Women and Leadership Project
edwardgoe
CH6_TheCurrentStatusofWomen.pptxThe current status of women
Implications of Gender Inequality in the Workforce
Week 1
Chapter 6: What Difference Does Difference Make?
This is the second slideset for Week 1 and it corresponds to Chapter 6 in the class text. What you are about to hear/see may not seem very optimistic, but keep in mind that women have made tremendous strides in terms of representation and earning potential across various jobs and industries. While we still have a lot of work to do, the good news is that the research shows it is only going to get better for women in the workplace.
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Goals
The goals for this slideset are to go over the current status of women across different industries and discuss the implications of such inequality in the workforce.
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Where are the women?
Implications of inequality in the workforce
Representation in the Workforce
In the U.S., women represent nearly half (46.9%) of the labor force
However, women only make up slightly over one-third (39.8%) of managers
Even though women enroll in and graduate from college at a higher rate than men
Of these women managers:
One-third are white women
4.1% are Latina women
3.8% are Black women
2.4% are Asian women
Let’s start off with general statistics regarding women in the workforce. In the U.S., women represent nearly half of the labor force, at 46.9%. However, only 39.8% of women are managers, even though women enroll in and graduate from college at a higher rate than men. Diversity is also lacking in the group of women who are managers, as one-third are white women, but only 4.1% are Latina, 3.8% are Black, and 2.4% are Asian women.
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Corporations and Entrepreneurs (Pew, 2018)
Female CEOs of Fortune 500 companies reached an all-time high of 6.7% in 2017
This number fell to less than 5% in 2018, as women resigned from these positions
Source: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/fact-sheet/the-data-on-women-leaders/
In 2017, 6.7% of Fortune 500 companies had female CEOs. In 2018, this number fell to less than 5%, as women resigned from these positions.
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Corporations and Entrepreneurs (Pew, 2018)
The share of women sitting on boards of Fortune 500 companies has risen from 9.6% in 1995 to 22.2% in 2017
The share of women in senior roles is increasing incrementally
29% of senior management roles are held by women
The proportion of women in senior leadership also differs by region:
Source: https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-management/
Nonetheless, the share of women in senior roles is increasing incrementally, as 29% of senior management roles are held by women. However, the proportion of women in senior leadership also differs by region. Take a look at this table-- you can see that Eastern Europe has the highest percentage of senior roles held by women, at 32%, and Latin America has the lowest percentage, with only 25% of senior roles being held by women.
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The higher up the corporate ladder, the fewer the women
In the U.S., only 5% of women in Standard & Poor’s companies are CEOs for 2019
As of 2018, only 4% of executives are women of color
Source: https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-management/
Another issue is that as women climb the corporate ladder into higher positions within organizations, the number of women drops substantially. Look at this pyramid, which reflects the percentage of women in S&P 500 companies across different job levels. Women make up nearly 45% of all employees, yet only 5% of women are CEOs.
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Industries most lacking women among hires for leadership roles
Manufacturing
Energy and mining
Software and IT services
Finance
Real estate
Corporate services
Legal fields
This is a list of industries that are most lacking women among hires for leadership roles.
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Small Independently-Owned Businesses
There are now 11.6 million women-owned businesses in the U.S.
These businesses employ nearly 9 million people and generate almost $1.7 trillion in revenue (NAWBO, 2018)
Almost 40% of new entrepreneurs in the United States are women
Other parts of the world like Latin America and the Caribbean have a higher ratio of female entrepreneurs to male entrepreneurs than North American countries
Of technology startups in the U.S. in 2017, only 17% had a woman founder
In terms of small businesses, there are now 11.6 million women-owned businesses within the U.S. These companies employ nearly 9 million people and generate almost $1.7 trillion in revenue. Additionally, nearly 40% of new entrepreneurs in the U.S. are women. In other parts of the world, like Latin America and the Caribbean, there is a higher ratio of female entrepreneurs to male entrepreneurs than in North American countries. However, with regard to technology startups in the U.S. back in 2017, only 17% had a woman founder.
