U8D1-68 - Data Analysis Strategies Reviewed by Peers - Please follow the instructions as outlined below. See attachments for readings.

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texts, blogs, and videos) and reported use of a computer program in published papers (Gibbs, 2014) may make the decision easier for some. Resources have been developed specifically for giving an overview of the use of computer software programs in qualitative analysis (e.g., Kuckartz, 2014; Silver & Lewins, 2014). In this way, you can access the views of researchers about uses and experiences using software.

In Figure 8.4, we advance five questions for guiding whether to use a computer program for qualitative analysis: existing expertise in qualitative analysis; current level of proficiency with any programs; complexity of the study database; necessary program features for addressing study purpose; and configuration of the study researchers. These criteria can be used to identify whether using a computer program will meet a researcher’s needs.

Figure 8.4 Five Questions to Guide Whether to Use a Computer Program for Qualitative Analysis

A Sampling of Computer Programs and Features There are many computer programs available for analysis; some have been developed by individuals on campuses, and some are available for commercial purchase. Several texts offer useful resources for reading about available computer programs; for example, Silver and Lewins (2014) describe seven different programs, and Weitzman and Miles (1995) review 24 programs. It is important to compare these programs in light of the differing logistics, functions, and features of the different approaches (see Table 11.1 in Guest, Namey, & Mitchell, 2013). We highlight four commercial programs that are popular and that we have examined closely (see Creswell, 2012; Creswell & Maietta, 2002)—MAXQDA, ATLAS.ti, NVivo, and HyperRESEARCH. We have intentionally left out the version numbers and have presented a general discussion of the programs because the developers are continually upgrading the programs.

MAXQDA (http://www.maxqda.com).

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MAXQDA is a computer software program that helps the researcher to systematically evaluate and interpret qualitative texts. It is also a powerful tool for developing theories and testing theoretical conclusions. The main menu has four windows: the data, the code or category system, the text being analyzed, and the results of basic and complex searches. It uses a hierarchical code system, and the researcher can attach a weight score to a text segment to indicate the relevance of the segment. Memos can be easily written and stored as different types of memos (e.g., theory memos or methodological memos). It has a visual mapping feature for producing different types of conceptual maps representing theoretical associations, empirical relations, and data dependencies. Data can be exported to statistical programs, such as SPSS or Excel, and the software can import Excel or SPSS programs as well. Multiple coders on a particular project easily use it to collaborate. Images and video segments can also be stored and coded in this program. The mobile companion, MAXApp, allows researchers to use smartphones for data gathering, coding, and memoing, which can be directly transferred for further analysis. MAXQDA is distributed by VERBI Software in Germany. The Corbin and Strauss (2015) book contains an extensive illustration of the use of the software program MAXQDA to discuss grounded theory and a demonstration program is available to learn more about the unique features of this program.

ATLAS.ti (http://www.atlasti.com).

This program enables you to organize your text, graphic, audio, and visual data files, along with your coding, memos, and findings, into a project. Further, you can code, annotate, and compare segments of information. You can drag and drop codes within an interactive margin screen. You can rapidly search, retrieve, and browse all data segments and notes relevant to an idea and, importantly, build unique visual networks that allow you to connect visually selected passages, memos, and codes in a concept map. Data can be exported to programs such as SPSS, HTML, XML, and CSV. This program also allows for a group of researchers to work on the same project and make comparisons of how each researcher coded the data. Freise (2014) offers a useful resource specific to the features offered by ATLAS.ti, and a demonstration software package is available to test out this program, which is described by and available from Scientific Software Development in Germany.

NVivo (http://www.qsrinternational.com).

NVivo is the latest version of software from QSR International. NVivo combines the features of the popular software program N6 (or NUD*IST 6) and NVivo 2.0. NVivo helps analyze, manage, shape, and analyze qualitative data. Its streamlined look makes it easy to use. It provides security by storing the database and files together in a single file, enables a researcher to use multiple languages, has a merge function for team research, and enables the researcher to easily manipulate the data and conduct searches. Further, it can display graphically the codes and categories. NCapture enables handling of social media data including profile data from Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. A good overview of the evolution of the software from N6 to NVivo is available from Bazeley (2002) and a resource specific to using NVivo (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013). NVivo is distributed by QSR International in Australia. A demonstration copy is available to see and try out the features of this software program.

HyperRESEARCH (http://www.researchware.com).

This program is an easy-to-use qualitative software package enabling you to code and retrieve, build theories, and conduct analyses of the data. Now with advanced multimedia and language capabilities, HyperRESEARCH allows the researcher to work with text, graphics, audio, and video sources—making it a valuable research analysis tool. HyperRESEARCH is a solid code-and-retrieve data analysis program, with additional theory- building features provided by the Hypothesis Tester. This program also allows the researcher to draw visual diagrams, and it now has a module that can be added, called HyperTRANSCRIBE that will allow researchers to create a transfer of video and audio data. This program, developed by Researchware, is available in the United States.

