week 4

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7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

Continuing into ages 4 and 5, physical growth and motor development build off of growth and skills accomplished during the previous stages of development. Physical growth and change are unique to each child, and motor development progresses in an individualized manner as well. These processes interact and contribute to changes in physical appearance, mobility, and other motor abilities during these years.

Physical Growth

As a toddler continues through early childhood and enters the age range of 4–5 years, physical maturation continues. Physical growth may occur at different times for children at these ages, so these children often come in a variety of shapes and sizes, even at the same age. In general, children will begin to gain muscle and lose baby fat during this period, making their limbs and torsos slimmer and longer over time. A 4- or 5-year-old child will often increase in height faster than in weight, resulting in a very thin body shape. This is normal at this age. Facial features also continue to mature, becoming more adult-like as the skull bones elongate and the jaw widens. A wider jaw bone also makes room in the child’s mouth for permanent teeth to come in.

Motor Development

With more advanced gross motor skills than during toddlerhood, preschoolers can engage in physical games and sports with their peers.

Because motor development is a process that continually builds on already-mastered skills, children of the same age may be at very different levels of motor development. Motor development is growing more sophisticated at this point, and greater strides are made in fine motor skills. These basic gross and fine motor movements are important as children transition to a classroom environment and engage in physical games, dramatic play, and crafts.

Generally, children emerging from toddlerhood and entering preschool age (around 4 or 5 years old) are advancing with most gross motor skills. These children have mastered walking and can even run, stop, and change directions with ease. Children at this age can also go up and down steps independently with alternating feet, and can easily accomplish most of the large muscle movements needed for athletic play, such as kicking, throwing overhand, and catching. Children around the age of 4 and 5 are usually very energetic and use physical play a lot. Galloping, tumbling, and other playful movements are common and much enjoyed. An older child (around 5 years old) is even more skillful and can walk heel to toe, run on tiptoes, hop and balance on one foot, and climb. These gross motor skills allow for swimming, bicycling, swinging a bat or racket, and pumping skillfully on a swing.

Fine motor development progresses quite a bit during these years as children gain more control of their small muscle movements. Attendance in a preschool setting also helps children to master these skills. Children at this age learn to draw shapes with straight lines, like crosses, squares, and even triangles and diamonds. They begin to trace lines and even print large letters. They also can use scissors to cut along a line, and with help will eventually be able to cut while moving the paper to cut curves and circles. As fine motor skills develop, children’s drawings will become more recognizable. Activities requiring smaller grasps and refined movements like fitting small pieces into jigsaw puzzles, turning small dials and knobs, and sculpting with clay help to develop fine motor skills.

Gross and fine motor skills allow for group games and activities with peers and adults that help to foster social-emotional, cognitive, and communication development. See Table 7.1 for details on motor development, both gross and fine.

Table 7.1: Observable motor development in children ages 4 and 5

Gross Motor Skills

Fine Motor Skills

Can balance on one foot for 10 seconds or more

Can do a forward roll

Can swing and can climb with good coordination

Can run and hop

May be learning to skip

Can use utensils to feed self, including a fork, a spoon, and possibly a table knife

Can copy shapes like triangles, circles, or squares and can draw a person with a body

Can print some letters

Can don and doff clothes without much help

Can take care of toileting needs without much help

Source: Adapted from American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013a). Ages and stages, developmental milestones: 4 to 5 years old. Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to -5-Year-Olds.aspx.

7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

Continuing into ages 4 and 5, children’s cognitive development is advancing alongside their progress in brain growth and development. Brain growth and cognitive skills continue to increase in complexity, building on the development made in the toddler years.

Brain Growth

The cognitive processes of 4 and 5 year olds are advancing and are facilitated through specific brain development. Neurons, at this time, are connecting and more synaptic pruning occurs, leaving the remaining connections stronger and more efficient (Brown & Jernigan, 2012; Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Myelination also continues so that axons are coated to be more efficient in sending signals back and forth between neurons (Brown & Jernigan, 2012). At this time, executive functioning abilities (discussed in Chapter 2) strengthen so that skills of attention, short-term memory, and rule changing become apparent and assist in learning and socializing (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011). Related to this continuing brain development is the finding that children in higher-quality early learning programs develop improved behaviors such as the ability to remember details and to make plans and other skills that help in school and group participation like taking turns, waiting before speaking, and working with others (Child Care Aware of America, 2013).

Cognitive Development

The thought processes of children ages 4 or 5 years are more complex than those of toddlers. At this age, children are capable of understanding new concepts, solving problems on their own, considering options, and identifying rudimentary cause-and-effect principles. Children learn more advanced cognitive skills primarily through social interactions and experience with the environment. Advancements in children’s communication skills provide for richer interactions and experiences because they can better convey their own thoughts and understand the thoughts of others. Caregivers can help children to develop more sophisticated cognition by discussing everyday events with them.

Steve (preschool teacher): Good morning Patti. How are you today?

Patti (4 year old): Good. I had bananas and there was a deer. It looked like a horse, but small. Why was the deer there?

Steve: I don’t know where the deer was, Patti. Where did you see the deer?

Patti: In my backyard. It was eating our garden!

Steve: Oh, no! Maybe he was really hungry!

Patti: He WAS really hungry, but my dad was mad at him. I told my dad that he had to eat breakfast, too!

Steve: Just like when you ate your bananas, right?

Patti: Right. I had bananas and the deer ate our garden.

Steve: Why do you think your dad was mad at the deer?

Patti: I don’t know . . . . He was just eating! He should be allowed to eat!

Conversation comes naturally in the care of 4- and 5-year-old children because they often ask a lot of questions to help feed their curiosity about the world around them. A very simple statement may spur a series of what, why, how, when, and where questions. It is important for caregivers and teachers to be patient and engage with children to try to answer all questions. Children should also be able to answer similar questions when asked. This back-and-forth dialogue offers many rich experiences for children and is essential for development in many domains. Responses should be age appropriate without oversimplifying, but with an appropriate amount of detail. Children provide cues that often demonstrate their level of interest and the extent of details needed. Behaviors that indicate the topic is not of interest include looking away, becoming fidgety, and asking irrelevant questions. Cues that indicate genuine interest and a need for more details include the asking of relevant questions and visually attending to the task or speaker.

Tim Hall/Taxi/Thinkstock

Typically, a preschooler can count up to 5 (or even 10), and can name four or more colors.

By age 4, a typically developing child understands time-oriented words like soon, now, and later. Children at around this age understand size relationships (including bigger and smaller), concepts of different and same, and location words like here, there, under, over, and in. They also can follow multistep commands, such as, “Go to your bookshelf, choose what book you’d like us to read together, and bring it to the couch.” Children at around 5 years will be able to follow multistep commands that are not logically related, such as, “Put Blue Bunny in the toy box and then put your shirt and socks back on.”

Sometime during the ages of 4 or 5, children begin to recognize common properties or patterns across objects. Identifying these patterns gives way to categorization skills. In child-care centers, teachers often make a game of categorizing by asking children to put the blue blocks together, the red blocks together, and the green blocks together. The teacher affirms the children’s success when the task is done and then mixes up the blocks and asks them to ignore the colors and put the big blocks together and the small blocks together. This game also helps children to practice following rules. With more advanced cognitive skills, including basic memorization, children at this age are able to engage in group activities with rules. Children in this age group may be at different skill levels, but typically they know their first and last names as well as their ages, they are able to count up to 5 or even 10, they can name at least four colors, and they recognize basic shapes.

Developmental Milestones: Learned Behaviors

Children are always observing others, including peers, primary adults, and caregivers.

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Critical Thinking Questions

As a role model for children, what do you think is important to model?

How will you support behavior positively in your environment?

Counting is an obvious foundation for later math skills, but many other concepts that should be mastered in this stage of life help to lay the groundwork needed for later mathematical mastery. Play is a wonderful way for children of this age to experience the world around them. Play can also help children gain an understanding of the concepts of volume, speed, length, height, and other measurements that are important later for comprehending mathematics. In addition to having children learn through daily experiences, it is important for caregivers to be intentional in teaching the foundations needed for later mathematics.

This is also the time when children learn the skills that will lead later to reading and writing, also known as early literacy. Reading books, singing songs, making rhymes, and even engaging in simple conversation all help to further develop interest in communication and to reinforce the concept that ideas are conveyed through language. Early literacy includes having fun with language, creating an interest in books and other written materials, and experiencing the technical basics of reading (including reading from front to back and left to right). For example, reading the words on street signs, cereal boxes, and other environmental print; making up silly new words; playing rhyming games; engaging in group or individual story time; and singing along with familiar songs can help children to develop early literacy skills (Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003).

Children typically begin to identify different genders at age 4. A child’s initial understanding of gender differences may rely heavily on observable, and often incorrect, characteristics assigned to each gender by the child’s own experiences. For example, a child may observe that females wear necklaces and males wear baseball hats. Therefore, anyone wearing a baseball hat is male and anyone wearing a necklace is female. This is called gender typing. Gender typing is related directly to the cognitive skill of categorization. It helps children to better distinguish and contrast between two groupings. At this level of gender recognition, children often believe that gender can be changed. Later, in middle childhood, comes the understanding that gender is constant throughout life. See Table 7.2 for more details on cognitive development in 4 and 5 year olds.