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Think Manager, Think Male (Schein, 1970)
Persistent stereotype that associates managers with being male
The qualities typical of “successful managers” are more aligned with the “typical man” than with the “typical woman”
Both male and female managers perceive that the characteristics associated with managerial success are more likely to be held by men than women (Schein, 1973, 1975)
Research has shown this is a global phenomenon (Schein, 2001)
So why are there so few women in managerial positions across industries? Well, there’s a phenomenon called “think manager, think male,” which is a persistent stereotype that associates managers with being male. In other words, people tend to hold stereotypes that suggest the qualities typical of successful managers are more aligned with the typical man than with the typical woman. In fact, research has shown that both male and female managers perceive that the characteristics associated with managerial success are more likely to be held by men than women. Research has also shown that this is not a phenomenon exclusive to one part of the world. It is actually a globally-shared stereotype.
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Government
In recent elections, voter turnout rates for women have equaled or exceeded voter turnout rates for men
Women, who constitute more than half the population, have cast almost ten million more votes than men in recent elections
The number of female voters has exceeded the number of male voters in every presidential election since 1964!
Gender Differences in Voter Turnout
Source: https://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/resources/genderdiff.pdf
Let’s start off with gender differences in voter turnout. This graph shows that, in recent elections, voter turnout rates for women have equaled or exceeded voter turnout rates for men. Women, who make up more than half the population, have cast almost 10 million more votes than men in recent elections. In fact, the number of female voters has exceeded the number of male voters in every single presidential election since 1964!
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Getting women “out of binders and into office”
The midterm elections in November 2018 saw a wave of women being elected to public office (called a “pink wave”)
Despite this, women only hold 25% of the 100 seats in the Senate, and 23.4% of the 435 seats in the House of Representatives
Mitt Romney once claimed that he had “binders full of women” to choose from, and yet, women are underrepresented in political leadership. Thus, the goal is to get women out of binders, and into office. Almost half of the states in the U.S. have yet to elect a woman governor or senator, and there has never been a female secretary of defense or secretary of treasury, which are two of the most powerful cabinet positions. It is critical to have women in leadership positions in governmental sectors where policy is made, as their decisions are amplified to improve access and equity for all women.
In November 2018, we saw a wave of women being elected to public office during the midterm elections, which has been coined a “pink wave”. Despite this wave of women securing positions in public office, women still only hold 25% of the 100 Senate seats, and 23.4% of the 435 seats in the House of Representatives.
So why are women underrepresented in politics? Sexism, double standards, and gender discrimination may affect women seeking elected roles both nationally and in local communities.
Source: https://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/women-elective-office-2020
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Nonprofits and Higher Education
Nonprofits
Women only hold 20% of leadership positions, yet constitute 75% of staffing positions (Rhode, 2017)
Women make only 65%-75% of what male nonprofit CEOs earn (GuideStar, 2017)
Reasons for this gap include:
Spillover from corporate gender inequities
Lack of diversity in nonprofits’ boards and among hiring authorities
Salary compression (little difference between entry level and top positions’ pay)
In nonprofit organizations, women only hold 20% of leadership positions, despite holding 75% of staffing positions. Additionally, women make only 65% to 75% of what male nonprofit CEOs earn. There are a couple of explanations for this gap, including spillover from corporate gender inequities, a lack of diversity in nonprofits’ boards and among hiring authorities, and salary compression. Salary compression occurs when there is little difference between entry level and top positions’ pay.
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Nonprofits and Higher Education
Higher Education
In 2016, 30.1% of university presidents were women (Pew, 2018)
At top-ranked universities, women hold about 16% of provost and president positions (Rhode, 2017)
25% of full professors are women, despite a majority of college graduate and postgraduate students being women (Rhode, 2017)
Women of color face additional pressures in campus roles, such as microaggressions and inequity
Reasons for this gap:
Unconscious bias in hiring and promotion
Disproportionate service load falling on women educators
Pipeline issues in STEM fields
Lack of mentoring
As of 2016, in higher education, 30.1% of university presidents were women. At top-ranked universities, women hold about 16% of provost and president positions. Think of FIU’s history– we have never had a female president!
