Information Systems Project Management - Assignment

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C H A P T E R 3

Managing Project Teams

Figure 3.1 Chapter 3 learning objectives

Opening Case: Flexible Project Teams Deliver Project on Time

Consider the difficulty of a project undertaken by MD Robotics to develop a special purpose dexterous manipulator for the Canadian Space Agency. Given the risky nature of spacewalks, this specially developed robotic arm, called “Dextre,” was to be developed to support the astronauts on the International Space Station (see Figure 3.2). To encourage freedom of communication as well as timely problem solving, the executive project team decided to co-locate project staff on a single floor of the MD Robotics facility. The Dextre project group

was divided into smaller subproject teams, which in the spirit of true co-location and collaboration worked in an open office environment designed to promote communication. Project managers were able to freely interact with engineers, and project teams were able to communicate with each other under a “no-surprises rule” implemented by senior management. The no-surprises rule specified that project teams should communicate any needed design changes to other project teams as soon as they were identified. Although the senior

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management team was made aware of any design changes, it did not have to sign off before teams were allowed to implement the changes.

Using this team-based project structure, com- bined with the policy of allowing teams the auton- omy to make developmental changes, MD Robotics

was able to deliver Dextre to the Canadian Space Agency both on budget and on time. Designed for an active life of fifteen years, Dextre was launched in 2008 and continues to support the astronauts on the space station by allowing them to focus on scientific projects.

Based on: Canadian Space Agency (2016a, 2016b); Carey (2005).

Introduction People are the most important and expensive part of an information systems project. Project time estimates for task completion and overall system quality are significantly influenced by the effectiveness of the project team. Unfortunately, good information systems personnel are in short supply. Not only does nearly every industry rely heavily on information systems professionals; an increase in cloud computing and big data analytics is creating even more demand for skilled technology workers.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has reported that high demand for technolo- gy-related workers and escalating salaries could lead to inflation and lower corporate profits as companies scramble to offer competitive salaries to the best and brightest people in this industry. Given the competitiveness of this labor pool, retaining the best personnel is also a critical issue for many organizations. Therefore, finding ways not only to reward people adequately but also to create a positive work experience through well-managed projects, meaningful team assignments, and good interpersonal relation- ships can not only enhance project effectiveness but also help retain employees within the organization. Understanding the issues related to effectively managing project teams is the next step in gaining a comprehensive understanding of information systems project management.

Figure 3.2 The International Space Station. Source: NASA.

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In the next section, we begin by discussing what a project team is, how teams evolve, and the various factors that influence project team performance. This is followed by a discussion of several motivation theories that will help you better understand how team members can be influenced to achieve high work productivity and job satisfaction. Next, we discuss the roles of leadership, power, and conflict within project teams. Finally, we examine several issues related to the management of global project teams.

Developing and Managing the Project Team In the context of organizational work, groups and teams are not necessarily the same thing. A group consists of two or more people who work together to achieve a com- mon objective (Robbins and Judge, 2017). Yet a group may be formed for a temporary purpose, and its members may not necessarily share the same goals. A project team, however, is much more than a group. A project team is mutually accountable to the organization and to its own individual team members; the team members are also highly interdependent, having both shared goals and complementary skills (see Figure 3.3). When project teams are formed, the group of people typically takes some time to evolve into a high-performing project team, which is crucial to successful project completion.

Teams do not automatically become highly interdependent and productive. Researchers have found that teams develop and evolve through various stages as they work together over time (Robbins and Judge, 2017). During project team development, the project team moves through five stages—forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning—to reach optimal performance (Tuckman, 1965).

During forming, team members get to know each other and establish team goals and work assignments. This stage is completed when a majority of the members feel that they are part of the team. At this stage, leaders should coordinate team behav- iors; picking the right team members and setting team goals can contribute to success at this stage. During storming, team members struggle to establish goals, power, and

Project team Two or more people who share the same goals, are interdependent, have complementary skills, and are mutually accountable to the organization and to each member of the team.

Figure 3.3 Comparing work groups and project teams. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

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leadership roles. At this stage, leaders should coach team members; developing mutual trust and acting as a resource to the team can contribute to success at this stage. This stage is completed when a majority of the members have a relatively clear understand- ing of each member’s role within the team. During norming, teams develop a sense of common purpose and specify normal operating procedures. Additionally, during this stage, high levels of team collegiality are typically present, and close friendships are formed. This stage ends with members having a strong sense of proper team behavior. During performing, the team undertakes the actual project work. This stage ends with the completion of the project. During norming and performing, leaders should focus on empowering team members, obtain feedback from the team members, and engage with the team. For permanent, ongoing project teams, performing is the last stage in their evolution. For temporary teams established to complete a single project, there is also an adjourning stage. During adjourning, team members wrap up the project’s final activ- ities and engage in activities related to subsequent team assignments or jobs. During this stage, individuals often respond differently to adjournment—some members will delight in the team’s accomplishments, whereas others will feel a sense of sadness or loss. Leaders should focus on supporting behaviors and facilitate the transition of high performing team members into future leadership roles. As a project manager, you need to understand where your team is in regard to its development, in order to better under- stand its challenges and its potential.

Recognizing the importance of project teams to project success, PMBOK includes two key processes related to project teams, both of which are part of the project execu- tion process group: Develop Team and Manage Team.