Additional programs to consider:

1. Commercial software programs

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QDA Miner: http://provalisresearch.com QDA Miner, developed by Provalis, was designed as qualitative software for mixed methods research.

Qualrus: http://www.qualrus.com Qualrus, developed by Idea Works, designed for managing and analyzing text, multimedia, and webpages.

Transana: http://www.transana.org Transana, developed by University of Wisconsin–Madison, for the qualitative analysis of video, audio data, and still images.

2. Open source software programs: Open code: http//www.phmed.umu.se/English/edpidemology/research/open-code

Open code, developed by Umea University in Sweden, was intended to follow the first steps of the grounded theory approach.

3. Web-based software: Dedoose: www.dedoose.com

Dedoose, developed by SocioCultural Research Consultants, to meet the needs of research teams for working in real time.

Use of Computer Software Programs With the Five Approaches After reviewing all of these computer programs, we see several ways that they can facilitate qualitative data analysis across the five approaches. Computer programs assist in the following:

Storing and organizing diverse forms of qualitative data. The programs provide a convenient way to store qualitative data. Data are stored in document files (files converted from a word processing program to DOS, ASCII, or RTF files in some programs). These document files consist of information from one discrete unit of information such as a transcript from one interview, one set of observational notes, or one article scanned from a newspaper. For all five of the approaches to qualitative inquiry, the document could be one interview, one observation, or one image document and easily identifiable within the database. Locating and sorting text or image segments associated with a code or theme. When using a computer program, the researcher goes through the text or images one line or image at a time and asks, “What is the person saying (or doing) in this passage?” Then the researcher assigns a code label using the words of the participant, employing social or human science terms, or composing a term that seems to relate to the situation. After reviewing many pages or images, the researcher can use the search function of the program to locate all the text or image segments that fit a code label. In this way, the researcher can easily see how participants are discussing the code or theme in a similar or different way. Retrieving and reviewing common passages or segments that relate to two or more code labels. The search process can be extended to include two or more code labels. For example, the code label “two-parent family” might be combined with “females” to yield text segments in which women are discussing a “two- parent family.” Alternatively, “two-parent family” might be combined with “males” to generate text segments in which men talk about the “two-parent family.” The co-occurrence features highlight the frequency of the double coding. After reviewing the frequency of these code combinations, the researcher can use the search function of the program to search for specific words to see how frequently they occur in the texts. In this way, the researcher can create new codes or possible themes based on the frequency of the use of specific words describing the focus for each of the approaches—for example, patterns among story elements for narrative research, significant statements for phenomenology, properties representing multiple perspectives for grounded theory, group thought and behavior for ethnography, and instances for case study. Comparing and relating among code labels. If the researcher makes both of these requests about females and males, data then exist for making comparisons among the responses of females and males on their views about the “two-parent family.” The computer program thus enables a researcher to interrogate the database about the interrelationship among codes or categories. In this way, the researcher can easily

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retrieve the relevant data segments associated with these codes and categories during the development of themes, models, and abstractions relevant for each approach. Supporting the researcher to conceptualize different levels of abstraction. The process of qualitative data analysis, as discussed earlier in this chapter, starts with the researcher analyzing the raw data (e.g., interviews), forming the data into codes, and then combining the codes into broader themes. These themes can be and often are “headings” used in a qualitative study. The software programs provide a means for organizing codes hierarchically so that smaller units, such as codes, can be placed under larger units, such as themes. In NVivo, the concept of children and parent codes illustrates two levels of abstraction. In this way, the computer program helps the researcher to build levels of analysis and see the relationship between the raw data and the broader themes. Thus, contributing to the development of the story for narrative research, the description of the essence in phenomenology, the theory in grounded theory, cultural interpretation in ethnography, and the case assertions in case study. Representing and visualizing codes and themes. Many computer programs contain the feature of concept mapping, charts, and cluster analyses so that the user can generate a visual diagram of the codes and themes and their interrelationships. In this way, the researcher can continually moved around and reorganize these codes and themes under new categories of information as the project progresses. Also, keeping track of the different versions of the diagrams creates an audit trail comprising of a log of the analytic process that can be revisited as needed (see Chapter 10 for further discussion). Documenting and managing memos into codes. Computer programs provide the capability to write and store memos associated with different units of data—for example, segments of text or images, codes, files, and the overall project. In this way, the researcher can begin to create the codebook or qualitative report during data analysis or simply record insights as they emerge. Creating and applying templates for coding data within each of the five approaches. The researcher can establish a preset list of codes that match the data analysis procedure within the approach of choice. Then, as data are reviewed during computer analysis, the researcher can identify information that fits into the codes or write memos that become codes. As shown in Figures 8.5 through 8.9, Creswell (2013) initially created these templates for coding within each approach that fit the general structure in analyzing data within the approach. He developed these codes as a hierarchical picture, but they could be drawn as circles or in a less linear fashion. Hierarchical organization of codes is the approach often used in the concept- mapping feature of software programs.