As previously mentioned, despite a majority of college graduate and undergraduate students being women, only 25% of full professors are women. Women of color in the field of higher ed face additional pressures in campus roles, such as microaggressions and inequity.
There are a couple of explanations for the lack of diversity in higher education, including unconscious biases in hiring and promotion (remember the “think manager, think male” phenomenon), disproportionate service loads falling on women educators, pipeline issues in STEM fields where women are underrepresented, and lack of mentoring opportunities for women and women of color.
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Science and Health
Women account for about one-third of all those employed in science-related fields (UNESCO, 2017)
Despite higher rates of female graduates for both undergraduate and graduate degrees, women still earn only one-third of PhDs in science-related fields
STEM fields are generally underrepresented by women
3.2 million nurses are female (91%) and 330,000 (9%) are male
In 2017, more women than men enrolled in U.S. medical schools for the first time, although overall women represent about 40% of doctors
With regard to science industries, women account for about one-third of all those employed in science-related fields. And, again, despite higher rates of female graduates for both undergraduate and graduate degrees, women still earn only one-third of all PhDs in science-related fields. As such, STEM fields are generally underrepresented by women. In the healthcare industries, 91% of nurses are female, making nursing a female-dominated industry. Additionally, in 2017, more women than men enrolled in medical schools for the first time ever, although overall, women only represent about 40% of doctors.
Ways to counteract the underrepresentation of women in STEM fields include getting girls interested in math and science at an early age. Think back to your childhood– you probably grew up thinking that girls are inherently bad at math and science, and boys are inherently good at math and science. Stereotypes like these dissuade women from pursuing careers in STEM.
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Military
It has only been since 2016 that all positions in the military, including combat, are open to women
Women in the military are far more likely than civilians to experience sexual violence and may be less likely to report assaults
Male-dominated justice system
Active duty force remains male dominated, but:
15% of active-duty military personnel are women
15% of enlisted personnel were female in 2015, up 11% from 1990
17% of active-duty officers were female in 2015
In the military, it has only been since 2016 that all positions, including combat, were open to women. Unfortunately, women in the military are far more likely than civilians to experience sexual violence and may be less likely to report assaults, due to a male-dominated justice system. While active duty force remains male-dominated, 15% of active duty military personnel are women, 15% of enlisted personnel were female in 2015, which is up 11% from 1990, and 17% of active duty officers were female in 2015.
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Athletics
About 40% of professional athletes are women, yet they receive less than 8% of all sports media coverage
Despite the U.S. women’s soccer team having won 4 World Cup championships and 4 Olympic championships, female professional soccer players get paid significantly less than their male counterparts
This discrepancy starts in college:
Male athletes get $179 million more in athletic scholarships every year than females
Collegiate institutions spend just 24% of their athletic operating budgets on women’s sports
Coaches in women’s sports at the college level receive only 63% of the salaries of coaches of men’s teams
The top left photo is of Katie Sowers, the first openly gay and first female coach (for the SF 49ers) in Super Bowl history, and this just happened in 2020.
While 40% of professional athletes are women, they receive less than 8% of all sports media coverage and have lower salaries than their male counterparts. For instance, despite the U.S. women’s soccer team having won 4 World Cup championships and 4 Olympic championships, female professional soccer players get paid significantly less than their male counterparts and this discrepancy starts in college. Male athletes get $179 million more in athletic scholarships every year than females do and universities spend just 24% of their athletic operating budgets on women’s sports. Even the coaches of women’s sports at the college level receive only 63% of the salaries of coaches of men’s teams.
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Representation and Equality in Other Fields
Men outnumber women in fields that have historically been more physical in nature
Carpentry, electrical work, construction
Only 16% of architects are women
35% of lawyers were women in 2015, although nearly half of all law students are women
Less than 20% of head chefs are women, though women make up the majority of food service professionals
Many occupations where women are underrepresented (law, medicine, aviation) are also those that pay well
When women enter male-dominated fields, the overall pay rate declines (Miller, 2016)
Here are some more statistics of women-representation in a couple of other fields. Men typically outnumber women in fields that have historically been more physical in nature, such as carpentry and construction. Only 16% of architects are women. In 2015, 35% of lawyers were women, despite nearly half of all law students being women. Less than 20% of head chefs are women, though women make up the majority of food service professionals. It is also important to note that occupations where women are underrepresented, such as law and medicine, are also the occupations that pay well. However, when women enter male-dominated fields, research has shown that the overall pay rate declines. The opposite is also true– when men enter female-dominated fields, the overall pay rate increases.