Table 7.2: Cognitive development in children ages 4 and 5

Can answer simple questions easily and logically

Can count 10 or more objects

Can name at least four colors correctly

Is better able to understand the concept of time as well as the order of activities throughout the day (e.g., breakfast in the morning, lunch in the afternoon, and supper at night)

Knows what things are used in the home context every day (including money, food, and appliances)

Because children at the ages of 4 and 5 years are developing abstract thinking, use creative play skills, and have good fine motor skills, including eye-hand coordination, the time is ripe for advancing technological skills and for integrating the use of interactive media and other technology into early childhood programs. For instance, the use of digital photo journals to document skills and fun activities and the use of video to record dramatic play, storytelling, and dancing and singing can be motivating to 4 and 5 year olds (Ching, Wang, & Kedem, 2006). Children at this age often use touch screens at museums and in some libraries and can discover the usefulness of websites on computers to learn more about diverse cultures. Advocates for the use of technology in early childhood programs believe that age-appropriate use of such technology can expand social connections (Buckleitner, 2000) and enhance a child’s imagination. Others believe that overuse can lead to social isolation and reduced attention spans (Alliance for Children, 2004).

Media, Technology, and Early Childhood: “I Want to Go to School!”

Miss Isabella’s early childhood center for 4 and 5 year olds has a long waiting list. She has “fun” areas of play that children talk about for years after they enter school-age programs. Parents also promote it by word-of-mouth to their friends and neighbors. What’s so special and enticing? Everything!

Not only does Miss Isabella offer clean, safe, and cheerful play areas with pretend kitchen and dress-up activities, but she also has riding and climbing areas and “bouncy” items to promote gross motor skills and to allow children the opportunity to let off energy. In addition, she has quiet reading and listening “soft places” that offer choices of hard books and e-books and other parts of the center where children can use hands-on manipulative toys like small Legos, large lightweight indestructible blocks, and sensory materials like water and sand tables. But the all-time favorite is the interactive media area, where Miss Isabella always assigns her best adult volunteers to be involved with the children by providing support in the proper use of the technology provided, such as computers, tablets, digital cameras, and recording devices. They also monitor and guide children in taking turns, sharing, and being innovative.

Some of the innovations that volunteers have encouraged in this area of the center include promoting a “media team” through which children buddy-up and share roles as they go off into the other play areas to document art, science, and cooking projects; interview classmates on topics of interest; or record each other’s stories about their in-school experiences. Technology users also partner with children in other play areas to create imaginative dances or to act out stories that can be recorded. These videos and audio recordings are often shared at “family night” in various parts of the room, just as are other craft projects. The energy and pride just flows from the children and their families in Miss Isabella’s early childhood center!

7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

As children leave toddlerhood and enter into the more social and complex world of the ages of 4 and 5, they also enter into the world of constant communication. Children at this age are very verbal and talk seemingly nonstop at times. The topic of conversation can range from serious musings about their surroundings and emotions, to nonsensical jokes and memorized rhymes. This flurry of sophisticated speech leads to development in almost all other domains. It is important to encourage talk at this time, and to seek advice from a specialist if any delays are suspected (see section on developmental red flags).

Early Literacy

Early literacy experiences can be used to enrich communication, language, and reading with children.

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Critical Thinking Questions

What ideas might you have to incorporate literacy activities in your future role?

How might you encourage home support for literacy experiences?

At around age 4, a child is typically using approximately 1,500 words formed in complete short sentences (Children’s Hospital of the King’s Daughters, 2006). At around age 5, the child’s vocabulary is increasing to more than 2,000 words, with sentences made up of five or more words, and using all parts of speech (Mannheim, 2012). Children at this age are able to understand most of what is said in both the home and the school contexts (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, n.d.a). For many years, theorists have recognized the importance of interaction for vocabulary development. However, the development of language is much more complicated than associating words with their definitions. Children also use the different aspects of what is said—like inflection, volume, and rhythm—to determine meaning. These aspects of speech are called paralinguistics. The use of paralinguistics to develop language becomes more sophisticated as a child develops. For example, a recent study showed that 5 year olds, but not 4 year olds, were able to use the emotional cues conveyed in speech to determine the speaker’s intended meaning (Berman, Graham, Callaway, & Chambers, 2013). A child’s words at 4 and 5 years are much more recognizable than a toddler’s words. As a child continues to practice saying different words, each consonant and vowel sound becomes more refined to form discernable syllables. This clearer speaking of words is called enunciation.

Children ages 4 and 5 years old like familiar stories and may ask to hear their favorites over and over with few word changes. Repeating rhymes, singing songs, and playing word games are among the favorite activities at this age. Communication skills are growing rapidly at this time, and all of these activities help to advance this domain and even build literacy skills for later in life.

Children may make up their own words and repeat sounds over and over. It is also common for children at this age to involuntarily repeat a syllable, or the first consonant of a word, over and over before completing the word or phrase. This repetition is known as stuttering. Stuttering in early childhood does not necessarily indicate a cause for concern. A child’s ideas may come faster than his or her verbal skills can process them. Caregivers who notice stuttering should be sure to give the child undivided attention and not comment on the stuttering.

By age 5, as their verbal communication skills progress, children will begin to use the correct rules for language, such as order of words (e.g., “I will go to the car”), different words for the same meaning (e.g., we and us), and different forms of the same word to indicate past, present, and future tenses (e.g., play, plays, played). This set of language rules is called grammar. Grammar continues to develop through school age. By the age of 5, children will often begin to recognize and read common words in their favorite books. Having conversations, reading books, and singing songs with children can help them to continue development of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. See Table 7.3 for detailed information on communication development in 4 and 5 year olds.

Table 7.3: Communication development in children ages 4 and 5

Understanding

Talking

Pays attention to a short story and answers simple questions about it

Understands most of what is said at home and in school

Understands simple humor

Hears differences among rhyming words

Has improved reading comprehension

Names some letters and numbers

Uses sentences that give lots of details (“The biggest peach on the table is mine because I washed it.”)

Tells stories that stick to topic

Expresses self easily to other children and adults

Says most sounds correctly, except a few, such as l, s, r, v, z, ch, sh, and th

Says rhyming words

Uses the same grammar as the rest of the family, but in simpler sentences

Source: Reprinted with permission from American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2013). How does your child hear and talk? Four to five years. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/01.htm. © 2014 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. All rights reserved.

7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

Susanne Dittrich/Fuse/Thinkstock

Preschool-age children see friendships as increasingly important and want to be liked by their peers. Many social-emotional skills emerge and are strengthened during this developmental period.

Children at ages 4 and 5 blossom socially. They enjoy and prefer to be with other children and quickly gain the skills needed to function in a community of peers. Children are driven by the desire to be liked and place the utmost importance on friends. Especially when introduced into structured child-care settings and preschool classrooms, children develop skills to thrive in larger groups of peers. This includes sharing, sympathizing with others, communicating, compromising, setting and testing boundaries, and following rules. However, because these skills are still being developed, children at this age rely on adult supervision to help use them appropriately.

Kirsten was quiet when she first started coming here about 5 weeks ago. She would go sit on one corner of the mat on the side of the room and roll a car back and forth while she watched the other kids. We worked closely with her, suggesting things she could say to the other kids and helping them play together. Eventually, Kirsten became comfortable interacting with Blair. They still don’t share very well, but they love to play at the water table together and help each other on and off the swings outside.—Preschool teacher

According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (see Chapter 3), children at 4 and 5 years of age are transitioning between the stages of autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 2–3) and initiative versus guilt (ages 4–5), which necessitates working toward a sense of self-control and the ability to initiate one’s own activities, respectively. These stages are well represented within the social-emotional realm, as they apply directly to a child’s ability to be autonomous and in control within social situations and play interactions with both adults and peers.

Imaginative play is very important at this time, and children often engage in make-believe play together. Because of the newly identified genders, make-believe play often includes gender roles. Imaginary friends are also common during this period. At this age, children’s active imaginations and desire for social interaction often lead them to create fictional characters that function as constant companions. This is completely normal and typically fades out as the child ages. However, children at this age are able to differentiate between real and pretend.

Developmental Milestones: Friendships and Chosen Activities

Friendship develops when children choose preferred relationships over others. The development of this is crucial during the childhood years.

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Critical Thinking Question

When you think about our society today and the development of friendship, what reflections can you make?

Justin always tells us about the “preetles” that live in the bathtub under the water. None of my other kids had imaginary friends, if that’s what the preetles are anyway. He’s never been able to tell me exactly what they are, but he seems to think they are just great! He actually likes to take baths now instead of screaming, so we love the preetles!—Jolie (mother of three)

It is important for caregivers to help children at this age to maneuver through social-emotional development. Discussing feelings and encouraging verbal expressions of anger, frustration, and disappointment can be valuable tools that children use throughout life to cope with negative feelings. Friendships are fluid at this age, but caregivers can help children ages 4–5 years to appreciate friends and begin to understand the feeling of loyalty. Adults can help children talk about what characteristics they like about their friends and then help them to imitate those characteristics to be a good friend to others. Imitating positive behaviors is a great way to capitalize on a child’s desire to be liked.

