Linguistic grammar homework.
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ch7aslides.pptxChapter 7: Adjectives
I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives
A. Modifiers and Predicates
B. Semantic Subclasses
C. => Another classification: GRADABILITY
II. MORPHOLOGY of Adjectives
A. Derivation
B. Inflection
III. INTRODUCERS OF Adjectives
I. SEMANTICS OF ADJECTIVES
A. Modifiers and predicates
Adjectives provide descriptive information about nouns.
This occurs in two ways:
1. by functioning as ‘modifiers’
2. by functioning as ‘predicates’
1. Modifiers
a. Modifiers may be descriptive: specify more qualities of objects
b. Modifiers may also be restrictive: limiting the set of objects referred to by a (common) noun.
1. Modifiers
a. Descriptive Modifiers specify additional qualities:
Hortense solved that intricate, exasperating, puzzle.
Phil was wearing a longish, woolen jacket
1. Modifiers
b. Restrictive modifiers limit (restrict) the set of objects referred to by a (common) noun:
Example:
Would you please hand me the pencil?
(There are several. Which one?)
The yellow pencil.
1. Modifiers
b. Restrictive modification
In: the yellow pencil
The common noun pencil refers to any pencil, or more precisely all pencils (a class or set of objects)
The restrictive adjective pick out a subset of things that are pencils
1. Modifiers
Footnote: Other categories also act as modifiers of nouns:
Would you hand me…
the pencil by your elbow (prepositional phrase)
the pencil I just bought (sentence: relative clause)
2. Predicates
Predicate: a property or quality that is affirmed or denied about an object
This pencil is not sharp.
That pencil is yellow.
The NP refers to a pencil.
The Adjective phrase asserts something about it.
2. Predicates
Similar to our text examples (3) and (4):
(3) Please paint the blue house.
Blue is a modifier;
It may be restrictive: identifies which house should be painted
(4) Please paint the house blue.
Blue is a predicate. It asserts that the house should become blue.
2. Predicates
One more example with an adjective as predicate:
The patrons left the theater happy.
Asserts:
- the patrons left the theater
- the patrons were happy at the time they left the theater
2. Predicates
Some adjectives cannot be predicates:
The alleged author of the essay (modifier)
*The author of the essay is alleged. (not a predicate)
B. Semantic Subclasses
Adjective is a lexical category:
It is an open class: many members, and new members can be added
There are semantic subcategories of adjectives
B. Semantic Subclasses
NPs may have several adjectives as modifiers:
her old broken blue plastic cell phone
a bright cloudless crisp autumny day
B. Semantic Subclasses
1. Nationality: Japanese, African, American…
2. Personal: human, female, rich, poor, healthy, sick, friendly
3. Material: wooden/oaken/woven
4. Age/size: young, old, big, fat, small, little, ancient…
5. Color: green, orange, purple
B. Semantic Subclasses
Adjective subclasses occur in a fixed order, not just any order:
her old broken plastic cell phone
??her plastic broken old cell phone
It is not known why the order is fixed rather than free.
C. Another classification: GRADABILITY
GRADABILITY is the potential for variation in the degree to which a property is present.
For example:
a messy room
(the quality of messiness is present)
a very messy room
(a higher degree of messiness is present)
C. Another classification: GRADABILITY
Not all adjectives are gradable:
a nuclear submarine
*a very nuclear submarine
a mere housefly
*a very mere housefly
I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives: Summary
A. Modifiers and Predicates
1. Inside NP: adjective modifiers specify qualities of the noun; they may also restrict the reference of the NP
2. Outside NP, adjectives are predicates; they assert or deny some property of the NP.
I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives: Summary
B. Semantic Subclasses There are several semantic subclasses; these determine the order in which adjectives occur within NP.
C. Another classification: GRADABILITY: The potential for variation in the amount or degree to which a quality is present.
II. MORPHOLOGY of Adjectives
A. Derivational
B. Inflectional
A. Derivational
New adjectives can be formed by two derivational processes:
1. Affixation
2. compounding
1. Affixation
Prefixes: (added to adjectives to form new ones)
un-: unclear, uncertain, unfair, unkind
in-/im-: immoderate, indescribable, inaudible
1. Affixation
Suffixes:
fiendish: fiend + -ish
ghoulish:
smartish: smart + -ish (somewhat)
reddish red + -ish (somewhat)
1. Affixation
Suffixes:
-ary: supplementary, planetary, secondary
-ous: anonymous, continuous, advantageous
-al: phenomenal, historical, normal
-ic: academic, altruistic, alphabetic, angelic
-some: awesome, irksome, nettlesome, troublesome
1. Affixation
Participles can be adjectives:
-ing: exciting, inviting, exhilarating
-ed: tired, deserted, refreshed
1. Affixation
Noun + -ly:
worldly, friendly ( => adjectives)
Adjective + -ly:
smoothly, probably, allegedly ( => adverbs)
2. Compounding
Examples:
far flung
sea green
bittersweet
hot-and-sour
II Morphology of Adjectives
B. Inflection
English Adjectives are inflected only for degree of comparison.
the friendly environment
the friendlier environment
the friendliest environment
B. Inflection
English Adjectives are inflected only for degree of comparison.
Syntactic form:
the interesting discussion (positive)
the more interesting discussion (comparative)
the most interesting discussion (superlative)
II. Morphology of Adjectives: Summary
A. Adjectives can be formed by derivational processes: prefixation, suffixation, and compounding; some participles can become adjectives.
B. Inflection: adjectives can be inflected for degree of comparison.
III. Introducers of Adjectives
A. Semantic types of Introducers
B. The category of introducers
A. Semantic types of introducers
1. Comparison words
more/less
most/least
A. Semantic types of introducers
2. Intensity words:
very
too
so
quite
B. The category of introducers
Introducers of adjectives are a closed class, functional category
They are not: N, V, Adj, Prep, Adv
These words have different distribution and morphological properties
B. The category of introducers
Proposed category: Degree
Categories of introduces so far:
Determiner
Quantifier
Numeral
Auxiliary (perfect, prog)
B. The category of introducers
Evidence for Degree analysis (versus Adverb):
Adverbs can be used as Degree words, their meaning is one of degree.
Examples:
B. The category of introducers
Examples:
an incredible story
(can’t be believed; amazing)
an [incredibly short] story
(= degree of shortness is extreme & amazing)
Adverbs that can introduce adjectives are those whose meaning is compatible with extreme degree
More examples:
a [richly deserved] reward
(very much deserved)
a [hotly contested] election
(very much contested)
Examples of Adverbs whose meaning is not just degree:
an [embarrassingly funny] mistake
an [outrageously complicated] solution
III. Introducers of Adjectives: Summary
A. Semantic types of Introducers: comparisons and intensity of degree
B. The category of introducers: Degree