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Who are the essential workers? Women.
52% of all essential workers are women
One in three jobs held by women has been designated as essential during COVID-19
Nonwhite women are more likely to be doing essential jobs than anyone else
I came across this article one day and thought it would be worth including in this presentation, as I think it’s interesting and quite relevant. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced us to identify who the essential workers in our country are, and, as it turns out, it’s women. The New York Times analyzed census data crossed with federal government guidelines for essential workers and found the following results: 52% of all essential workers are women, and one in every three jobs held by women has been designed as essential during the pandemic. Lastly, nonwhite women are more likely to be doing essential jobs than anyone else.
Source: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/18/us/coronavirus-women-essential-workers.html
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Implications of inequality in the workforce
What results from nonrepresentation?
So now that we have a better understanding of the current status of women in the workforce, let’s talk about the consequences of nonrepresentation in the workforce.
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In 2014, Sony’s emails were hacked and leaked to reveal that several actresses were getting paid significantly less than their male counterparts, including Jennifer Lawrence in American Hustlers. When she discovered the leaked emails, she wrote a letter noting that she had failed as a negotiator because she didn’t want to appear “difficult” or “spoiled”, which is often the perception people have of women who do not conform to the communal qualities typically associated with women (being caring, kind, soft-spoken, not assertive). This is partially why women negotiate their salaries less frequently than men do, and contributes to the gender wage gap.
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In 2017, Catt Sadler, a host on E! News, announced that she was leaving the network when she found out that her co-host, Jason Kennedy, was earning double her salary. When it came to renegotiate her contract, the network rejected her salary negotiations.
Catt also wrote about her decision to walk away. Read her post here: https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2018/04/catt-sadler-mom-tax-equal-pay
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Gender Wage Gap
Even when women are represented in various fields, data consistently show a gender wage gap
Refers to the median annual pay of all women who are full-time, year-round workers compared to the pay of a similar cohort of men
Reporting of just how big the gap is in 2019 varies from sources reporting no wage differences by sex, to women earning just 77% of what men earn across industries
Recent census data show women earning approximately 81% of what men earn (United Census Bureau, 2019)
Median income for women: $41,554
Median income for men: $51,640
One of the most talked about implications of inequality in the workforce is the gender wage gap. Even when women are represented in various fields, research consistently shows a gender wage gap. The gender wage gap refers to the median annual pay of all women who are full-time, year-round workers compared to the pay of a similar cohort of men. The reporting of just how big the gap is in 2019 varies, as some sources report no wage differences by sex, to others reporting that women earn just 77% of what men earn across industries. Recent census data show women earn approximately 81% of what men earn, as the median income for women in 2019 was $41,554 and the median income for men was $51,640.
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In the field of Industrial-Organizational Psychology…
The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) recently published the latest salary report following income and employment-related trends for I-O psychologists. The field of I-O focuses on the intersection of individual- and organizational-level workplace issues. Some of you may be familiar with this field, as you may be pursuing the undergraduate specialization in I-O track, which may be why you’re taking this course! This is an excellent report to read to better understand career paths and compensation levels within the field.
For both men and women, 2018 median incomes werehigher than 2015 median incomes. In 2018, men reported a median income of $125,000 and women reported a median income of $108,575. In other words, female I-O psychologists earn approximately 81 cents for each dollar male I-O psychologists earn. There could be a few demographic factors contributing to this wage gap. First, male respondents are more likely to have a doctorate degree than female respondents (81% of men compared to 74% of women). Second, male respondents have been in the workforce longer; of respondents with a doctorate, 20% of men have held their doctorate for over 25 years, compared to only 10% of women. Finally, female respondents tend to be younger and, thus, less tenured; only 25% of male respondents are below the age of 35, compared to 39% of female respondents.