One of the main goals of the Develop Team process is to transform the project team members into a functioning team. Often, this includes various team building activities and other social integration mechanisms (von Briel, Schneider, and Lowry, 2018) to develop trust and build a team spirit. In addition, it is during this stage that needed skills are developed using various forms of formal or informal training. Whereas collocating team members is very effective in developing teams, virtual teams can use communi- cation technologies (discussed in Chapter 4) to compensate for spatial or temporal distance. To decide on the activities needed to bring the team from the forming to the performing stage, the project management plan, as well as various project documents (such as the project schedule, team assignments, or the team charter), are used to deter- mine the needed roles and resources; likewise, enterprise environmental factors provide a background on team members’ skills, performance, as well as geographic distribution, and organizational process assets provide information about teams and team perfor- mance on past projects. In addition to helping build a team, the activities conducted to develop the project team may affect the project schedule or team assignments, and team performance assessments can give guidance on areas for improvement, so as to maximize team performance.

The Manage Team process uses various conflict management, decision-making, and leadership techniques to maximize team performance during the execution of a project phase; in addition, the project management information system can help in optimizing the assignment of team members to tasks. Often, you will see project team members receiving team apparel to help keep up the team spirit, as well as certificates of appre- ciation to reward and recognize outstanding contributors to the team. In assessing the necessary activities during the Manage Team process, the project manager uses inputs such as the project management plan, the issue log, project team assignments, in addition to work performance reports, team performance assessments, and enter- prise environmental factors and organizational process assets. Depending on the team’s

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performance and necessary changes, various outputs result from the Manage Team pro- cess. For example, the departure of team members may impact the project schedule or budget, or may result in the need to outsource certain tasks. Thus outputs from the Manage Team process can range from change requests to team assignments to updates to the project management plan or other project documents, as well as enterprise envi- ronmental factors (such as performance assessments).

Contrary to popular views of teams and teamwork, teams are almost never static. Projects add people when needed. Similarly, they lose people when team members are relocated within the organization or quit to take new jobs or for some other reason. This ebb and flow of people on and off a project can be disruptive, and it is rarely anticipated in the project plan. Experienced project managers who have developed the management skills have learned how to deal with the disruptions caused by the flow of people in and out of projects. Less experienced project managers will develop these skills over time. In either case, it is important to recognize that project team membership is fluid and dynamic, and project managers should anticipate and plan for changes in personnel to whatever extent they can.

Factors That Influence Project Team Performance Researchers have identified four primary factors that lead to effective teams: work design, composition, context, and process (see Figure 3.4). While the mere presence of these factors does not guarantee a productive project team, the presence makes higher performance much more likely. Numerous work design factors can be configured to

Figure 3.4 Project team performance factors. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

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influence team member performance. For instance, work design that provides team members with autonomy, skill variety, task identity, and significance has been found to be highly motivating. Likewise, team composition can also play a major role in project team performance. Factors that have been found to be important include member abil- ity, personality, role diversity, size, flexibility, and preference for teamwork. Of these, per- sonality and team size have been found to play a significant role in many project teams. For example, research has found that it can be very difficult to blend some personality types into an effective team. Because of this, many organizations give potential team members personality tests like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) to more effectively match team members, identify leadership and interpersonal communication preferences, and help them learn more about each other.

Nonetheless, there is no universal agreement that such personality tests are accurate or even helpful. Likewise, team size can also significantly influence team performance. As the size of the team increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to effectively com- municate and coordinate project activities. The rule of thumb is to use the fewest people possible; the most effective teams rarely have more than ten members (see Figure 3.5). If more than ten members are needed for a very large project, smaller subteams should be used to minimize communication and coordination problems. Getting the right people, and the right number of people, on your project team can make it easier for the group to perform.

All good sports teams have players with clearly defined roles and abilities. Like- wise, a good project team needs members with a diversity of skills and abilities. It is also important to select members who are flexible—in regard to task activities and roles—and who clearly want to belong to the team. To be effective, project teams must

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A widely used personality test.

Figure 3.5 Team communication and management complexity increase rapidly with group size

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agree on a broad range of member roles and must design work processes that ensure that all members contribute equally to the team’s performance. An experienced project manager has a deep understanding of the variety of roles and skills needed to build a successful team. Researchers have found that people can also have different types of work personalities within software development teams, including the following (How- ard, 2001; see Figure 3.6):

1. Deliverer. A person who is good at getting things done quickly and is good in emergency situations such as repairing a system failure.

2. Prototyper. A person who is useful for projects where the system requirements are initially unclear or in situations where building the right system is more import- ant than building something quickly.

3. Perfector. A person whose work is meticulous and who is useful when everything must be done correctly, such as a system that could impact human safety.

4. Producer. A person who is good at getting a lot of work accomplished but may ignore standard conventions such as structured methods and documentation.

5. Fixer. A person who has a deep understanding of a system and can quickly exam- ine a problem and make a needed repair.

6. Finisher. A person who is good at meeting deadlines but may ignore rules or procedures in order to do so.

Four contextual factors—adequate resources, leadership, trust, and performance eval- uation and rewards—have also been found to be important for achieving high team performance. It is obvious that teams must have adequate resources or will feel it is impossible to succeed. High-performing project teams must also have clear leadership and structure so that members will know who is responsible for completing various tasks, as well as how schedules, tasks, and roles will be assigned. High-performing teams must also trust each other because doing so allows members to work independently and cooperatively. Lastly, a team-oriented performance evaluation and reward system is needed to achieve maximum team effort, commitment, and performance.

Figure 3.6 Information systems project teams need members with differing work personalities

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Finally, three process factors also have been found to significantly shape the perfor- mance of project teams. Teams that share a common purpose and goals, have confidence in their ability to be successful, and have low-to-moderate levels of conflict typically perform better than teams that don’t. In sum, many factors influence a team’s per- formance. Understanding how various factors shape team performance will help you design a more effective team and achieve higher performance.