Children learn what is socially unacceptable by trying and testing out different behaviors. Children at this age will naturally push limits to get a sense of what is acceptable. They may use profane language to shock and get attention from adults. For similar reasons, children at this age will test boundaries with authority figures by talking back. Their active imaginations can also easily lead to confusion between fantasy and reality or simple confusion of the facts, which may be misinterpreted as lying. In addition, their active play can also lead to aggressive physical play. It is important to set clear and firm boundaries and to be consistent with consequences for negative behaviors. If any of these negative behaviors is allowed, children may think they are acceptable and have a much harder time correcting them when they are older.

Children ages 4 and 5 years can have a tendency to be bossy at times. They are exercising independence and trying out new social roles within their world. Sometimes social situations result in aggression between peers. This aggression can be with the intent to hurt another child, or it can be motivated by a particular goal, like getting a desired toy from another child. Some theorists suggest that there are more instances of aggression within a new group of peers at these ages, though eventually a social hierarchy is established and the rate of aggression decreases (Strayer, 1980). Often, in a group play setting a dominant child will emerge and control play situations. Other peers are typically quick to allow the dominant child to take over and follow that child’s lead. The tendency for some children to take over and for others to follow their lead willingly is referred to as social dominance (Pellegrini et al., 2007).

Developmental Milestones: Directed Behavior

Developmental theories provide perspectives for understanding children's development during the preschool years.

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Critical Thinking Questions

What are some routines that you can use to support children in this developmental stage in your future environment?

What are some ways you will respond to diversity with children?

We went through a few weeks in the beginning where Amanda was biting some of the boys. It was only outside and only the boys. There was no real aggression toward the other girls. We tried to pay close attention to the situations, and it didn’t seem to be toy motivated. After a few days of it we asked her mother. Turns out she has two brothers at home who may be a little bossy or rough at times. So, we paid closer attention to the boys’ behavior, too, and really encouraged turn-taking, sharing, and other mutually respectful activities to help Amanda feel more confident around them and to build their relationships.—Assistant teacher

This is also the time when morality begins to develop. Children ages 4 and 5 years are eager to please adults in roles of importance, like parents and caregivers. Children begin to show true guilt for questionable actions and sincere concern for others. These are the seeds of moral development, which continues through late early childhood (see Chapter 8).

Although 4 and 5 year olds are excited to form social circles, they may also have a fear of the unknown. Most children at this age have formed strong attachments to their primary caregivers and experience a considerable amount of fear if that person leaves. Children may also be wary of places and situations with which they are not familiar.

It is important for caregivers to support children at this age to overcome fears, build a solid moral foundation, and learn social appropriateness. Children need positive feedback from trusted adults to tell them when they are on the right track, in turn building positive self-esteem. They also need a structured and safe environment in which to explore social and emotional situations while exercising some newfound independence. Children at all ages need discipline, but it is important to understand that discipline is not punishment (see Chapter 8 for a definition of punishment and discipline). Good discipline is guidance and is especially important in the context of social-emotional development at ages 4 and 5 years.

Over the past two decades, preschool classrooms that teach children with special needs alongside typically developing children have become increasingly commonplace. These integrated preschool classrooms are called inclusive programs. Children who appear different or act differently from the typical child may create wariness, yet inclusive programs have many benefits to all of the students involved. Typically developing peers get to practice skills while guiding other children. Confidence and empathy are improved. Children with special needs can observe and learn to imitate typically developing peers. However, regardless of the setting, preschoolers with disabilities engage in fewer social interactions, group play, and conversations than typically developing children, offering far fewer opportunities to develop social skills. In addition, their social skills are lost faster than those of children without disabilities if the skills are not used, acknowledged, and appreciated by others (Kennedy, 2013). Caregivers can help sustain social-emotional progress in children with and without disabilities by acknowledging and encouraging positive social interactions between peers whenever possible.

Tips on Supporting Strong Social-Emotional Development

Caregivers create supportive social-emotional environments when they . . .

Design learning centers that create small-group social environments

Be socially competent play partners, modeling what play conversations sound like

Model play that includes children with special needs

Provide open-ended materials (e.g., blocks, clothing for dramatic play, and natural materials such as rocks, seashells, sand, and water) that stimulate conversation

Encourage children to engage with each other and ask questions

Keep a strong presence during center time, offering problem-solving assistance as necessary

Assist with children’s diverse ways of initiating play with one another

Incorporate activities that allow children in inclusive classrooms to get to know each other, for example, with circle-time songs and activities that emphasize friendship, children’s names, and their similarities and differences

Caregivers should use observation to determine . . .

Each child’s current social skills

Areas of strength and growth for all children

Children’s individual interests

Times when each child is most likely to interact with peers

The level of inclusion for each child during play, especially the inclusion of children with special needs

Each child’s ability to initiate interactions and to respond to the initiations of others

Where and when conflicts occur most frequently

Whether any child is being socially rejected

Source: From Kennedy, A. S. (2013). Supporting peer relationships and social competence in inclusive preschool programs. Young Children, 68(5), 18–25. Copyright © 2013 Nation Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Reprinted by permission.

7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds

Children ages 4 and 5 are typically much more independent than toddlers. They are able to do the majority of self-help tasks with supervision and some assistance from adults. Children at this age can feed themselves with the proper utensils, dress themselves if the clothing does not involve complicated layers or fasteners, eliminate without much assistance, brush their own teeth, and clean their bodies with supervision. Allowing children to do much of the self-help tasks independently at this age helps to build confidence, improve problem-solving skills, and enhance motor development.

Sleeping

By 4 years of age, some children still take one nap in the afternoon for approximately 1–2 hours. Napping is typically phased out around this time, although children should continue a napping routine if they get very tired or cranky in the late afternoon. Children who do not need an afternoon nap may still benefit from quiet time.

Fuse/Thinkstock

Preschoolers should get 11–13 hours of sleep during the night.

At nighttime, 4 and 5 year olds should get 11–13 hours of sleep (National Sleep Foundation, 2013a). However, getting enough high-quality sleep can be a challenge for some children this age who are energetic and always active. Many parents find it difficult to get their 4- or 5-year-old child to go to sleep at a reasonable time at night, and some find it just as difficult to keep them sleeping through the early hours of the morning. To complicate matters, an overtired and cranky child is harder to convince to go to bed. Consistent sleep times and bedtime routines can help children mentally and physically prepare for sleep and get better sleep throughout the night. Adequate sleep is critical for optimal development at this age. Studies indicate a connection between inadequate sleep in preschoolers and behavior issues in the classroom. One study in particular found a link between parental-reported sleep routine disturbances and teacher-reported negative behaviors in the classroom (Bates, Viken, Alexander, Beyers, & Stockton, 2003). Behavior issues caused by inadequate sleep can inhibit social experiences and other learning opportunities. Overcoming these early bedtime challenges is critical for optimal development.

Feeding and Eating

Progress in a child’s motor, cognitive, and physical development allows for independence at mealtimes. Children at this age are able to use everyday utensils to feed themselves. They know the proper use for bowls, plates, cups, forks, knives, spoons, and straws. Although some children may be able to prepare themselves simple meals like pouring a bowl of cereal, they should still be supervised and supported at this age. In particular, caregivers need to provide children with nutritious food.

Forming healthy eating habits in early childhood and getting balanced daily nutrition are key components to warding off obesity and malnutrition in childhood and throughout adult life. All adults who interact with children on a daily basis can help by setting a good example with food selection and portions, helping children to select a variety of nutritious foods, and following eating schedules. According to a U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service report, 21 percent of U.S. households with children do not have a secure food supply, putting the children at risk of being undernourished (Coleman-Jensen, Nord, & Singh, 2013). When families use starchy foods low in nutrients to make financial ends meet, children may become either obese or undernourished. Preschool programs have the opportunity to educate children and their families about good nutrition (Center for the Study of Social Policy, 2013). See more on childhood obesity in Chapter 8.

Food safety is also important to minimize children’s illnesses. Proper storage, washing, and cooking of food can help to keep unwanted germs at bay.

Tips on Proper Food Safety

Clean. Wash hands and surfaces often.

Separate. Don’t cross-contaminate. For example, after cutting meat, wash the knife before using it to cut vegetables.

Cook. Cook to proper temperature using a food thermometer.

Chill. Refrigerate properly.

Source: ChooseMyPlate.gov. (n.d.). Food safety: Preschoolers’ immune systems are still developing. Retrieved from http://www.choosemyplate.gov/preschoolers/food-safety.html.

Elimination

Toileting should be mastered at this age, although occasional bedwetting may occur and is not necessarily a cause for concern. If bedwetting is frequent or accompanied regularly by nightmares, it may be indicative of a deeper issue. A pediatrician or perhaps a specialist should be consulted.

Hygiene

Oral hygiene is important to teach as children ages 4 and 5 learn daily routines and take a more active role in cleaning themselves. Children should be taught to brush teeth at least twice a day, in the morning and before bed, and to floss at least once per day. Children should also have an established routine of visiting a dentist every 6 months.

As children ages 4 and 5 become more social beings, they interact with adults and peers more and more. Playing with toys in groups, reading books with caregivers, and learning to share with other children all bring opportunities to swap germs. Because children this age are still developing their immune systems, they are susceptible to common viruses. Teaching proper cleaning routines, like washing hands after going to the bathroom, can help.

Regular bathing should also be part of the routine. Making bathtime fun and allowing enough time to play can be crucial for keeping it a pleasant part of the day.