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In the field of Industrial-Organizational Psychology…
The ratio of women to men’s income decreased slightly in 2018, the first time in the past decade it has done so. This decline is driven, in part, by the above-average increase in the median incomes earned by male I-O psychologists, whose 2018 median incomes were 7% higher than their 2015 median incomes. On the other hand, women’s 2018 median incomes were 3.7% higher than their 2015 median incomes.
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In the field of Industrial-Organizational Psychology…
Even for respondents with the same type of degree and the same number of years since earning it, there remains a consistent disparity between men’s and women’s salaries, which is exacerbated for respondents with 25 years or more experience. Men and women also did not differ significantly in the number of hours they work per week, both at the doctoral and master’s levels.
I could keep going with more graphs that breakdown salaries by gender and race, but I won’t. If you’re curious, feel free to check out this report and read about these differences for yourself, especially if you’re interested in I-O Psychology.
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The Importance of Negotiating
By not negotiating a first salary, an individual stands to lose more than $500,000 by age 60
One study calculated that women who consistently negotiate their salary increases earn at least $1 million more during their careers than women who don’t
One way to shrink the gender wage gap is to encourage women to negotiate more. By not negotiating a first salary, an individual stands to lose more than $500,000 by the age of 60. One study calculated that women who consistently negotiate their salary raises earn at least $1 million more during their careers than women who do not negotiate.
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Negotiating, Asking, and the Pay Gap
Shellye Archambeau, a top executive for over 20 years, noticed a disparity in pay between men and women, but also something else:
The men were more likely to ask for a fatter paycheck
“It started to surprise me that many males on my team would stop by and have a conversation with me about their financial needs and expectations. Throughout my career, I only had one woman actually come and talk about her financial needs during raise time. When people came, it was the men.”
One American businesswoman and former CEO of MetricStream noticed a disparity in pay between men and women, but she also noticed that men were more likely to walk into her office and talk to her about their financial needs. She only ever had one woman actually come and talk to her about a raise during her career.
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But sometimes, it hurts to ask
Women could shrink the gender pay gap by negotiating more effectively for higher compensation
However, women face a dilemma when negotiating compensation:
Weighing the benefits of negotiating against the consequences of having negotiated
Research has shown that women are penalized socially more than men for negotiating for higher pay (Bowles, Babcock, & Lei, 2006)
While women could shrink the gender pay gap by negotiating more effectively for higher compensation, research has shown that women are actually penalized socially more than men for negotiating for higher pay. Thus, women often face a dilemma when negotiating compensation: what are the benefits of negotiating, and what are the consequences of having negotiated? Have you ever been in a situation where you felt you deserved more pay than what you were being offered, but felt compelled to take the offer for fear of being perceived as difficult or stubborn? This happens very frequently to women faced with decisions of negotiating higher wages.
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Empirical Evidence (Bowles, Babcock, & Lei, 2006)
Let’s look at some empirical research on negotiating salaries and its consequences. In this experimental study, researchers had participants evaluate written accounts of candidates who did or did not initiate negotiations for higher compensation. The results showed that evaluators penalized female candidates more than male candidates for initiating negotiations. People were less inclined to hire the candidate that negotiated, but the effect was twice as large for women candidates!
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How hireable is this candidate?
No Ask Male Candidate Female Candidate 5.94 6.19 Ask Male Candidate Female Candidate 5.26 4.63Hireability
Empirical Evidence (Bowles, Babcock, & Lei, 2006)
Researchers also asked evaluators how willing they would be to work with the candidate. Results showed that attempting to negotiate for higher compensation had no significant effect on the evaluators’ willingness to work with a male candidate. In contrast, attempting to negotiate significantly reduced the evaluators’ willingness to work with a female candidate.
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How willing would you be to work with this candidate?
No Ask Male Candidate Female Candidate 3.24 3.94 Ask Male Candidate Female Candidate 3.02 2.8Willingness
Does the gender wage gap really exist?