Tips from the Pros: How to Pick a Project Team

Experienced project managers become experts in how to best select the right members for a team. According to Bill Hagerup, a project management specialist at Ouellette & Associates Inc., a consulting firm in Bedford, New Hampshire, building a successful team takes the right mix of “soft” skills, personalities, and attitudes. Picking people exclusively for their technical skills is often a mistake. Some other tips include: • Keep teams small and manageable. You often have

to balance departmental representation with over- all team effectiveness, but teams bigger than five members are typically difficult to manage.

• Get the right personalities. Look for people with strong work ethics and positive, upbeat personali- ties. One cynic can spoil the entire team’s outlook, whereas positive upbeat personalities can lift the team’s spirit.

• Embrace diversity. Because technology profes- sions tend to attract similar types of people, work hard to build diversity on your teams so that they will not be as susceptible to groupthink and narrow solutions.

• Reuse successful teams. It takes a lot of work to build and nurture a successful team, so reuse suc- cessful teams whenever possible.

• Plan ahead to get the right people. The best people for a team are often very busy, so it is important to plan ahead to line up key people well in advance.

• Use your network. Getting the best people to join a team often requires that you convince their boss or others that it is in the organization’s best inter- est for this person to be on your team. Use your friends and close colleagues to identify and recruit the right people. When choosing project team members, there

are a few other things to keep in mind. Given the importance of communication to project success, team members should be excellent communicators. Likewise, even though the project team members are often not involved in the project management aspects, they should still have a basic understanding of project management principles. Further, project team members should be highly organized, have an ability to “read” and motivate people, have accurate estimating skills, and be self-assured and willing to stand up for the project when needed.

Based on: Jones (2017); Melymuka (2004).

Motivating Team Members One of the keys to project success is having a project team with motivated members. Motivation refers to an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (Robbins and Judge, 2017). Intensity refers to how hard someone tries to attain the goal. However, intensity alone may not result in favorable results, unless the Direction of that intensity is channeled toward attaining the appropriate goal. Direc- tion thus is focused on the quality of the effort. Persistence refers to how long someone maintains an effort toward the goal. To be ultimately successful, a person needs all three traits. For example, a person can work hard, but if this effort is not directed correctly or is not sustained, success may not be possible. Motivating team members is thus critical to reaching optimum team performance.

Over the years, a lot of research has been conducted to identify why and how people are motivated. From this research, it has been found that different people are motivated by different things and in different ways. For example, some people are primarily moti- vated by external factors such as financial rewards, whereas others are motivated by

Motivation An individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

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internal factors such as a sense of accomplishment. Also, different theories of motivation are useful for understanding work productivity as well as job satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude a person has toward his or her job, absenteeism refers to the failure to report to work, and turnover refers to the rate at which people voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization. Some theories have been good for understanding job satisfaction, whereas others have been useful for understanding work productivity. In sum, understanding why and how people are satisfied and how they are motivated to come to work, to stay with the organization, or to work hard is important for all project managers. Consequently, we briefly review various motivational theories to help you better understand motivation. More in-depth discussions of motivation can be found in Robbins and Judge (2017) or Verma (1996).

Need Theories of Motivation For more than fifty years, researchers have examined various theories of how different personal factors can shape a person’s motivation. Although support for these theories has been mixed when examined in controlled research settings, they are nonetheless widely used within organizations when designing work practices and reward systems. In this section, we briefly examine the most popular need theories of motivation.

Hierarchy of Needs One of the most famous motivational theories is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954), which states that people have five basic needs, which differ in importance: phys- iological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization (see Figure 3.7). As each low- er-level need is met (or substantially met), the next higher-level need becomes the individual’s motivating focus. This means that if you want to motivate people, you need to understand where they are in this hierarchy and use mechanisms to help them satisfy needs at the next higher level. However, research has found that unsatisfied needs do not necessarily motivate, that satisfied needs do not always activate movement to higher levels in the hierarchy, and that more than one need from different levels may be desired simultaneously. As a result, researchers have continued to look for a more sophisticated understanding of motivation.

ERG Theory A related theory, ERG theory, refined the hierarchy of needs theory, and argues that there are three core needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—of which more than one may be operating at the same time. Additionally, if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases (Alderfer, 1969). Within ERG theory, existence focuses on satisfying our basic material needs and most closely relates to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. Relatedness focuses on maintaining interpersonal relationships and most closely relates to Maslow’s social needs. Lastly, growth focuses on personal development and most closely relates to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization categories. Researchers have found ERG theory to be more valid than Maslow’s hierarchy of needs because it more closely reflects our knowledge of how the importance of various factors can simultaneously motivate an individual.

Job satisfaction The general attitude a person has toward his or her job.

Absenteeism The failure to report to work.

Turnover The rate at which people voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization.

Hierarchy of needs A hierarchy of needs— physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization— where as each need is met, the next higher level need becomes the motivating focus.

ERG theory Three core needs— existence, relatedness, and growth—of which more than one may be operative at the same time; if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need becomes the motivating focus.

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Two-Factor Theory

Another need theory, the motivational-hygiene theory, or simply the two-factor theory (Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, 1959), predicts that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to dissatisfaction (see Figure 3.8). In particular, intrinsic factors (i.e., motivational factors), like achievement, recog- nition, advancement, and responsibility, are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (i.e., hygiene factors), like salary, relationships with colleagues, and work condi- tions, are associated with job dissatisfaction (see Table 3.1). In other words, people will not be dissatisfied if extrinsic factors are adequate, but they won’t necessarily be satisfied either. For a person to be satisfied, intrinsic factors must also be adequately met. As with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the two-factor theory is not universally accepted, but due to its intuitive appeal, many managers and organizations have embraced its concepts.