Paul has made such great progress with his morning and evening routines! It used to be such a struggle just to get him to brush his teeth. He would do whatever he could to get out of it. It took a long time, but trying to make it fun rather than a chore and being persistent with the routine has really paid off. We sing a little song together while we get the toothbrush ready, and after we are done we finish the song. It’s much more bearable for both of us!—Brian (father)

Dressing

Preschoolers increasingly have the ability to dress themselves but may still need assistance from adults for buttons, buckles, snaps, or zippers.

Children ages 4 and 5 can mostly dress themselves and should be given the opportunity to do so, as long as they are safe and supervised. As fine motor skills continue to develop, children may still need assistance with small snaps, buttons, and zippers, but allowing them to try for themselves will help to develop these skills. Caregivers can offer alternative methods to help put on coats, shoes, and other clothing if a child needs some assistance. Independence is important for developing skills related to these tasks, but support should be given when the task gets too frustrating. A particular teaching strategy has the caregiver take the task to the final step and then the child completes it. This technique is called backward chaining. For example, a child learning to button can have the adult line up the button with the hole and push it partly through. Then the child pulls it the rest of the way. Next time the child can be encouraged to push and pull the button through the hole. After several successes, the child learns to do all steps in buttoning, including aligning the button with the hole, pushing, and finally pulling it through. This is an alternative to forward chaining, in which a child is taught the first step in a task, with each successive step taught in the correct sequence. Learning can also take place by observing peers or an adult complete a task, and can also be encouraged with the use of prompting (verbal or physical) from step to step (Shrestha, Anderson, & Moore, 2013). The technique selected must be individualized to the child’s unique strengths and needs.

7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

By age 4, a typically developing child should have achieved multiple milestones in all of the developmental domains. Red flags may be more apparent to a parent, teacher, or caregiver during this time than previously. Because the earliest interventions hold the most promise for addressing developmental concerns, it is important to recognize developmental red flags as early as possible. Table 7.4 describes some observable red flags in various domains.

Table 7.4: Developmental red flags in children ages 4 and 5

Domain

Red Flag

Motor

Movements seem shaky or stiff

Arms and hands seem very weak

Not able to cut along a straight line

Not holding crayons or pencils with thumb and fingers

Not able to draw a circle, square, and cross

Not able to put on own shirts, pants, socks, and shoes (with some help with fasteners)

Not able to feed self well with a spoon and fork

Cognitive

Not able to name the basic colors and shapes

Does not understand the concept of past, present, and future

Not interested in pretend play

Constantly moves from one activity to another and can stay with an activity only for brief periods

Not able to understand the rules of a basic game, such as memory or other preschool games

Not able to tell basic facts about self (e.g., full name, age, city in which the child lives, street name)

Not able to count five objects

Does not recognize name when seeing it printed

Communication

Not easily understood by others

Has difficulty putting sentences together

Has lots of grammatical difficulties in sentences

Has difficulties with concepts such as prepositions (position words such as behind, beside, etc.), colors, size, categories

Does not ask questions

Does not follow verbal directions

Social-emotional

Not interested in playing with other children

Not able to share or take turns with other children

Wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything

Extremely “rigid” about routines; becomes extremely upset when things are changed

Has extreme difficulty separating from primary caregiver

Is too passive or fearful, and does not want to try things other children the same age are doing

Has extreme fears that interfere with daily activities

If any of these red flags are observed, parents should be advised to consult with the child’s doctor or a developmental specialist.

8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds

Significant change can be observed in the realms of physical growth and motor development during ages 6–8. Noticeable differences can be seen in a child’s overall body structure, weight, height, and head circumference. This physical growth links to children’s motor development and skills, which continue to advance and become more refined at this time.

Physical Growth

At this age children’s bodies change noticeably in size, shape, and proportion. By the time they are 6 years old, they are about 47 inches tall and weigh 50 pounds (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Their skeletal structure is maturing, as is apparent in the lengthening of the legs and trunk, thereby fitting what had been the proportionately larger head of the younger child. Large muscles of the arms and legs are becoming more developed, allowing children to do better in athletics and team sports. Additionally, this is a time of large variances between the size and capabilities of children, which feeds into their developing self-concept. Gender differences can play into this, with girls being slightly shorter and lighter than boys.

Although it is recognized that both heredity and environment account for differences in body size, obesity is more common at this time than it was during ages 4 and 5 and should be monitored carefully. Nutrition, activity, and experiences continue to influence the development of children ages 6–8. For instance, children begin to develop dental cavities and other problems if their nutrition and dental hygiene are not adequate. They lose their deciduous, or “baby,” teeth (see Chapter 6), and adult teeth emerge. Also, the brain is continuing to develop through myelination (building a sheath around the axons of neurons) and by the pruning of synapses that are not being stimulated.

Weight

At ages 6–8, weight gain is typically steady, at about 6.5 pounds per year for both boys and girls (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013b). Although nurture (the quantity and quality of food available) and nature (genetics) continue to have an influence on children’s growth and weight gain (Charlesworth, Wood, & Viggiani, 2011), their bodies change considerably due to an increase in fat tissue. Weight gain and its rate are argued to be more accurate when measuring body mass index (BMI). Body mass index is the ratio of weight to height (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). A BMI over the 95th percentile for age and sex is considered obese; a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles is considered overweight. See Table 8.1 for facts on childhood obesity.

Table 8.1: Childhood obesity facts in the United States

The childhood obesity rate has more than doubled in children and tripled in adolescents in the past 30 years.

The percentage of children ages 6–11 years who were obese increased from 7 percent in 1980 to nearly 18 percent in 2010. Similarly, the percentage of adolescents ages 12–19 years who were obese increased from 5 percent to 18 percent over the same period.

In 2010, more than one third of children and adolescents were overweight or obese.

Overweight is defined as having excess body weight for a particular height from fat, muscle, bone, water, or a combination of these factors. Obesity is defined as having excess body fat.

Overweight and obesity are the result of “caloric imbalance”—too few calories expended for the amount of calories consumed—and they are affected by various genetic, behavioral, and environmental factors.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Overweight and obesity: Data and statistics. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html.

Health and nutrition are important to healthy outcomes for children at all ages. Yet the period from ages 6 to 8 is considered to be about the healthiest in a person’s life. At that time, immunities are present and generally an active lifestyle is emerging but, in most cases, unhealthy habits have not yet been adopted. Therefore, it is a good time to target prevention of risky health behaviors through direct instruction and modeling of healthy behaviors.

Height and Head Circumference

Height differences among children ages 6–8 can be as much as 4–5 inches, but most children typically grow about 2–3 inches each year (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013b). Most children have periods of rapid growth spurts and then times of little growth. Bone age is the most useful indicator of physical maturation. For example, lower-income status correlates with delays in bone age, and girls demonstrate a faster rate of growth than boys. Body shapes at this time generally look more mature because of longer arms and legs and because posture is typically more erect. Head circumference continues to enlarge until sometime soon after this period, at about age 10, when it reaches 96 percent of adult size.

Motor Development

Motor development at this age is characterized by growth spurts, weight gain, and improvements in athletic abilities. Children at ages 6–8 can run faster and have better balance than when they were younger, so they can kick and catch a ball using the new skills they have. They can also learn to a ride bike and to skate. Yet gender differences exist by this age. Typically, girls are more agile and have better fine motor skills, whereas boys are bigger and more powerful with greater muscle mass (Green, 2010). Green (2010) posits that these differences are likely influenced by the amount of participation and practice within gender-typical activities.

Regardless of the gender differences in development, this is a time when children often enjoy competitive and physically challenging team games like soccer and basketball. It is a good time to encourage active participation in sports for health and wellness reasons as well as for social development. Good sportsmanship and fair play can be taught at this time because of timely advances in social-emotional and moral development, as well as the need for good peer relationships.

Some concerns are associated with this period of social and physical integration of new skills and aspirations. For instance, there has been much controversy over the physical dangers, especially for head trauma, in sports like football. It has been reported that 7 year olds can sustain hits of the same force that adult players do (Eldred, 2013). Yet even with these concerns, children continue to play football and other contact sports. This should serve as a reminder to educators, caregivers, and parents that most team sports and other physical activities involve some level of risk, so special precautions should be taken. Those precautions include the use of better helmets and less hitting for sports like football. However, caregivers must also consider that even physical activities with less direct contact (like bicycle riding) require safety equipment such as helmets and elbow and knee pads.

Tips on Kids and Bicycle Safety

Safe Riding Tips

Wear a properly fitted bicycle helmet.

Adjust your bicycle to fit.

Check your equipment, especially handlebars, tires, and brakes.

See and be seen by wearing neon or other bright colors.

Control your bicycle by keeping at least one hand on the handlebars.

Watch for and avoid road hazards such as potholes, broken glass, gravel, puddles, leaves, and dogs.

Avoid riding at night.

Rules of the Road—Bicycling on the Road

Go with the traffic flow.

Obey all traffic laws.

Yield to traffic when appropriate.

Be predictable by riding in a straight line and signaling your moves to others.

Stay alert at all times.

Look before turning.

Watch for parked cars.

Sidewalk Versus Street Riding

Children less than 10 years old are better off riding on the sidewalk.

For anyone riding on a sidewalk:

Check the law in your state or jurisdiction to make sure sidewalk riding is allowed.

Watch for vehicles coming out of or turning into driveways.

Stop at corners of sidewalks and streets to look for cars and to make sure the drivers see you before crossing.