There are a variety of factors that influence how researchers measure the wage gap (i.e., taking into account part-time, only looking at certain fields, etc.)
Nonetheless, scholars tend to agree on a few trends across different datasets…
As previously mentioned, reporting of just how big the gap is varies by source, with some claiming that the gender wage gap doesn’t exist at all. There are a variety of factors that influence how researchers measure the wage gap, such as taking into account part-time work, or only looking at certain fields. However, scholars tend to agree on a few trends across different datasets with regard to the gender wage gap.
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Trend 1: The wage gap has been narrowing in the last 4 decades
Women now earn closer to what men earn
The pay gap is not necessarily narrowing because women are being paid more
Earnings for men are falling due to a reduction in manufacturing jobs and the decline of organized labor (Stein, 2018)
AKA… automation!!
The wage gap is shrinking, but has yet to be eliminated in most occupational fields
The first trend that scholars agree on is that the wage gap has been narrowing in the last 4 decades, as women now earn closer to what men earn. However, the pay gap is not necessarily narrowing because women are being paid more. Earning for men are actually dropping due to a reduction in manufacturing jobs and the decline of organized labor. In other words, automatic is leading to declines in men’s earnings. Overall median household income has steadily risen over the past 10 years, but researchers credit this to more people from each household being active in the labor market. So, the wage gap is shrinking, but has yet to be eliminated in most occupational fields.
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Trend 2: The wage gap is bigger for women of color
Women who identify as Latina earn only 53% of what men earn across occupations
American Indian or Alaskan Natives earn just 58%
Black or African American women earn 61%
White women earn closer to 77%
Asian Pacific Islander women earn 85%
These gaps persist even when taking higher education and advanced degrees into account (Pew, 2016)
The second trend that scholars are in agreement on is that the wage gap is bigger for women of color. Specifically, women who identify as Latina earn only 53% of what men earn across occupations. American Indian or Alaskan Natives earn 58% of what men earn, Black or African American women earn 61% of what men earn, White women earn 77% of what men earn, and Asian Pacific Islander women earn 85% of what men earn. These gaps persist even when taking higher education and advanced degrees into account.
(AAUW, 2017)
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Trend 3: The wage gap has less to do with differences between occupations, and more with differences within occupations
Women doctors and surgeons earn just 71% of what their male counterparts earn
May be due to employers who tend to reward those who work longer hours and spend more time on call or at the office
May be harder for people who need flexibility in work hours and locations to accommodate childcare and other household responsibilities
It could be that the biggest way to shrink the wage gap is to offer temporal flexibility, or allowing workers to do their own work on their own time
The third trend that scholars agree on is that the wage gap has less to do with differences between occupations, and more with differences within occupations. For instance, women doctors and surgeons earn just 71% of what their male counterparts earn. This may be due to employers who tend to reward those who work longer hours and spend more time on call or at the office. However, it may be harder for people who need flexibility in work hours and locations to accommodate childcare and other household responsibilities. It could be that the biggest way to shrink the wage gap is to offer temporal flexibility, or allowing workers to do their own work on their own time.
But this last suggestion may not work for all occupations, though, right? Think of doctors. We can’t really have them “work from home”, as they need to physically be present to meet with patients and assess their symptoms. Same applies for construction workers or certain engineers. Thus, this is not the key to shrinking the wage gap.
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Trend 4: The wage gap is caused by a variety of things
Sex discrimination in hiring
Pay negotiation
Fair pay
Sexual harassment and workplace bias
Motherhood
Off-ramping and on-ramping due to parental leave
Sexist assumptions about the commitment of working mothers
Cultural norms and expectations
Work-family balance
Age
Experience
Lastly, scholars agree that the wage gap is cause by a variety of things, such as sex discrimination in hiring. Numerous studies have revealed gender discrimination in hiring practices. One experimental study in 2012 gave employers two identical resumes, one with a stereotypical female name attached and another with a stereotypical male name attached. The resume of the supposed male was rated as more competent and hirable than when the same resume had a female name attached. The recommended starting salary for the supposed male was $4,000 higher (Rhode, 2014).