Theory of Needs

One last needs theory is the theory of needs, which proposes that individuals’ motiva- tion can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation (McClelland, 1961). The need for achievement refers to having a drive to excel beyond a set of stan- dards. The need for power refers to having a drive to control the behavior of others. The need for affiliation refers to having the desire for close and friendly interpersonal rela- tionships. Researchers have shown that high achievers are not necessarily good manag- ers, but that good managers have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation. Of

Figure 3.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Two-factor theory Intrinsic factors (motivational factors) are related to job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) are associated with job dissatisfaction.

Theory of needs Individuals’ motivation can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

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all need theories, this theory has been found to best predict work productivity, whereas the others have had the most success in explaining a person’s job satisfaction.

Process Theories of Motivation Process theories attempt to understand a person’s behavior based on intrinsic or personal factors used to motivate specific behavior. In general, this perspective on motivation suggests that project managers need to create a proper environment, work processes, and rewards to inspire the greatest motivation in people. Several of the most notable process theories of motivation are described next.

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X and Theory Y reflect contrasting views of human behavior, management, and motivation (McGregor, 1960). Whereas Theory X assumes that people dislike work,

Figure 3.8 Contrasting views of job satisfaction in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Adapted from: Verma (1997).

Table 3.1 Common Hygiene and Motivational Factors

Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors • Company policies and administration • Relationship with supervisors, peers, and subordinates • Working conditions • Salary and benefits • Status • Security

• Opportunity for achievement • Opportunity for recognition • Challenges and variety of the work itself • Sense of responsibility • Opportunity for advancement • Opportunity for personal growth

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are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to work hard, Theory Y assumes that people like work, are creative, like autonomy, and seek responsibility. A project manager who believes in Theory X will typically be autocratic, leave no doubt with others about who is in charge, and have little concern about the feelings of others. A Theory Y manager will be participative and encourage a high level of involvement by team members in their assignments, work processes, and decisions. Theory Y has been found to be a much better management philosophy for motivating professionals and highly educated individuals.

Theory Z An extension to Theory X and Theory Y is Theory Z (Ouchi, 1981), which reflects the Japanese work philosophy that includes a belief in lifetime employment, strong com- pany loyalty, and group consensus. A Theory Z management philosophy views workers as long-term partners who are capable of working without close supervision; decisions are made by the entire team with high levels of group consensus.

Goal-Setting Theory Goal-setting theory offers another perspective on understanding a person’s motivation (Locke, 1968) by suggesting that specific and difficult goals, with clear feedback on how well a person is meeting them, can enhance a person’s work productivity. This means that telling someone to “do their best” will likely result in them not doing their best! However, giving people higher, specific job performance goals (“Please complete the new user interface by Friday noon”) will most often lead to higher levels of performance, especially when clear feedback is given.

Equity Theory Equity theory suggests that individuals compare their work inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate inequities (Adams, 1965). For example, if individuals feel they are not being treated fairly, they will work less, reduce their outputs, change their perceptions, or quit. In contrast, individuals who believe they are being treated fairly will remain relatively satisfied and motivated to perform. Although equity theory has demonstrated that making relative comparisons to others influences motivation, it is most powerful in predicting absenteeism and turnover, not levels of work productivity (Robbins and Judge, 2017).

Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory argues that both positive and negative feedback, or rein- forcement, conditions behavior (Komaki, Coombs, and Schepman, 1996). In other words, reinforcement theory proposes that if desirable behavior is rewarded—with pay increases, incentives, or other valued items—it will be repeated. Likewise, undesirable behavior can be discouraged by punishment. This theory has a very broad following and has become the basis of the reward systems within many modern organizations.

Expectancy Theory Lastly, expectancy theory, one of the most widely accepted and supported motivational theories, predicts that people will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal, a good appraisal will lead to rewards, and these rewards will satisfy their needs (Vroom, 1964). Figure 3.9

Theory X Motivational theory that assumes people dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to work hard.

Theory Y Motivational theory that assumes people like work, are creative, like autonomy, and seek responsibility.

Theory Z Motivational theory reflecting the Japanese work philosophy that includes a belief in lifetime employment, strong company loyalty, and group consensus.

Goal-setting theory Specific and difficult goals, with clear feedback on how well a person is meeting the goals, can enhance a person’s work productivity.

Equity theory Individuals compare their work inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Reinforcement theory A motivation theory that argues that both positive and negative feedback condition behavior.

Expectancy theory People exert a high level of effort when they believe that (1) effort will lead to a good performance appraisal, (2) a good appraisal will lead to rewards, and (3) these rewards will satisfy their needs.

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shows each of these three relationships. The effort-performance relationship reflects the belief that increased individual effort leads to higher work performance. The per- formance-rewards relationship reflects the belief that work performance at a particular level will lead to specific outcomes such as a bonus, a salary increase, or promotion. Finally, the rewards-personal goals relationship reflects the belief that organizational rewards will satisfy a person’s goals or needs. Expectancy theory has been very useful for understanding why many workers are, or are not, motivated to do their jobs well. To adequately motivate employees to perform their best, the organization must design job evaluation and reward systems that accurately measure effort and performance, and it must design reward systems that meet each employee’s specific needs. If employees believe that effort will lead to the rewards that meet their personal needs, then optimal work performance can be achieved.