Figure 8.5 Template for Coding a Narrative Study

In narrative research (see Figure 8.5), we create codes that relate to the story, such as the chronology, the plot or the three-dimensional space model, and the themes that might arise from the story. The analysis might proceed using the plot structure approach or the three-dimensional model, but we placed both in the figure to provide the most options for analysis. The researcher will not know what approach to use until he or she actually starts the

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data analysis process. The researcher might develop a code, or “story,” and begin writing out the story based on the elements analyzed.

In the template for coding a phenomenological study (see Figure 8.6), we used the categories mentioned earlier in data analysis. We placed codes for epoche or bracketing (if this is used), significant statements, meaning units, and textural and structural descriptions (which both might be written as memos). The code at the top, “essence of the phenomenon,” is written as a memo about the “essence” that will become the essence description in the final written report. In the template for coding a grounded theory study (see Figure 8.7), we included the three major coding phases: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. We also included a code for the conditional matrix if that feature is used by the grounded theorist. The researcher can use the code at the top, “theory description or visual model,” to create a visual model of the process that is linked to this code.

In the template for coding an ethnography (see Figure 8.8), we included a code that might be a memo or reference to text about the theoretical lens used in the ethnography, codes on the description of the culture and an analysis of themes, a code on field issues, and a code on interpretation. The code at the top, “cultural portrait of culture-sharing group—‘how it works,’” can be a code in which the ethnographer writes a memo summarizing the major cultural rules that pertain to the group. Finally, in the template for coding a case study (see Figure 8.9), we chose a multiple case study to illustrate the precode specification. For each case, codes exist for the context and description of the case. Also, we advanced codes for themes within each case, and for themes that are similar and different in cross-case analysis. Finally, we included codes for assertions and generalizations across all cases.

Figure 8.6 Template for Coding a Phenomenological Study

Figure 8.7 Template for Coding a Grounded Theory Study

Figure 8.8 Template for Coding an Ethnography

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Figure 8.9 Template for Coding a Case Study (Using a Multiple or Collective Case Approach)

How to Choose Among the Computer Programs With different programs available, decisions need to be made about the proper choice of a qualitative software program. Basically, all of the programs provide similar features, and some have more features than others. Many of the programs have a demonstration copy available at their websites so that you can examine and try out the program for ease and fit. Also, guiding resources for specific programs are now available and other researchers can be approached who have used the program. In this way, you can draw upon the views and experiences of other researchers about the software. In 2002, Creswell and Maietta reviewed several computer programs using eight criteria. In Figure 8.10, we present expanded criteria for selecting a program: the ease of use; the diversity of data file formats it accepts; the capability to read and search text; the memo-writing functions; coding and reviewing; sorting and categorization features; diagramming functions, such as concept mapping; importing and exporting files; support for multiple researchers and merging different databases; and storage and security. These criteria can be used to identify a computer program that will meet a researcher’s needs.

Figure 8.10 Nine Features to Consider When Comparing Qualitative Data Analysis Software

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Adapted from Creswell & Maietta (2002), Qualitative Research. In D.C. Miller & N.J. Salkind (Eds.), Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement (pp. 167–168). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Chapter Check-In

1. Do you see the similarities and differences in how the authors describe data analysis procedures within their published qualitative studies? Select two of the qualitative articles presented in Appendices B through F.

1. Begin with identifying evidence of the five data analysis spiral activities (summarized in Table 8.3) as they have been applied in each of the journal articles. Note which elements are easy to identify and which are more difficult to identify.

2. Then compare the descriptions for each of the data analysis activities across the articles. Note which elements are similar and which are different.

2. What general coding strategies can you use to practice coding text to develop an analysis within one of the five approaches?

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1. To conduct this practice, obtain a short text file, which may be a transcript of an interview, field notes typed from an observation, or a digital file of a document, such as a newspaper article.

2. Next, read and assign memos by bracketing large text segments and asking yourself the following questions: 1. What is the content being discussed in the text? 2. What would you expect to find in the database? 3. What surprising information did you not expect to find? 4. What information is conceptually interesting or unusual to participants?

3. Develop and assign code labels to the text segments using information in this chapter and guided by such questions as the following:

1. What codes would be expected to fit? 2. What new codes are emergent? 3. What codes relate to other data sources?

4. Finally, revisit the segments assigned to each of the codes label and consider which ones might be useful in forming themes in your study.