One study found that, for those born in the United States, the region where you are born has a persistent effect on your wages and lifelong earnings, even when taking race into account (Rhode, 2014).
Other factors contributing to the wage gap include pay negotiations, fair pay, sexual harassment and workplace bias, and motherhood, which we’ll get into in the coming weeks.
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Other implications of inequality
That was all just one implication of inequality in the workforce: gender wage gap. Now, let’s go over some other implications of inequality.
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Explicit Sexism
Women, particularly racial and ethnic minorities, often need to work harder to achieve the same results as white men
Today, explicit, hostile sexism exists in workplaces. Examples include:
Comments on outfit or appearance
Losing promotions or other opportunities when pregnant or being asked in an interview if and when one plans to have a family
Being assigned stereotypical tasks (taking minutes at a meeting or planning an office party)
Constantly being interrupted or “mansplained”
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal/physical assaults
Double standards when exhibiting the same behaviors as men
Men are rewarded for being assertive (called “showing initiative”), women are called “bitchy”
Explicit sexism leads women, particularly of racial and ethnic backgrounds, to need to work harder to achieve the same results as white men. In today’s society, women often encounter explicit, hostile sexism in the workplace. Some examples of what this form of sexism looks like include someone making a comment on a woman’s outfit or appearance, or constantly being interrupted or “mansplained”, and double standards when exhibiting the same behaviors as men. For instance, men are often rewarded for being assertive and this behavior is called “showing initiative” by others, whereas women who exhibit the same behavior are called “bitchy”.
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The Double Bind
Women often face conflicting expectations about how they should function in the workplace
The dominant, stereotypical narrative is that women should be helpful, warm, and friendly (communal qualities)
This is in direct contrast with the stereotypes of effective leaders: direct, assertive, confident, competent, influential (agentic qualities)
The double bind occurs when the expectations that women be communal and collaborative clash with the expectations that leaders be agentic
These differing expectations may show up as resistance to women in leadership, particularly in masculine settings
In the workplace, women often face conflicting expectations about how they should behave. This is coined the double bind.
Women are typically expected to be helpful, warm, and friendly. These types of qualities are called communal qualities. Men, on the other hand, are expected to be direct, assertive, confident, competent, and influential. These are called agentic qualities. The double bind occurs when the expectations that women be communal clash with the expectations that leaders be agentic. As such, these differing expectations may show up as resistance to women in leadership, particularly in masculine settings.
Women in so-called male jobs or leadership positions are often judged to be less competent than their male peers unless the women are clearly successful in their work. But when a woman is clearly competent in a “male” job or position, she is often judged to be less likable. Because both likability and competence are needed to be successful in the workplace, women in leadership positions or masculine fields can find themselves in a double bind.
Women with other marginalized identities (women of color, or of certain faith traditions or sexual orientations) often face a triple bind– where stereotypical views of their multiple targeted identities can lead to further marginalization.
The good news is that the incongruity between the leadership role and the female gender role seems to be decreasing (Eagly & Carli, 2007). In fact, the leadership role is starting to be seen as less masculine and more androgenous (Schein, 2001).
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The Double Bind
When Hillary Clinton first ran for president in 2008, she placed a lot of emphasis on her ability to get things done (agency)
In her second attempt to run for president in 2016, she focused a lot more on appearing both competent and caring by emphasizing her love for her grandchildren and family
Despite securing the Democratic nomination, Hillary still faced sexism for the duration of her campaign
“Is America ready for a female president?”
Regardless of what you think about the politics of Hillary Clinton, she is a great example of the tension between being communal and agentic, and the double bind phenomenon.
In 1992, reporters asked Hillary Clinton how she might be a nontraditional First Lady. Clinton said: “I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was to fulfill my profession, which I entered before my husband was in the public life”. (Chozik, 2016)
She faced a lot of backlash for that comment, with many saying that she did not appear as warm and caring as they expected. Throughout her political career, Hillary has tried to walk the tightrope of the double bind phenomenon, trying not to be too assertive, for risk of being perceived as not warm enough, and trying not to be too warm, for risk of being perceived as incompetent.