General Guidelines for Motivating Team Members

As can be seen from this discussion of employee motivation, there is no single approach to optimally motivating people. Over the years, researchers have examined many approaches for enhancing motivation (see Table 3.2). From this work, several general recommendations can be made for managing your project team (Robbins and Judge, 2017):

1. Recognize individual differences. Because your team members will have different needs and goals, it is essential that you learn what is important to each person.

2. Use specific goals and feedback. Teams should set specific goals, with specific feed- back on how each member is doing, in order to achieve optimal performance.

3. Allow team members to participate in decisions that affect them. Team members should be allowed to participate in most decisions that affect them in order to increase productivity, commitment, motivation, and job satisfaction.

4. Link rewards to performance. Rewards should be clearly tied to performance in order to optimally motivate team members.

5. Check the system for equity. Monitor team members for perceptions of inequality to make sure that any differences in experiences, skills, abilities, and effort lead to clear differences in pay, job assignments, and other rewards.

Figure 3.9 Expectancy theory links a person’s effort to their performance, their performance to rewards, and their rewards to goals.

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Understanding why and how people are motivated is an important skill for all proj- ect managers. Subtle changes in work processes, evaluation systems, and rewards can have a tremendous influence on a person’s motivation. Next, we examine how leadership and power can also be used to influence the performance of project teams.

Common Problems: Managing Einsteins

An “Einstein”—sometimes called high-maintenance high-performance (or HMHP) employee—is an intelligent, curious, and technologically proficient knowledge worker who has the know-how to keep everything operating without costly delays, breakdowns, and crashes, and the ability to drive managers insane.

Information systems project teams often con- sist of extremely intelligent individuals who possess extraordinary skills but also sometimes abhor man- agement authority. Researchers have identified six types of Einsteins that are common on technical project teams:

1. Arrogant Einsteins 2. Know-It-All Einsteins 3. Impatient Einsteins 4. Eccentric Einsteins 5. Disorganized Einsteins 6. Withdrawn Einsteins

Researchers point out how every type of Einstein can be troublesome to a project team in one way or another. However, with careful management, these team members can be nurtured to perform their best. To be successful, project managers must be skilled at profiling, recruiting, rewarding, leading, and even disciplining Einsteins.

Based on: Fisher (2012); Ivancevich and Duening (2002); Kerr (2014); Ryan (2018).

Table 3.2 Various Theories That Have Been Developed to Explain Motivation

Need Theories of Motivation Hierarchy of needs A hierarchy of needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization—in which

as each need is met the next-higher-level need becomes the motivating focus ERG theory Three core needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—in which more than one need may

be operative at the same time; if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need becomes the motivating focus.

Two-factor theory Intrinsic factors (motivational factors), such as achievement, recognition, advancement, and responsibility, are related to job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic factors (hygiene factors), such as salary, relationships with colleagues, and work conditions, are associated with dissatisfaction.

Theory of needs Individuals’ motivation can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

Process Theories of Motivation Theory X Assumes that people dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibilities, and must be coerced to

work hard Theory Y Assumes that people like work, are creative, like autonomy, and seek responsibility. Theory Z Reflects the Japanese work philosophy that includes a belief in lifetime employment, strong

company loyalty, and group consensus Goal-setting theory Specific and difficult goals, with clear feedback related to how well a person is meeting the

goals, can be used to understand a person’s work productivity.

Equity theory Individuals compare their work inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Reinforcement theory Both positive and negative feedback condition behavior. Expectancy theory People’s effort leads to their performance; their performance leads to rewards; and their

rewards lead to the fulfillment of personal goals.

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Leadership, Power, and Conflict in Project Teams The exercise of leadership and power is a natural part of project teams. Over the life of a project, project managers and team members will interact with a broad range of people both from within the team and from outside. Some of these people may hold a higher rank within the organization, whereas others may be customers or contractors outside the organization. How you use your leadership abilities and power to influence the behavior of others can have a tremendous impact on the success or failure of a project.

Leadership and Project Team Effectiveness The terms management and leadership are often used interchangeably but are really quite different. A manager is typically someone who has a formal position of authority and is responsible for planning, organizing, directing, monitoring, and controlling project activities. A leader is someone, who, by virtue of his or her personal attributes, can influ- ence others. Therefore, leadership is defined as the ability to influence people toward the achievement of goals. Note that leaders may or may not be managers. Likewise, some managers may not be effective leaders. Effective project managers have the right mix of both management and leadership abilities (see Table 3.3). Experience has shown that successful project teams have great management and great leadership. Managers are essential for keeping the team on track. Leaders are critical for inspiring the team to define its vision and the steps needed to reach success. It has been said that good managers focus on “doing things right,” whereas good leaders focus on “doing the right things.” Successful projects need both!

Trait Theories of Leadership As you might expect, there are different views on what makes a good leader and whether people are “born leaders” or can be “made” leaders through training and education. One body of research focused on identifying the traits, or personal attributes, of leaders.

Manager A formal position of authority in an organization that is responsible for planning, organizing, directing, monitoring, and controlling the activities of others.

Leader A person, who, by virtue of his or her personal attributes, can exert influence on others.

Leadership The ability to influence people toward the achievement of goals.

Table 3.3 Characteristics of Managers versus Leaders

Managers Focus On: Leaders Focus On: Objectives Vision Telling how and when Selling what and why Shorter range Longer range Organization and structure People Autocracy Democracy Restraining Enabling Maintaining Developing Conforming Challenging Imitating Originating Administrating Innovating Controlling Directing Procedures Policy Consistency Flexibility Risk avoidance Risk opportunity Bottom line Top line Adapted from: Verma (1996).