Enter a street at a corner and not between parked cars. Alert pedestrians that you are near by saying, “Excuse me,” or, “Passing on your left,” or use a bell or horn.

Source: Adapted from National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2006). Kids and bicycle safety. Retrieved from www.nhtsa.gov.

Competitive Sports

Competitive sports during early childhood years are generally played outside the school setting. Educators can foster social-emotional support in the classroom by talking about how to get along, engaging in cooperative play, and talking about feelings during sports.

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Critical Thinking Questions

What are some elements of competitive sports that are beneficial for children?

What are some obstacles to competitive sports at this age?

Some children naturally prefer using their newfound physical skills for more individual-oriented athletic activities like bike riding, martial arts, dancing, swimming, track, or tennis. These sports often involve a level of “team” spirit but allow the child to focus on individual abilities in a different way than do conventional team sports. Overall, both types of sports can provide children the feeling of belonging to a community of athletes and peers. The choice is based on the child’s comfort level, but adults should be mindful that the support provided by parents and caregivers plays an important role in the child’s growing self-esteem.

In understanding the fine motor improvements in children ages 6–8, awareness of the integration among all developmental domains and progress in each is important. For example, because children are assisted by enhanced concentration and patience (see sections on cognitive and social-emotional development), their fine motor skills become more refined. They can complete more details in their drawings and cut more accurately with scissors. At this age, children typically can write even smaller and with more precision, within lines and with more consistent spacing and placement. This skill is improved even further because hand preference is now established, and children use either the left or the right hand for writing.

8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds

During the ages of 6–8, cognitive development is continuing, as is growth and development of the brain. This development is demonstrated by skills that build on what has occurred during previous stages, with characteristic advancements particular to these years.

Brain Growth

The later years of early childhood bring about the continuation of specific brain functioning that helps to advance the cognitive processes. As described in Chapters 6 and 7, many of the neurons are connected and significant pruning has occurred by the end of age 5. However, the brain continues to advance through further pruning and by continuing to add a fatty coating on the axons. This coating, called myelination, is necessary for more efficient sending of signals between the neurons. Young brains continuously refine the way information is processed, and myelination, in fact, continues throughout life.

Specifically, myelination focuses on the frontal cortex during this time. Synaptic pruning continues, especially in the frontal and prefrontal cortices. This process decreases the density of synapses, leaving the remaining neurons more stable (Sowell, Thompson, & Toga, 2007). Additionally, brain activity changes its patterns at about this time. These activities are measured by an EEG (electroencephalogram), and findings indicate that up to about preschool age, children have more brain activity that is characteristic of sleep states even when they are awake. Gradually these activities, known as theta activity, settle to approximately the same quantity as the alpha activity. Alpha activity provides the ability to sustain attention. By around age 7 or 8 years, alpha activity takes over and dominates these brain activity patterns.

These changes suggest that children are now able to think in a more complex manner, helping them to solve problems, plan ahead, set goals, control their attention, and inhibit some impulses. These behaviors are generally different from what is observed in the preschool years, demonstrating the link between brain development and behavior.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive abilities increasingly improve and become more developed at this age. With regard to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, this is the period in which children transition from the preoperational stage (ages 2–7 years) into the concrete operational stage (ages 7–11 years). The preoperational stage is based on the child’s understanding of basic symbolic representations, in which something can stand for something else. Egocentrism is also characteristic of the preoperational stage, in which children can understand things only from their own perspective. Also, children in the preoperational stage focus on only one aspect of an object or a situation, which has been termed centration.

Within the concrete operational stage, logical reasoning can now be applied but only to concrete things that can be seen, and abstract ideas cannot yet be understood. This means that children within this stage learn better through hands-on activities. The operations that are easier now include categorizing the same objects in a variety of classifications like function, size, shape, and color. However, abstract and theoretical viewpoints and discussions are still too advanced. Though children cannot yet think in abstract terms, the important concept of conservation is achieved during this stage. Conservation is the understanding that qualities of physical objects do not change when they are moved around or arranged differently. Additionally, children in this stage begin to be less egocentric (Rains, Kelly, & Durham, 2008), and decentration is also now possible, in that children can now focus on more than just one aspect of an object or a situation (as compared to centration in the previous stage). Children also begin to have the understanding of reversibility, in which they are able to think backward through the steps of an action (Olorunfemi-Olabisi & Tayo-Olajubutu, 2013).

Based on the stages within Piaget’s cognitive development, a child’s understanding of death goes through a series of stages. In children ages 6 and 7, the concept of object permanence is present, but the characteristics of egocentrism and their more concrete understanding lead them to think that death happens only to older people and will not happen to them. By around the age of 8, children have a more adultlike understanding of death (Speece, 1995).

This is also the time in which children have better attention spans and selective attention, both of which help them tune out distractions. This is a valuable skill for this stage, since homework and classroom learning play an important part in academics. Also assisting in academic and social learning is children’s increased abilities to concentrate and use short-term memory. These abilities make it easier for children to process information more quickly and to think about more than one thing at a time. With these improved thinking skills, children ages 6–8 are better able to plan ahead. It is at this age that children acquire the ability to have directions provided only once and then proceed to complete the task without additional cues or direct instruction, a capability that can be attributed to developments in working memory. Children at this age become increasingly skilled in all of these areas of executive functioning (see Chapter 2) (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011). Nevertheless, children’s increased use of technology and media (including the use of computers, smartphones, and tablets) can contribute to problems in the realm of attention (American Academy of Pediatrics, n.d.).

As stated in Chapter 6, technology and interactive media are a large part of children’s lives, even in early childhood. Children ages 6–8 have the developmental skills needed in all domains to make use of technology. However, they still need adults’ active involvement rather than their reactive supervision (Plowman & Stephen, 2005). At this age, they can share e-books and digital files as well as conduct videoconferencing to strengthen their newfound friendships. They can use websites and search engines to follow up on intellectual interests and other broader interests such as team sports, simple cooking demonstrations, world cultures, or craft projects. A wide range of age-appropriate educational software can supplement learning of academics through math and literacy games as well as through other interactive games that explore science and social studies. In addition, children ages 6–8 can use digital cameras, scanners, and most computers independently. These skills can inspire creativity and provide new ways of learning. However, these opportunities for learning must be monitored carefully so that the type and duration of technological use are age appropriate and well-balanced with other relationship- and skill-building activities.

Media, Technology, and Early Childhood: A 2nd Grader and Technology

Paul comes home from 2nd grade looking forward to doing his science project. He can pick his own topic and is eager to use the Internet to find information about astronomy. Yesterday he figured out ways to produce 3-D planets that move around each other. His teacher is progressive and sensitive to Paul’s interests by giving him the opportunity to use a classroom computer with which to present his project. So Paul is anxious to get started.

However, at this age Paul has a problem balancing his enthusiasm for both astronomy and technology with other important activities that invest in physical skills, theatre arts, and other ways that will help to build and maintain peer relationships. His parents are proud of his frequent but intense ambition to produce his class projects but are also concerned that he is becoming a loner and isolates himself from peers by the type of tasks he prefers. They met with his school counselor, who made several recommendations on how to integrate his interests and skills with peer interactions. Hearing that he, once again, is immersed in a class project, his parents plan a sleepover for him so that he and a few friends can view and digitally document the stars after hamburgers and hot dogs and a game of stick ball. Paul has also agreed to help his 6-year-old neighbor, Peggy, put together a play about Pilgrims with her friends; Paul will be the “cameraman.”

Johner Images/Getty Images

Activities like cooking allow children to practice planning and cooperative learning.

The implication for teachers and other caregivers of this age group is to provide projects that require planning and action. These activities can include the beginning of lifelong hobbies like scrapbooking and photography. It is also a good time to encourage competitions in team projects and to set aside time to talk about feelings and perspectives of others. Effective teaching of children in this stage of early childhood should include positive reinforcement of skills that provide successful experiences regarding academics. Cooperative learning techniques that use small group work and positive individual feedback help to supportively shape each child’s self-esteem.

In addition, theoretical views of how children learn can be identified. Vygotsky’s approach of scaffolding in teaching and caregiving (see Chapter 3) is helpful at this developmental stage. To complement the growth of positive self-esteem (covered later in this chapter), caregivers can use scaffolding as they subtly decrease the amount of direct instruction given based on a child’s current skills (providing enough assistance for the child to accomplish the step just beyond his or her current skill level). Caregivers can offer fewer corrections so that the child is permitted to learn by thinking and acting more and more independently. According to Vygotsky, children are also able to learn vicariously by observing others and imitating skills and behaviors that produce desired outcomes for others (also discussed in Chapter 3). See Table 8.2 for a summary of cognitive skill development at this age.

Table 8.2: Cognitive development for 6–8 year olds

Enjoy planning and building

Expand speaking and listening vocabularies (possibly doubling them)

Show a stronger interest in reading

Increase problem-solving abilities

Have longer attention spans

Enjoy creating elaborate collections

Able to learn difference between left and right

Can begin to understand time and the days of the week

Source: Oesterreich, L. (2004). 6–8 years: Ages and stages. Retrieved from http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publi

8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds

At ages 6–8, children typically have an increased vocabulary and a better understanding of grammar and word use. They can entertain adults with the spontaneous use of new descriptive words that add flair to the nouns and verbs they had before. If they have developed empathy (see the social-emotional section of this chapter), they can process, use, and appreciate sarcasm and irony by the end of this period (Nicholson, Whalen, & Pexman, 2013). They know opposites and enjoy playing word games using rhymes and homonyms, words that sound the same but have different meanings like wear and where. They can repeat long sentences and define words by function, for example, explaining the use of a fork. Although articulation problems are common at this age, speech should be intelligible, with the child able to say all vowels and most consonants. At times, children in this age group may make a few grammatical mistakes when talking and may stutter temporarily.