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Internalized Oppression
Occurs when one begins to believe at some level the sexist assumptions that pervade the culture around them
Think about the emails you write to others; professors, supervisors, coworkers…
How many times do you apologize for something? Or say you might be wrong, even though you know you are right?
This phenomenon is termed the psychological glass ceiling
Women internalize negative gender stereotypes about women and, thus, are hesitant to do anything that makes them seem too pushy, assertive, or difficult
Gender Stereotypes
Descriptive Stereotypes
What women are typically like
Lack of fit between leadership role and gender role
“She isn’t right for the job”
“Low leadership potential”
Prescriptive Stereotypes
What women should be like
Hurts evaluations and perceptions of women
Prevents promotion
“She’s effective, sure, but we don’t like her or want to work with her”
The challenge for female leaders is that gender stereotypes are not merely descriptive, but prescriptive as well (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
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Stereotypes
This is a clip from the movie, The Proposal, starring Ryan Reynolds and Sandra Bullock (whom I think most of you probably recognize from the Netflix movie, Bird Box). In this movie, Sandra Bullock plays an editor at a New York publisher, and Ryan Reynolds is her assistant. The employees in the office fear Sandra Bullock’s character, and call her a “witch”, suggesting that she’s not necessarily liked by her subordinates her behaviors contradict the behaviors typically expected of women. This is also a good example of the double bind phenomenon. Had Sandra Bullock’s character been more communal, that is, engaging in being warm and kind, her subordinates may not have perceived her as effective or taken her seriously in her role.
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Stereotype Threat
The apprehension about confirming an unfavorable stereotype about a group to which you belong (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016)
Stereotype threat is another implication of inequality in the workforce. This is the apprehension about confirming an unfavorable stereotype about a group to which you belong.
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Ambivalent Sexism
Hostile Sexism
"Most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them."
"Women seek to gain power by getting control over men."
"Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist."
Benevolent Sexism
"Women should be cherished and protected by men."
"Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess."
"A good woman ought to be set on a pedestal by her man."
How are hostile sexism and benevolent sexism related?
Hostile sexism and benevolent sexism are mutually supportive ideologies. In a 19-nation study published in the May, 2000, issue of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, responses from more than 15,000 people who completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory showed that countries high in hostile sexism were invariably high in benevolent sexism. Hostile sexism and benevolent sexism are also significantly correlated at the individual level (meaning that a high score on one scale tends to be associated with a high score on the other), though this correlation is not large.
Hostile sexism: an antagonistic attitude toward women, who are often viewed as trying to control men through feminist ideology or sexual seduction
Benevolent sexism: when one thinks they are operating from a place of caring and understanding, but are actually perpetuating sexist attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (Glick & Fiske, 1996, 2001)
Women are often stereotyped as affectionate, delicate, and sensitive
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Implicit Bias
Refers to the way people unconsciously and often unwillingly exhibit bias toward others
Education, the judicial system, and health care are all influenced by unconscious biases and attitudes (Adams et al., 2013)
Even women who identify as feminist have a slight tendency to more quickly associate leadership with men than women (AAUW, 2016)
Non-feminists and men showed greater bias
Implicit Association Test (IAT): claims to reveal the strength of unconscious associations people make in their minds
What are your implicit biases? Find out: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/
Implicit bias are the attitudes and stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner and refers to the way people unconsciously and often unwillingly exhibit bias toward others. These are often activated involuntarily and without our awareness or intentional control. Doctors, for instance, are more likely to prescribe life-saving care to Caucasian people. Managers are more likely to hire and promote members of their own in-group.
Education, the judicial system, and health care are all influenced by unconscious biases and attitudes. In fact, even women who identify as feminist have a slight tendency to more quickly associate leadership with men than women (“think manager, think male”).
The Implicit Association Test claims to reveal the strength of unconscious associations people make in their minds. You can find out what your implicit biases are for free by clicking on the link provided in this slide.
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End
This is the end of the presentation and concludes the content for Week 1. Have a great rest of your day and week!
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