• SLD is one of the 13 disability categories as outlined by IDEA 2004. An SLD can occur in the areas of oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, and/or mathematics reasoning.
• Even though physicians described students with average intelligence who had difficulty with academics more than 100 years ago, SLD has only been recognized as a disability for the last half century. The term “learning disability” was coined by Dr. Samuel Kirk, and the first federal definition was presented in the Children with Specific Learning Dis- abilities Act of 1969.
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CHAPTER 3Post-Test
• Students with SLD may struggle with reading, oral language, writing, and/or math- ematics. Students with SLD may also have difficulty with focus, attention, and organization.
• Researchers have not pinpointed one distinct cause for SLD. Possible causes include difficulties with how the brain stores and retrieves information, inherited traits, and environmental factors.
• SLD can be diagnosed by using the IQ/achievement discrepancy model or RTI. Critics of the IQ/achievement model charge that schools wait for students to fail before provid- ing appropriate services. With RTI, students work through tiers of instruction, and SLD is diagnosed when students demonstrate nonresponse to instructional tiers.
• Students with SLD should receive specialized instruction across preschool through sec- ondary school. Schools need to develop appropriate transition plans for students based on the student’s career goals.
• Many instructional strategies can help improve the academic performance of students with SLD. Teachers can use strategies specific to reading, writing, mathematics, or the content areas, and teachers can also use general strategies that may work across aca- demic areas.
Post-Test
1. Which do students with SLD struggle with? a. Reading comprehension b. Mathematics problem solving c. Spelling d. Reading, writing, spelling, listening, and/or mathematics
2. Before IDEA, students with SLD were often identified under which category? a. Mental retardation b. Autism c. Developmental delay d. Impairment
3. Why is brain research important for learning about SLD? a. Parent and child brains are similar. b. fMRI scans can show the intelligence of a student. c. The brain controls how information is received, stored, and produced. d. The brain controls how well a student performs on a standardized assessment.
4. What method of identification of SLD was most prevalent until IDEA 2004? a. Response to intervention b. IQ/achievement discrepancy c. Teacher referral d. Standardized assessment
5. Why do some favor RTI over the IQ/achievement discrepancy model? a. Students are recognized as individuals with RTI. b. RTI lessens the effect of inappropriate instruction or test bias. c. RTI decreases the number of students with an SLD. d. RTI has more research support.
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CHAPTER 3Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test
6. How many tiers are necessary for an RTI model to be successful? a. 3 b. 5 c. 4 d. Number of tiers is flexible
7. Which part of RTI is mandatory? a. Progress monitoring b. Three tiers c. Ten weeks of Tier 2 tutoring d. Special education as Tier 3
8. When are students typically identified with an SLD? a. Preschool b. Elementary school c. Middle school d. High school
9. Which practice is most cited in special education research as effective for students with SLD? a. Using manipulatives. b. Using graphic organizers. c. Using explicit instruction. d. Using technology.
10. Why is peer tutoring beneficial for students with SLD? a. It can only be used to improve reading skills. b. It pairs two students with SLD together. c. It provides a framework where a student with SLD has a tutor the entire time. d. It allows for immediate, corrective feedback.
Answers: 1 (d); 2 (a); 3 (c); 4 (b); 5 (b); 6 (d); 7 (a); 8 (b); 9 (c); 10 (d)
Discussion Questions
1. Some people say that SLD is not a “real” disability because of the issues surrounding identification. What do you think?
2. Your school puts you in charge of designing an RTI framework. What basic principles will you include?
3. What types of activities could you use to teach a student with an SLD in reading and mathematics?
Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test
1. True. SLD was one of the original disability categories as outlined by PL 94-142 in 1975. 2. False. Many students with an SLD struggle with more than one academic area (e.g.,
reading and writing; mathematics and reading).
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CHAPTER 3Acronyms Used in Chapter 3
3. False. Some students with SLD may have a family member who also has an SLD, which indicates a genetic connection regarding SLD. Many students, however, do not have a family history of SLD.
4. False. Some districts may choose to administer an intelligence test and an academic assessment, but many schools favor using RTI for the identification of students with an SLD.
5. True. Students with SLD require additional instruction that is specialized to fit their needs.
Additional Resources
• This site has excellent resources about LD and ADHD. www.ldonline.org
• This site, from the Learning Disabilities Association of America, provides information for parents and teachers of students with LD. www.ldaamerica.org
• The Council for Learning Disabilities provides information for teachers of students with LD. www.cldinternational.org
• The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides information for parents and teach- ers of students with LD. http://www.ncld.org
• This site from the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities provides information on LD and RTI. www.nrcld.org
• The National Center for Response to Intervention provides resources for progress moni- toring and instruction within an RTI framework. www.rti4success.org
• The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University has many excellent modules for understanding and teaching students with various disabilities. iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu
Acronyms Used in Chapter 3
Acronym Definition
ADHD Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
DRAW Discover the sign, Read the problem, Answer, Write the answer
IDEA 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
IEP Individualized Education Program
fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MORE Monitor, Organize, Reinforce, Explicitly
NCLB No Child Left Behind
PL 94-142 Education of All Handicapped Children Act
(continued)
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CHAPTER 3Key Terms
Acronym Definition
POW Pick my idea, Organize my notes, Write and say more
RTI Response to Intervention
SLD Specific Learning Disabilities
SRSD Self-Regulated Strategy Development
TREE Topic sentence, Reasons, Explain, Ending
WWW Who, When, Where
Key Terms
Acronyms Used in Chapter 3 (continued)
blending Combining phonemes into words.
comorbid disability A disability that occurs at the same time as another disability.
decoding Breaking words into phonemes, the smallest unit of sounds.
developmental delay When a child does not meet typical developmental benchmarks, such as gross- and fine-motor skills or speech and hearing skills.
encoding Spelling words by sight or spelling by breaking a word into phonemes.
learned helplessness The attitude of students who repeatedly experience negative feelings and thoughts related to their abilities, and the students start to believe that they are not capable of improving those abilities.
long-term memory Information that the brain stores for future use.
paraprofessional An aide or assistant who knows how to work with students. They have often received certification as a paraprofes- sional, but they are not certified teachers.
peer tutoring When students (i.e., peers) are paired together to work on academic tasks.
progress monitoring Assessing a student’s progress in reading, mathematics, writing, or spelling competency with a test that is brief, quick to score, and administered regularly (e.g., weekly).
Response to Intervention (RIT) A method for identifying students with SLD that measures student responsiveness in the general class- room and with small-group or individualized instruction.
short-term memory Information kept in the brain temporarily. The information has not been committed to long-term memory.
specific learning disability (SLD) A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological pro- cesses (i.e., thinking, problem solving, remem- bering) used in receiving, understanding, storing, and responding to information.
working memory Small pieces of information the brain works with. The information may come from short-term or long-term memory.
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CHAPTER 3References
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