In general, children at age 8 are speaking in complex and compound sentences that are basically grammatically correct. They can tell stories and use simple reading and writing for social uses and they can carry on conversations. Also, some children become experts in texting, using instant messaging, and making video calls (such as with Skype or Apple’s FaceTime) with access to cell phones and other devices. Thus, cell phone use and accessibility in classrooms is an issue for early childhood professionals.

At Issue: Cell Phones and Schools: Do They Mix?

The benefits and drawbacks of children having cell phones in the classroom have been debated passionately from both points of view. As time goes on, the argument grows stronger on the side of allowable use when restricted by clear policy and limited by time and place. This tipping of the scales is a result of several factors: the increased accessibility of cell phones for children and decreased inequities that favor students from more affluent families; concerns over safety and violence in schools; decreased cost and improved programs for cell phones; and improved academic information on the Internet.

As cell phone use has grown so widespread, parents who desire a greater sense of safety for their children have pushed for allowing cell phones in school, believing that they can be in touch with their children immediately in the case of school or home emergencies (Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010). School officials also recognize several advantages to allowing students to bring and use cell phones. These school advantages include lower school costs when children have their own devices rather than using equipment in a computer lab, school administrators and teachers can focus on teaching rather than enforcing “no tolerance” policies, and children with extended illnesses can benefit from the use of FaceTime or Skype to participate in classroom discussions, thus saving the cost of home-visiting teachers.

In addition to these advantages to parents, administrators, and teachers, children also perceive benefits from the use of cell phones in the classroom. For instance, they can receive immediate feedback from their teachers without embarrassment, and they can capture notes without the distraction of note-taking. Also, cell phones have multiple features that are applicable to the school curricula, such as mobile apps, access to the Internet for research, an electronic thesaurus and dictionary, and a calculator, eliminating the additional weight associated with personal computers, dictionaries, and calculators.

Finally, to address what opponents raise as concerns about the use of cell phones in the classroom, some policies have proven to be effective. The most useful policy has been the professional development of teachers in effective educational application of cell phones, including limiting children’s use to specific activities and times of day to decrease the likelihood of cheating, and clear rules specifying no texting of friends or playing games during class time.

See Table 8.3 for a breakdown of communication skills by age and type of skill.

Table 8.3: Communication development by age

Skill Type

6 Years

8 Years

Listening (receptive)

Remembers simple instructions and information

Follows two- to three-step directions in a sequence

Listens attentively in group situations; understands and remembers complex information

Follows complex directions

Speaking (expressive)

Is easily understood

Answers complex “yes/no” questions with ease

Tells and retells stories and events in a logical order

Expresses ideas with a variety of complete sentences

Uses most parts of speech (grammar) correctly

Asks and responds to “wh” questions (who, what, where, when, why)

Stays on topic and takes turns in conversation

Starts conversations

Speaks clearly with an appropriate voice

Asks and responds to many types of questions

Participates in conversations and group discussions with easy verbal volleys

Uses varied vocabulary and elaborate descriptions in speaking

Summarizes a story accurately in accordance with grammatical rules and varied vocabulary

Asks, answers, and can discuss in detail “wh” questions (who, what, where, when, why)

Stays on topic, adds more descriptive words, and can entertain with language

Participates fully and appropriately in conversations

Reading (receptive)

Identifies all sounds in short words

Blends separate sounds to form words

Is beginning to use meaning clues in single sentences

Matches spoken words with print

Knows how a book works (e.g., read form left to right and top to bottom in English)

Identifies letters, words, and sentences

Reads grade-level material aloud with some stopping

Has a sight vocabulary of 100 common words

Comprehends the general plot in short stories

Demonstrates full mastery of basic phonics

Uses word analysis skills when reading

Uses clues from language content and structure to understand what is read

Rereads and self-corrects less frequently

Uses acquired information to learn about new topics

Asks questions regarding reading material

Reads grade-level materials fluently both silently and aloud

Predicts and justifies what will happen next in stories

Compares and contrasts stories

Writing (expressive)

Expresses ideas through simple writing

Prints clearly

Begins each sentence with capital letters and uses ending punctuation

Spells frequently used simple words correctly

Writes a variety of short and simple stories, journal entries, or letters/notes

Includes details in writing

Writes clearly in cursive

Can plan, organize, revise, and edit

Spells simple words correctly, corrects most spelling independently, and uses a dictionary to correct spelling

Writes stories, letters, simple explanations, and brief reports

Source: Reprinted with permission from American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.b). Your child’s communication: first grade. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/firstgrade.htm. © 2014 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. All rights reserved.

Development of Humor

The development of humor is closely related to the advanced language and cognitive skills of children ages 6–8 (Price, 2007). Humor can be used as a communication tool, as a coping mechanism, or in other practical applications in teaching children at this age. It is believed to develop in stages, as do the main child development domains. Paul McGhee’s research in the area of comprehension of humor describes humor as the “violation of cognitive expectancies” either through novelty or incongruities (McGhee, 1971). Thus he separated humor into two categories, that of novelty humor and incongruity humor. Novelty humor involves perceiving something new and unfamiliar as funny or entertaining. Novelty humor includes common occurrences such as a cat’s licking its own fur, which may elicit laughter from a child who is observing it for the first time. Incongruity humor deals with absurd, unexpected, or inappropriate jokes and situations. For example, young children often go through phases where they find the sounds the body makes (e.g., burping) humorous.

In early childhood, children are able to understand more complex humor that involves incongruity.

McGhee’s model of humor development begins with the first two stages, stage 0 or “prehumor” and stage 1, in infancy when the child is able to notice concrete incongruities (see Table 8.4 for examples that describe each of the stages). Stage 2 is evident when the toddler demonstrates incongruities nonverbally, followed by stage 3, when 4 and 5 year olds produce incongruity verbally. Incongruity in early childhood often means being silly (McGhee, 2002). At ages 6–8, the silly quality of humor diminishes because children can understand more complex humor. Therefore, by stage 4, the last stage in McGhee’s model, children begin to prefer humor that offers not only an incongruity but also an answer to the incongruity.

Table 8.4: Paul McGhee’s stages of humor development

Stage

Characteristics and Examples

Stage 0: Laughter without humor (prehumor)

Children exhibit smiles and laughter.

Stage 1: Laughter at the attachment figure

Children demonstrate an increasing awareness of interpersonal surroundings and participate in social humor with a parent or other attachment figure through games such as peek-a-boo.

Stage 2: Treating an object as a different object

Children begin producing “jokes” nonverbally by performing incongruous actions such as wearing a food bowl as a hat or pretending to talk into a shoe.

Stage 3: Misnaming objects or actions and playing with words

Once children’s vocabulary hits a critical point, they can extend incongruity humor to misnaming objects or actions. Children at this stage often enjoy calling things by their opposite name—cold as hot, boy as girl. As children’s verbal competence grows, they are less dependent on objects as the source of humor. They may experiment with rhyming words, made-up silly words, and other humorous play that does not directly link to concrete objects within reach.

Stage 4: Riddles and jokes

Children begin to understand that humor has meaning—that jokes must evolve from something absurd into something that makes cognitive sense. They often start memorizing riddles and jokes and using them as a means of initiating social interactions with peers and adults.

8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds

The social-emotional domain of development at this age begins to take major leaps toward approximating more adolescent-like feelings. Since this stage of early childhood brings about better and more refined motor, cognitive, and language skills, it is common for children to be proud of their many new accomplishments and their newfound independence. A child’s belief that he or she has the skills and abilities needed to achieve goals is referred to as self-efficacy, which can be initiated and fostered during these years (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010). Children at this age often feel confident and competent and may overestimate their abilities in many areas of development. Characteristic of the earlier years of this age range is an optimistic impression of self, thereby bringing self-esteem to an all-time high. Self-esteem refers to a person’s attitude about himself or herself, based on how the person evaluates his or her own worth.

Children with realistic self-concepts generally demonstrate higher self-esteem.

In developing their social selves, children begin to notice their peers’ skills and competencies. Children’s comparisons with peers’ abilities begin during this period, bringing about more realistic beliefs about themselves. These sets of beliefs are called self-concepts. Children with realistic self-concepts generally have higher self-esteem and engage in less risky health practices in the future (Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & de Vries, 2004).

Toward the end of this age range, around ages 7 and 8, when children are becoming more realistic in their self-concepts, they are greatly influenced by how others respond to them, including parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, in addition to providing guidance for emerging skills at friendship formation, children need appropriate discipline and structuring of behaviors.

Friendships with peers outside of the family and with siblings are important at this stage. During these years, however, children are still learning the art of cooperation and sharing, which means that relationships are often awkward and tumultuous. Skills develop in this domain through trial and error with peers, and most children feel the pull of peer pressure. This pull is especially strong because opinions of peers matter now more than ever before. This makes some children prime targets for bullying. Bullying is repeated, directed, and intentional physical or verbal behavior that is meant to be harmful to an individual perceived as weak and vulnerable. Bullying behavior includes threatening, spreading rumors, attacking someone physically or verbally, and excluding someone from a group knowingly and maliciously (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).