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These trait theories of leadership argue that personality, appearance, competency, and other personal characteristics differentiate leaders from nonleaders. This research has found that successful leaders often share some similar personal attributes, including:

• Intelligence and competency in task and organizational activities • Maturity and a broad range of interests • Considerate interpersonal skills and respect for the needs and differences of

others • Goal-oriented focus and a strong motivation to achieve success

Although trait-focused research has been useful for identifying characteristics of leaders, it has failed to determine why people become leaders or how people can be bet- ter leaders. Additionally, it has been found that people can possess the traits of leaders, but this alone does not guarantee success.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership A second view of leadership can be found in the behavioral theories of leadership, which share the common view that people’s actions, rather than personal traits, deter- mine their potential to be successful leaders. In this work, two general types of leaders— task-oriented and relationship-oriented—have been identified. On the one hand, leaders who are relationship-oriented emphasize interpersonal relationships with team members in order to gain the greatest influence. For example, relationship-oriented leaders take a personal interest in team members and accept individual differences among them as being a positive team characteristic. In contrast, task-oriented leaders use their influence to get tasks completed as effectively as possible, with much less concern for the relationships among team members. There is no consensus on which type of leader is most effective. In some situations, task-oriented leaders have been most effective, whereas in others, relationship-oriented leaders have been most effective.

Contingency Theories of Leadership A third and final general group of leadership theories, referred to as contingency theories of leadership, consider the situation the most critical element for identifying leadership success, and suggest that no particular leadership style or approach is always best. For example, the Fiedler Contingency Model examines the contexts in which task-oriented versus relationship-oriented leaders would be most successful (Fiedler, 1967), finding that the interplay of the leader-member relationships, the task structure, and the amount of power the leader possesses determines whether a task- or relation- ship-oriented leader would be most successful in a given situation (see Figure 3.10).

The Situational Leadership Model (SLM) focuses on characteristics of followers to determine the best leadership style (Blanchard, Fowler, and Hawkins, 2005). Spe- cifically, followers can be competent (able) and committed (willing) to perform a task or can be incompetent and/or reluctant. Depending on a follower’s competence and commitment, the leader should choose a different approach, focusing more on directive behavior (e.g., guiding a follower who lacks ability) or supportive behavior (e.g., coach- ing the unwilling; see Figure 3.11). Although the SLM is widely used in management training, research efforts to test its predictive power have been disappointing. Never- theless, it remains a popular leadership approach for many organizations.

There are several other contingency-based models of leadership, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Each variation attempts to refine certain aspects of the

Trait theories of leadership A set of leadership theories that argue personality, appearance, competency, and other personal characteristics differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Behavioral theories of leadership A set of leadership theories that suggest people’s actions determine their potential to be successful leaders.

Contingency theories of leadership A set of leadership theories that suggest the situation is most critical for identifying leadership success.

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Figure 3.10 The influence of leader-member relations, task structure, and power on leadership performance. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

Figure 3.11 How the commitment and competency of a follower influences leadership style

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context to better explain how leaders emerge and when they will be successful. Clearly, there is the potential for many types of successful leaders.

General Leadership Guidelines Today, most leadership researchers believe that effective leadership can be taught and that the key to effective leadership can be summarized in five essential practices (Tucker, McCarthy, and Benton, 2002):

1. Challenging the process. Effective leaders search for opportunities to change the status quo and, by doing so, experiment and take risks.

2. Inspiring a shared vision. Effective leaders passionately believe they can make a difference and envision the future, enlisting other team members to see the same future.

3. Enabling others to act. Effective leaders cultivate collaboration and build spirited teams, strengthening others in the process by creating trust and fostering human dignity.

4. Modeling the way. Effective leaders create standards of excellence, set an example for others, and help others achieve success.

5. Encouraging the heart. Effective leaders recognize the contributions of others and celebrate their accomplishments, making team members feel like heroes.

With organizations becoming increasingly global and with the increasing use of global project teams within information systems projects, effective leadership has never been more important for achieving project team success. Achieving the right balance between being a manager and a leader is a significant challenge, but having the proper balance will help your project team reach its greatest potential.

Power within Project Teams Closely related to leadership is power. Power refers to the absolute capacity of a person to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more target persons at a given point in time (Yukl, 2006). Leaders use power to influence team members to achieve the team’s goals. Power can be thought of as the ability to force people to do something they would not normally do. This makes power seem like a bad thing, but it isn’t necessarily; the use of power to influence the behavior of others is a natural part of all project teams and organizations. Researchers have identified two different types of power: positional power (sometimes referred to as formal power) and personal power (French and Raven, 1959; Robbins and Judge, 2017). Positional power is based on an individual’s position in an organization and can be one of five types:

1. Legitimate power. Being able to influence people based on being in a position of authority

2. Reward power. Being able to influence people based on being in a position to distribute rewards

3. Coercive power. Being able to influence people based on being in a position to punish

4. Information power. Being able to influence people based on their dependency on controlled information

Power The absolute capacity of a person to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more target persons at a given point in time.

Positional power Power derived from an individual’s position in an organization.

