Change management paper

Change Strategies

I. Socialization: changing newcomers

A. Types: Individualized vs. Institutionalized.

1. Individualized: informal, individual, nonlinear, random, unique, embedded

2. Institutionalized: formal, collective, linear, fixed, standard, segregated

B. Information: Language, history, people, job, jargon, politics

C. Mentoring

1. functions: socioemotional, career advice, job advice, ownership

2. Social engineering: insider/outsider, same/opposite sex

3. Voluntary: who gets monitored?

II. Performance Appraisal

A. It is hated.

B. Problems

1. Harshness

2. Leniency

3. Superior-Subordinate perceptions.

4. Timing.

C. Theory.

1. Attribution

2. Constructive vs. destructive Feedback-Baron

III. Incentives

A. Money for improvement.

B. Problems.

1. Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation.

2. Wage dispersion.

3. Privacy vs. awareness

4. Unethical behavior.

5. Reduced organizational citizenship behavior.

6. Competition vs. cooperation.

IV. Perceived organizational support-people will accept change if they feel the company cares about them.

1. Recognition as an individual.

2. Discretionary funds.

3. Personal training.

V. Participation.

1. Participation-voice in decision making.

2. Empowerment-enabling workers to set their own goals, routines and problem solutions.

3. Mayo’s Human Relations Approach.

a. Because of the industrial revolution, meaning has

gone out of work itself.

b. Consequently, individuals work because of the self-

meaning they drive from it.

c. An important determinant of their self-concept is

derived from interacting with others on the job.

d. Individuals are more responsive to the peer group

than they are to the incentive and control of

management.

e. Individuals will put forth adequate effort toward

organizational goals if they feel that management

meets their social needs on the job.

VI. Influence strategies: Kipnis, and others

A. Ingratiation

1. Primary targets: Co-workers and subordinates.

2. Superiors: Problem is transparency.

3. Works but only with co-workers/subordinates and superiors with high need for control.

B. Rationality

1. Primary target: superiors

2. Works

C. Assertiveness

1. Primary target: subordinates

D. Exchange

1. Primary target: co-workers

E. Blocking

1. Primary target: co-workers

F. Sanctions

1. Primary target: Subordinates

G. Upward appeals

1. Primary target: Subordinates/coworkers.

H. Coalitions.

1. Everyone.

2. Ineffective.

I. Legitimizing

1. Everyone

2. Ineffective

J. Inspirational appeals

1. Subordinates.

2. Effective

K. Consultation

1. Subordinates/coworker

VII. Behavior Modification Approach

A. Identify behaviors for change: observable, measurable, task-related, critical to the task.

B. Measure: baseline frequency.

C. Analyze functional consequences

D. Intervene

1. Develop intervention to fit organizational context

2. Apply intervention with financial, nonfinancial (performance appraisal feedback), social (recognition) or combination incentives.

3. Measure posttest frequency.

E. Assess whether behavior modified.

F. Maintain the modification: schedule of reinforcement

G. Evaluate performance improvement.

VIII. Implementation strategies: Nutt

A. Implementation by Intervention: Key executives justify need for change, almost 100% effective but only used 20% of cases.

1. Step 1: Acquire the authority to manage a change process and appraise performance.

2. Step 2: Apply new norms to identify performance inadequacies (comparisons to competing organizations).

3. Step 3: Justify new norms or demonstrate the feasibility of improving practices.

4. Step 4: Demonstrate improvement in performance

5. Step 5: Monitor performance.

B. Implementation by participation: Stakeholders representatives determine change features. 75% effective but only used in 17% .

1. Sponsors stipulate needs or opportunities

2. Sponsors set objectives

3. Task force formed by sponsors who

a. Identify stakeholders

b. Delegate responsibility with a statement of expectations and constraints

c. Assign staff report.

4. Development

5. Recommendation to sponsor.

6. Acceptance made through cooptation

7. Monitor performance

C. Implementation by persuasion: Experts attempt to sell a change. 75% effective and used in 42% of cases.

1. Sponsors stipulate needs, opportunities or both, or accept need or opportunities made by experts.

2. Development

3. Interested parties use persuasion tactics to sell ideas

4. Monitor performance.

D. Implementation by edict: Sponsor issues directives requirement adoption. 43% success and used 23% of cases.

1. Sponsors stipulate needs or opportunities

2. Development

a. steps in creation

b. Periodic monitoring as specifics emerge.

3. Sponsors issue directive

4. Monitor performance.

IX. Leadership strategies:

A. Kotter

1. Outsiders-radical change but no political resources. Often fail

2. Insiders-structural changes but lots of resources. Successful but modest change.

3. Insiders with outsiders perspective. Most effective.

X. Stage approach.

A. How change unfolds

1. Process: Unfreezing—moving—refreezing

2. Interpretive trigger: Announcement—event occurs—derivative events.

3. Personalization: What will this mean to me—what will event mean to my work—what has this meant?

4. Interpretative stage: Anticipation—confirmation—culmination—aftermath

5. construed reality: Rumors, scattered information/observation—conventional explanations—double exposures—consequences, strengths/weaknesses, winners/losers

B. Forewarning and preparation, influences cognition but not affect.

C. Self-determination

1. Giving a rationale

2. Offering some choice about implementation.

3. Acknowledging feelings about the change.

XI. Linkage approach: Goodman and Rousseau

A. Organizational improvement paradox

1. A change has been successfully introduced in part of an organization.

2. The change produces positive performance results for one department or an entire set of subunits.

3. Change agents anticipate that this change will improve firm performance.

4. The firm doesn’t benefit.

B. Steps.

1. Linkage identification.

a. How is the firm organized? Identify interdependencies

b. Are the performance metrics similar?

c. What is a unit’s functional contribution to the overall firm performance?

d. What are the time lags between the change and observable results?

e. Implications. It will be easier to translate successful changes at one level into gains at another if forms of organizing are independent, metrics are the same, the functional contribution is strong and the lags between changes and results at other levels are short and identifiable.

2. Mapping the change pathway—identifying obstacles.

3. Building stronger linkages.

a. Creating multilevel motivation systems.

b. Creating problem solving mechanisms between units.

c. Coordinating both vertically and horizontally