Bullying

From his earliest days in school, a young boy has been troubled by bullies. His mother, also bullied as a child, carries lifelong emotional scars.

Critical Thinking Questions

How is bullying harmful for each of the domains of development?

Why do you think some children bully other children?

What can teachers do to help stop bullying behavior?

Also typical of ages 6–8 is children’s preference for playmates of the same age and sex. These children learn by observing and talking with each other, thereby helping to decrease the egocentric way of thinking and feeling that is characteristic of younger children. Consequently, children begin to understand viewpoints and opinions of others and can consider that their way is not the only way.

Furthermore, as seen in Chapter 3, Erikson’s stage of development for children ages 6–8 is industry versus inferiority, which continues into puberty. Children begin persevering more deliberately in tasks and attend to activities and completion of a product more than ever before. This theory points to the need for adults to provide positive experiences, opportunities for success, and encouragement in learning in order to avoid the opposite of an industrious child, which would be a child with feelings of inferiority.

Freud looked at this period from another lens and described it as latency, when sexual urges are dormant so that energy is available for learning. This does not contradict Erikson’s view but can be seen as a supplement to industry, since latency is thought to quiet distracting urges and allow for internal drives that focus on learning and production.

Discipline

Setting behavioral boundaries, rules, and age-appropriate discipline should begin long before ages 6–8; however, these years of childhood bring about new and different behavioral challenges as children try out their newfound independence from family, advanced physical and cognitive skills, and complex peer relationships. Discipline is not punishment at any age. But during these years, caregivers need to be especially sensitive to the child’s growing need for understanding and internalizing values and for developing morality. Therefore discipline at this age must be respectful guidance without making the child feel “bad.” It should include instruction on behaviors that can replace inappropriate behaviors. This can be done by direct instruction and by modeling good behavior.

To use good modeling techniques, caregivers must provide opportunities for the child to listen, watch, and try out the behavior. In addition, reinforcing positive behaviors is extremely effective in establishing wanted behaviors. Positive reinforcements for children at this age come easily in everyday situations through verbal compliments, smiles, or a simple pat on the back.

Children also need to know what is expected of them through rules that are clear and consistently enforced, with consequences that help them experience the result of their behaviors. Caregivers also should provide developmentally appropriate assistance in better problem solving through discussions and role-playing, since children at this age are becoming more logical in their thinking and learn better through interactions. Also, because this age brings about particular interest in peers, caregivers can ignore simple inappropriate behaviors and attend to the children who are behaving in a positive manner, being sure the target child for this disciplinary strategy is observing the positive consequences or reinforcements that the well-behaving peer is experiencing. If these are not effective as the first line of discipline, caregivers can use grounding and withholding of privileges for this age group. Not being permitted to participate with peers is often very effective at this age.

Moral Development

Children develop their morals based on family, peer and school influence.

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Critical Thinking Question

What is important to communicate to children to help them develop good morals?

Renata, a kindergarten teacher for the past 10 years, describes to her new teacher’s aide the difficult task of managing a classroom of 30 students: “If you merely focus on the disruptive behaviors, you will find yourself wrapped up in traveling from one minor disruption to another.” The veteran teacher goes on to explain that it is the small responses to the attentive students that creates a positive culture in the classroom. “It isn’t the sticker that you put on the paper when the job is complete, but the positive feedback and attention that you provide during the activity. If that feedback is sincere and genuine, the students will seek that experience,” Renata adds.

Ineffective and inappropriate disciplinary tactics at any age include physical discipline such as hitting, slapping, restraints, and soap or pepper in the mouth and negative psychological discipline, including ridicule, embarrassment, verbal abuse, threats, and name calling (Groark & Song, 2012). These methods are never appropriate, but this age group is particularly sensitive to negative discipline approaches. Because self-concepts and self-esteem are developing, children ages 6–8 can be damaged easily, profoundly influencing future social-emotional behaviors.

Moral Development

In addition to strategic and appropriate discipline that guides proper behavior at this age, children’s cognitive and emotional abilities are able to complement the development of their own sense of morality and values. This means that, although important and necessary, it is not enough to have a sense of right and wrong, which most children have by this stage of childhood. They need a sense of morality, which is a higher code of conduct that considers the quality of action a person takes after the person knows right from wrong. This action includes considering how the action relates to others’ well-being. Morality is related to conscience and internal values. However, morality can be learned by observing others and imitating them. It takes inhibition of some preferences and desires to act in a moral manner.

Harvard University professor Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) believed that people go through six stages of moral development. He classified these stages into three levels: preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality (Kohlberg, 2008). These six stages and three levels broadly match the age ranges as seen in Table 8.5.

Table 8.5: Kolhberg’s theory of moral development (why rules are or are not obeyed)

Stage

Level I: Preconventional Morality

Age

Obedience and punishment orientation: Rules are obeyed without question to avoid punishment.

Infancy

Self-interest, individualization, and personal gain: Rules are obeyed for personal benefits and rewards.

Preschool

Level II: Conventional Morality

Good interpersonal relationships: Rules are obeyed for approval by others and based on good motives.

Ages 6–8 and school age

Maintaining social order: Rules are obeyed to respect authority and to maintain order in society as a whole.

Ages 6–8 and school age

Level III: Postconventional Morality

Social contract and individual rights: Rules are obeyed if they make life better for society; otherwise, rules should be questioned.

Adolescence

Universal principles: Morality is based on personal ethics and principles; these weigh more in decision making than the larger good.

Adulthood

Source: Crain, W. C. (1985). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. In Theories of development (pp. 118–136). New York: Prentice Hall.

At the preconventional level, children’s ideas of morality begin by abiding by rules in order to avoid punishment. Also within the preconventional level, children follow rules because they want to make others like them. These two outcomes benefit the children directly; thus, they drive children’s morality. The more advanced concepts of right and wrong are not evident at this level.

The conventional level occurs when children learn about the conventions of rules delivered by authorities. Children at this level believe they must show respect for authority. Disobeying rules is considered “bad.” Kohlberg believed that some people never move from this level, so their moral principles are based on following conventional rules set by authority figures. They do not make decisions or any determinations about morality.

Kohlberg’s final level of moral development is the postconventional level. Children and adults at this level have learned that there is a difference between right and wrong from a moral perspective and also from the perspective of rules established by authorities. Those who have attained this level use their consciences to decide whether breaking a rule is the right thing to do depending on the context surrounding the action.

Piaget (1965) identified two stages of moral development: the heteronomous morality of younger children and the autonomous morality of older children. At the stage of heteronomous morality, children see rules established by authorities to be unbreakable and unchangeable (Fleming, 2006). Children’s morality is directed by others at this point, and breaking such rules would lead to negative consequences. At the stage of autonomous morality, children are at the point in cognitive development when they have the ability to see others’ viewpoints; they can appreciate that morality should be more autonomous or self-directed and that good or bad is based on the individual’s intentions (Fleming, 2006). Decisions should be made based on how they affect others.

8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds

Self-help at ages 6–8 encompasses a variety of opportunities. For instance, during these years, it is important to help children make appropriate choices. However, since children are learning independence, they need a limited number of suitable options from which to choose. Making choices in self-help areas can give children at this age a sense of control over what they do and a sense of responsibility to do the right thing. Since children at this age have better fine motor skills, they can eat with all utensils, including forks and spoons, and typically can cut with a knife. Therefore, caregivers can ask children whether a spoon or fork would be preferred when eating rice or peas, and whether or not they would like to cut their toast in half.

Mike Watson Images/moodboard/Thinkstock

Promoting independence in self-care like hygiene skills will increase the child’s sense of control and responsibility.

In addition, due in part to better fine motor abilities, children’s hygiene skills are improving so that they can comb and brush their own hair, bathe independently, and dress completely. This includes using fasteners like small buttons and zippers and tying shoelaces. They can be asked to choose among two or three appropriate outfits to wear for the day and then left to complete the task independently.

Self-help at this age must include being aware of the need for safety and knowing what to do in a variety of contexts. Although caregivers must continue to structure the caregiving environment to avoid hazards, children at this age are independent and leave home to be with their peers. They can follow rules that are clearly stated and understood. Role-playing a variety of scenarios is a fun way to reinforce safety rules. These role-plays can include practicing fire safety escape routes, what to do if a stranger approaches them, or how to cross a road using crosswalk signals.

Sleeping

Sleep duration at ages 6–8 varies considerably depending on family rules, culture, and individual sleep needs. However, poor sleep duration and poor sleep quality—such as inconsistent patterns of sleep, including staying awake later on weekend nights and longer sleep periods during summers and vacations—have been suspected to be risk factors for unhealthy development of children. For years, health care professionals have attributed specific health and behavioral problems such as headaches, hypertension, poor academic achievement, increased risk of accidents, emotional problems, and other psychiatric symptoms to poor sleep quality and duration or inconsistent sleep (Paavonen et al., 2002).