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5. Ecological power. Being able to influence people based on controlling physical resources such as equipment and space

In contrast, personal power is an outcome of an individual’s unique characteristics and can be one of three types:

1. Expert power. Being able to influence people based on having expertise, special skills, or knowledge (e.g., financial guru Warren Buffett)

2. Referent power. Being able to influence people based on their strong affection, admiration, or loyalty (e.g., former U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell)

3. Charismatic power. Being able to influence people based on having a favorable personality and interpersonal style (e.g., entertainment mogul Oprah Winfrey)

In sum, each individual on a project team will possess different amounts of power, and this power will be derived from various sources, both positional and personal.

Understanding what power is, where it comes from, and why people possess it in differing amounts helps us to better understand various team roles and why and how some teams perform better than others. Of course, when power is exercised to influence people, it sometimes causes conflict. This topic is discussed next.

Managing and Resolving Project Team Conflict Conflict is the opposition of people in an organization who have incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or external or internal demands (Verma, 1996). Like leadership and power, conflict is a natural part of project teams and organizations, and some functional conflict is necessary for a team to perform effectively. Whereas functional conflict helps support the goals of the team and improve its performance, dysfunctional conflict hinders group performance and interferes with team per- formance. So when we say that some conflict is good, we mean that some functional conflict is good (see Figure 3.12).

Among project teams, conflict can arise from tasks, work processes, or relationships (see Table 3.4). Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work itself. Relation- ship conflict relates to interpersonal relationships among team members. Process conflict relates to how the work gets done within a team. Whereas low-to-moderate levels of task conflict, as well as low levels of process conflict, can help a team’s performance, high levels of task conflict—not agreeing on what should be done and what the objective is—will never lead to enhanced performance. Likewise, moderate-to-high levels of process conflict—not agreeing on how work will be performed or who will do it—does not lead to enhanced performance. Further, relationship conflicts—personality conflicts and relationship problems—will always hinder team performance (Robbins and Judge, 2017). This means that functional conflict is always related to task and process issues, whereas dysfunctional conflict can be rooted in tasks, processes, or relationships. In sum, conflict can be thought of as varying in intensity from none to extreme (see Fig- ure 3.13). Functional conflict is typically at the lower end of this continuum, whereas dysfunctional conflict can span its entire range.

Within project teams, researchers have identified the primary causes of conflict to be as follows (Thamhain and Wilemon, 1975):

1. Schedule. Disagreements on task duration and sequencing 2. Project priorities. Disagreements on project vision and scope

Personal power Power derived from an individual’s unique characteristics.

Conflict The opposition of people in an organization arising from incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or external or internal demands.

Functional conflict Conflict that supports the goals of the team and improves its performance.

Dysfunctional conflict Conflict that hinders group performance and interferes with team performance.

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Figure 3.12 Conflict and team performance. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

Table 3.4 Conditions That Can Lead to Project Conflict

Condition Description Ambiguous roles, work boundaries, responsibility, and authority

Project teams often have members with different reporting structures and overlapping or conflicting responsibilities that can lead to conflict.

Inconsistent or incompatible goals Team members may perceive others to have different or conflicting goals that can lead to conflict.

Communication problems Task, process, or relationship ambiguity can result in reduced or ineffective communication that can lead to conflict.

Dependence on another party Team members depend on others to complete tasks or provide resources; delays or work quality issues can lead to conflict.

Specialization or differentiation Team members from different professional backgrounds often have different viewpoints, languages, and goals that can lead to conflict.

Need for joint decision-making and consensus

Teams with a diverse mix of members may feel pressure to conform to the majority opinion, which can lead to conflict.

Behavior regulations Project teams have norms for working together that may conflict with an individual’s preferred work processes.

Unresolved prior conflicts Past unresolved issues between team members can lead to conflict.

Adapted from: Verma (1995).

3. Manpower. Disagreements on the utilization of people, especially those simulta- neously involved in multiple projects

4. Technical. Disagreements over system design elegance and resource limitations 5. Administration. Disagreements due to authority over key resources 6. Personality. Disagreements due to dysfunctional interpersonal interactions 7. Cost. Disagreements arising from increasing resource constraints as a project

evolves

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In most cases, effective project management can minimize these causes of conflict. For example, an incomplete work breakdown schedule can lead to conflict related to the project schedule, or a vague project scope statement can lead to conflict related to project priorities. Additionally, as a project evolves, different sources of conflict may be more likely (e.g., conflicts over project priorities will likely occur early within the project). In addition to effective project management techniques, many good conflict management approaches can be utilized. These are discussed next.

Although there is no single best way to manage all types of conflict, some approaches have been found to be better than others. Approaches for resolving conflict can range from completely autocratic to more cooperative. Situational factors, such as time pressure, the intensity of the conflict, the importance of the problem, and the level of cooperation among parties, can influence which approach is most appropriate. Likewise, because low-to-moderate levels of conflict have been found to benefit team performance, some techniques can be used to purposefully stimulate functional conflict within a team. Conflict management, the use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve a desired level of team conflict, is a valuable skill for all project managers. Table 3.5 summarizes many of the most widely used techniques. By using these tech- niques, you should be able to better sustain the desired level of conflict within your team.

Managing Project Politics Politics are a natural part of all organizations and reflect the use of covert mechanisms to obtain power and control. Within the context of information systems projects, poli- tics are the art of getting things done. Although some view politics as a somewhat evil or distasteful part of organizational life, they are not necessarily a bad thing or something to avoid. There are, of course, good and bad politicians; the good politicians look for win–win opportunities, while the bad look for opportunities to win at any cost. Being a successful project manager in modern organizations requires that you also become a savvy politician. Some advice for improving your political skills includes the following (Choo, 2003):

Figure 3.13 Conflict intensity can range from no conflict to extreme. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

Conflict management The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve a desired level of team conflict.