3. What general coding strategies can you use to practice coding images to develop an analysis within one of the five approaches?

1. To conduct this practice, obtain pictures from one of your projects or select pictures from magazine articles and prepare a digital file.

2. Next examine the imagine and assign memos by asking yourself the following questions: 1. What is in the picture? 2. Why, when, how, and by whom was it produced? 3. What meanings does the image convey?

3. Develop and assign code labels to the image using information in this chapter and guided by such questions as the following:

1. What codes would be expected to fit? 2. What new codes are emergent? 3. What codes relate to other data sources?

4. Finally, revisit the image segments assigned to each of the code labels and consider which ones might be useful in forming themes in your study.

4. What considerations should guide your use of qualitative data analysis software? 1. Using a qualitative study you want to pursue, apply the questions advanced in this chapter to guide whether to

use a computer program (see Figure 8.4). 2. Using the questions to consider when comparing qualitative data analysis software in this chapter (see Figure

8.10), select a computer program or two that best fits your study needs. 3. Go to the website of the selected computer programs, and find the demonstration program and resources to help

you get started. 4. Try out the program. If possible, input a small database to try out the program features related to memoing,

coding, sorting, retrieving, and diagramming. 5. Now, you might experiment with demonstrations from different software programs. Consider which one has the

features that work best for you. Why?

Summary

This chapter presented data analysis and representation. We began by revisiting ethical considerations specific to data analysis followed by a review of procedures advanced by three authors and noted the common features of coding, developing themes, and providing a visual representation of the data. We also noted some of the differences among their approaches. We then advanced a spiral of analysis that captured the general process. This spiral contained aspects of using data management and organization; reading and memoing emergent ideas; describing and classifying codes into themes; developing and assessing interpretations; and representing and visualizing data. We next introduced each of the five approaches to inquiry and discussed how they had unique data analysis steps beyond the “generic” steps of the spiral. Finally, we described how computer programs aid in the analysis and representation of data; discussed criteria guiding how to decide whether to use and features specific to four programs; presented common features of using computer software and templates for coding each of the five approaches to inquiry; and ended with information about criteria for choosing a computer software program.

Further Readings

Several readings extend this brief overview introduction to data analysis, beginning with general resources and then specific for using qualitative data analysis software. The list should not be considered exhaustive, and readers are encouraged to seek

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out additional readings in the end-of-book reference list.

For Information About Procedures and Issues in Qualitative Data Analysis Bazeley, P. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: Practical strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pat Bazeley provides a comprehensive description of analysis including illustrative examples of her practical strategies. This book should be essential reading because of its usefulness for a researcher at any level of expertise.

Flick, U. (Ed.). (2014). The SAGE handbook of qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Handbooks offer diverse perspectives on a common theme as a starting place. Uwe Flick provides guidance about the basics of qualitative research, analytic strategies, and specific types of data.

Grbich, C. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Carol Grbich uses the background a researcher needs, the processes involved in research, and the displays used for presenting findings on which to organize this easy-to-read book. Noteworthy is her practical explanations related to coding (Chapter 21) and theorizing from data (Chapter 23).

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2012). Qualitative inquiry in clinical and educational settings. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

In this foundational qualitative research text, Danico Hays and Anneliese Singh embed useful pedagogical features such as cautionary notes about possible research pitfalls. In particular, we found the data management and analysis descriptions and examples to be helpful.

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

In this edition, Johnny Saldaña has updated Matthew B. Miles and A. Michael Huberman’s seminal resource. In so doing, he has expanded the scope to include (among others) narrative inquiry and autoethnography. This text is a must-read for researchers.

Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

In this classical work, Harry Wolcott describes the process of data analysis and representation using nine studies. He makes the case for the need for a good written description as a study outcome.

For Information About Procedures and Issues About the Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software Bazeley, P., & Jackson, K. (2013). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pat Bazeley and Kristi Jackson provide a comprehensive guide using examples to illustrate the use of NVivo features for getting started, coding, interpreting, and diagramming.

Friese, S. (2014). Qualitative data analysis with ATLAS.ti (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Susanne Friese provides a step-by-step guide for using ATLAS.ti based on a method for QDAS involving noticing things, collecting things, and thinking about things.

Kuckartz, U. (2014). Qualitative text analysis: A guide to methods, practice and using software. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Udo Kuckartz, developer of MAXQDA, provides a good grounding in three types of qualitative text analysis—thematic, evaluative, and type-building—in addition to how computer analysis software can be embedded in the analysis process.

Silver, C., & Lewins, A. (2014). Using software in qualitative research: A step-by-step guide (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

In this second edition, Christina Silver and Ann Lewins have expanded their excellent overview of how to optimize use of software into qualitative analysis with numerous examples. In particular, we found the summaries comparing seven software program features in Chapter 3 useful.