Sleep patterns in children ages 6–8 have been studied to determine normal ranges and risk factors for a variety of health and behavioral outcomes such as obesity and hyperactivity. Nixon et al. (2008) found that children in this age group who slept less than 9 hours were more likely to be overweight or obese and to have more body fat. The range of sleep time reported by parents was 7–13 hours. Children who went to bed after 9:00 p.m. had significantly shorter sleep duration, by more than 41 minutes. Nixon et al. (2008) concluded that bedtime is an important determinant of sleep duration in children.

If sleep problems are suspected, educators and caregivers should be aware that parent report is not necessarily the best way to assess whether a child is getting enough sleep. In surveys by the National Sleep Foundation (2007), 90 percent of parents thought their children were getting enough sleep, and at the same time over 25 percent of children fell asleep in class at least once a week (Bronson, 2007). Causes of poor sleep quality may be sensitivity to environmental noise or light at night and activity level during the day. Children living in high-trafficked urban areas may be disturbed by noise during the night. Noise inside the home can also be part of the problem especially if television, music, or loud conversations are disrupting sleep hours. Overstimulated and overscheduled children may have difficulty winding down. Children’s use of screen technology and media can contribute to this overstimulation with video games, online and computer tablet games, as well as constant “connectedness” via texting, video calls, and social media. Children at this age from low-income families are more susceptible than their peers to the effects of poor sleep. Results may include being depressed, sick, or overweight. Poor sleep is likely to affect brain development, presenting behavior related to poor emotional regulation (National Science Foundation, 2010).

According to sleep experts, children ages 5–12 need 10–11 hours of sleep each night (National Sleep Foundation, n.d.). Yet this is the age at which social and sports activities are placing more demands on children. Caregivers and teachers should look for signs of insufficient sleep or poor sleep quality. These signs include yawning, drowsiness, binge eating, moodiness, and depression (Bronson, 2007). If signs persist, a parent meeting may be necessary.

Tips on Sleep for Children Ages 6–8

Teach children about healthy sleep habits.

Continue to emphasize the need for a regular and consistent sleep schedule and bedtime routine.

Make children’s bedrooms conducive to sleep—dark, cool, and quiet.

Keep television, computers, and other screen technology and media (including cell phones and tablets) out of the bedroom.

Avoid caffeine.

Source: National Sleep Foundation. (2013a). Children and sleep. Retrieved from http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article /sleep-topics/children-and-sleep. Copyright © 2007 National Sleep Foundation. Reprinted by permission.

Elimination

By ages 6–8, most elimination occurs naturally and without much attention. However, some children have wetting (enuresis) and soiling (encopresis) problems that need attention. Because of the social-emotional stage children are in at this time, such experiences could be quite humiliating. Children may not admit to elimination problems, but if these become frequent they may be symptomatic of medical or behavioral problems, some being serious. Physically there could be bowel obstructions that need medical attention. Occasionally such elimination behaviors are intentional and indicate problems with parents or other family members. This situation should be referred to a mental health specialist. In any case, encopresis and enuresis are frustrating disorders when they occur at this age.

Nocturnal enuresis refers to involuntary bedwetting in children who are at an age when they typically have bladder control. Nocturnal enuresis may begin long after, even years after, a child has been toilet trained. It is quite common, occurring in about 6 percent of 5 year olds and in 3 percent of 10 year olds. It is not of concern if it is rare or an isolated instance. However, enuresis may signal a urinary tract infection, so it should not be dismissed if it recurs (Lissauer & Clyden, 2011). To learn nighttime continence, children need parental support and approval, not reprimands, and they need to be relatively free from stress. This could become a problem in educational and after-school settings if daytime fatigue, embarrassment, or internalizing behaviors such as suppressing emotions, playing in solitude, or keeping secluded result. If caregivers suspect elimination problems, they must approach the issue with sensitivity and confidentiality.

8.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

Red flags in children ages 6–8 years are quite different from those in previous age groups. They are generally more subtle and can go unnoticed. They often include behaviors that caregivers feel are not “quite right,” like a child’s lack of energy, isolation from activities, gradual or slight loss of previously demonstrated motor skills, or signs of anxiety. Due to improved cognitive and communication skills, children at this age are better at hiding or covering up such behaviors. Once a teacher or caregiver notices red flags and suspects a problem, the situation must be handled with sensitivity so that self-esteem is not negatively affected. Referrals should be made in collaboration with parents. Research has shown that the outcomes of referrals are “adequate” only if two criteria are met: (a) A live person has to be reached within three calls, and (b) that live person offers an appointment. In addition, in families where, for example, Spanish is the primary language, the language becomes an access barrier and the result is that fewer than half of callers obtain an appointment. This finding implies that the live person reached must respond in the home language (Williams, Perrigo, Banda, Matic, & Goldfarb, 2013) or that teachers and caregivers need to take a more active role in facilitating the referral.

Red flags that should be attended to during ages 6–8 include the following:

Excessive fatigue or daytime sleepiness

Soiling, wetting, or fecal retention

Nocturnal enuresis

Perceptual motor issues like decreased coordination (can’t gallop, skip, do jumping jacks) and difficulty with left-right discrimination, difficulty with sensory stimulation, and the like

Lack of a sense of humor and apparent disinterest in any attempt at humor

Hyperactivity

Antisocial behavior

Anxiety or phobias

Refusal to attend school

School underachievement

Summary and Resources

Ages 6–8 represent a stage of early childhood quite different from those that precede it, as children begin to demonstrate increasingly adultlike thoughts and behaviors. Children at this age have newfound independence from family; have advanced physical, cognitive, and communication skills including well-developed humor; and begin to build complex, lifelong friendships. This occurs partly because brain development is continuing in a way that allows more complex thinking, which results in planning, goal setting, inhibition of impulses, and control of attention. Children at this age also build enduring characteristics like self-esteem, morality, responsibility for their own behaviors, and independence in task completion and decision making. These characteristics, if developed appropriately and positively, can be associated with success in school, sports, and even with the achievement of future goals like long-term relationships, marriage, and employment.

Thus, this stage of early childhood creates important and somewhat different responsibilities for teachers, caregivers, and parents, along with more advanced strategies of teaching. For instance, children must learn their own role in new areas of self-help such as safety. They need to understand the impact of sleep, nutrition, and exercise on their health and learning, and they should be encouraged to be productive, industrious, and moral. Teachers and caregivers will be more effective in enhancing these skills in children by using subtle and sensitive scaffolding, positive modeling of desired behaviors, and interactive direct teaching methods.

Key Terms and Concepts

autonomous morality

body mass index (BMI)

bullying

conventional morality

encopresis

enuresis

heteronomous morality

incongruity humor

negative psychological discipline

nocturnal enuresis

novelty humor

obesity

overweight

physical discipline

postconventional morality

preconventional morality

self-concept

self-esteem

Discussion Questions

Theorists including Freud and Piaget saw development at ages 6–8 as a time of latency and stability. Do you agree with this perspective? Why or why not?

Discuss the development of humor in children. Can you think of examples of each stage in children you know?

Why is discipline an important consideration for children this age? Identify key recommendations regarding discipline to foster social-emotional development.

Describe changes in peer relationships and friendship. How does bullying affect development? Brainstorm ways to identify and reduce bullying among peers in children ages 6–8.

Review the development of morality according to Kohlberg and Piaget. Discuss how adverse events in early childhood could affect moral development.

Observational Activities

The following activities encourage opportunities to see child development in action. Arranging occasions to observe or interact with children of various ages creates critical moments to synthesize the learning in this text.

Witnessing humor development; jokes on you. Children love to laugh, but what each child finds funny can vary. Schedule some time with a 6, 7, or 8 year old. Prior to the engagement, rehearse several child-friendly jokes (e.g., 15 Great Jokes for Kids). Take note of the child’s age and what jokes he or she finds humorous. If the jokes are not a hit, improvise with some physical comedy like silly faces, pretend falling down, or goofy dancing.

Witnessing cognitive development; problem solved. You can see children’s growth in cognitive functioning as you observe how they solve problems. Books provide many storylines in which a child can be probed with questions about what a character should do next. You can consult a list of books that feature problem-solving scenarios; however, most quality books render the opportunity to ask a child questions. Take note of how complex and imaginative the child’s problem-solving solutions are.

Witnessing variation with an age; kick it. It has been stressed throughout each of the chapters that development, while falling in a typically predictable pattern, varies for every child. This is evident when attending a children’s sporting event. Youth leagues usually group teams by age, but you will find that, despite their ages being alike, the children will look and perform very differently. In observing an event, take note of the range of physical statures, skills, and attention to the game and rules that you see.

Web Resources

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/index.html

This website offers facts and solutions to childhood overweight and obesity.

American Academy of Pediatrics

http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/Pages/default.aspx

This website provides information on feeding, nutrition, and fitness for all developmental stages from infancy to young adulthood.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

http://www.stopbullying.gov/

This website provides information from various government agencies on how kids, teens, young adults, parents, educators, and others in the community can prevent or stop bullying.

National Center for Biotechnology Information

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

The center advances science and health by providing access to biomedical and genomic information.

Technical Assistance Center on Social Emotional Intervention for Young Children (TACSEI)

http://www.challengingbehavior.org/do/resources/backpack.html

Of particular interest on this website is the “Backpack Connection Series,” which is a series of handouts in four categories, including behavior, emotions, routines and schedules, and social skills. Each handout can be placed in a child’s backpack so that teachers and parents or caregivers can work together to help young children develop social-emotional skills and reduce challenging behavior.