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1. Understand what your organization values. To be a good organizational politician, you need to understand what the organization values (e.g., its mission, goals, and strategy) and align your personal goals and behavior to best help the organization achieve its objectives. By aligning your objectives with those of the organization, you are more likely to gain the support of powerful decision makers within the organization.

2. Understand how decisions are made in your organization. In most organizations, decisions are not necessarily made based on the formal organizational structure chart. Understanding how decisions are made and who truly has influence on those decisions is necessary for building successful alliances.

3. Expand and strengthen your network. To get complex development projects com- pleted on time often requires that you are able to gain access to scarce resources and expertise. These valuable resources are often controlled by other managers who may or may not want to help you to be successful. Being a valued colleague to others by giving your time, expertise, and support is a great way to get a favor returned when one is critically needed.

4. Develop a clear and easy-to-communicate story. Being a successful politician requires having the right story, for the right audience, at the right time. Hearing the right story motivates team members, sponsors, and other critical stakeholders. Much like a successful coach, you must inspire confidence to get the most from you team.

5. Lead by example. If you are to be a great leader, your team must respect your values, judgment, work ethic, and competency to deliver a successful project. Successful

Table 3.5 Conflict Management Techniques for Resolving and Stimulating Team Conflict

Conflict Resolution Techniques Problem solving Face-to-face meetings can be used to identify and resolve conflicts through open

and candid discussions. Shared goals Create shared goals that can only be achieved through the cooperation of the

conflicting parties Resource expansion When conflict is caused by resource scarcity—say, money, opportunities, space,

equipment—additional resources can be used to resolve discrepancies. Avoidance Withdrawal from, or suppression of, the conflict Smoothing Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between the

conflicting parties Compromise Each party to the conflict gives up something of value. Authoritative command A person of power mandates an outcome and communicates it to the conflicting

parties. Altering team member behavior Using some type of training or intervention to alter the attitudes or behaviors that

are causing conflict Altering the team structure Changing the formal team structure so that conflicting members limit their

interaction; a more extreme solution is to remove members from the team. Conflict Stimulation Techniques Communication Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels Bringing in outsiders Adding new members to the team who have different backgrounds, attitudes,

values, or managerial styles Restructuring the team Realigning the tasks, work, or communication processes to disrupt the status quo

Appointing a devil’s advocate Having an assigned critic to argue against the team’s majority position

Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

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project managers understand that leading by example is a great way to inspire others to go beyond the call of duty to make the project a success.

In sum, project politics is not about winning at any cost. It is about finding common ground and building alliances to achieve organizational objectives. Being a successful project manager requires that you also be a skilled organizational politician.

Managing Global Project Teams One important trend that most organizations are facing in the development of infor- mation systems is the increased use of global project teams, often referred to as virtual teams, with members located throughout the world. In this section, we first examine several catalysts for this trend. Next, we examine various challenges related to managing these teams. The section concludes with advice for developing stronger global informa- tion systems project teams.

Growing Numbers of Global Information Systems Projects The use of global teams for information systems projects has become extremely popular. This growth can be attributed to three primary factors (see Figure 3.14):

1. Advances in telecommunications 2. Increased globalization 3. Increased outsourcing

All these factors are related. For example, advances in telecommunications have enabled organizations to more easily outsource part of their information systems oper- ations, such as data entry, user support, or application programming, to locations that

Global project team A project team whose members are located throughout the world.

Figure 3.14 Factors that affected the growth in international information systems projects

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offer cheaper labor. Yet without a high-quality network connection between sites, this would be much more difficult. In the remainder of this section, we briefly examine each of these factors.

Advances in Telecommunications In the past decades, there have been tremendous advances in telecommunications. The proliferation of the internet and the web is the most significant example of how the connectivity across the globe has increased. Today more than 3.5 billion people have access to the internet. Advances in telecommunications—for example, twenty-four- hour global news, the internet, smartphones, instant messaging, and blogs—have led to vast increases in globalization and have also spurred the use of global project teams. A variety of communication technologies—ranging from mobile devices to electronic meeting systems—can enable teams located across the world to collaborate. (We will discuss communication and collaboration technologies in Chapter 4.)

Increased Globalization Globalization refers to the integration of economies throughout the world, enabled by innovation and technological progress (IMF, 2002). Today organizations are increas- ingly moving away from focusing exclusively on local markets. For example, Asian businesses such as Foxconn and Creative Technology are focusing on global markets by attempting to become serious competitors in the PC, telecommunications equipment, computer parts, and digital services industries. The Thai subsidiary of Texas Instruments is also increasing its global customer base, becoming one of the world’s largest producers of microchips. PricewaterhouseCoopers is focusing on forming overseas partnerships to increase its client base and better serve regions away from its U.S. home. Today, more and more organizations are operating throughout the world; this, too, has led to an increased use of global project teams.

Changes in political systems have also opened new markets, most notably in Asia and Latin America. For instance, Hong Kong, with its sophisticated fiber-optic–based telecommunications infrastructure and multinational banks, has become a center for organizations focusing on internet-enabled business. Many Latin American countries have also liberalized and expanded their global trade, most notably Brazil, which is home to more than half of the internet users in Latin America. Likewise, China has been rapidly evolving, though market entry for international players remains severely limited, and intellectual property issues and censorship continue to be a challenge. In sum, the globalization of the world’s markets is another important factor contributing to the growth of global information-systems project teams.

Increased Outsourcing The advances in telecommunications and increased globalization have enabled orga- nizations to seek partners with inexpensive yet high-quality labor. Much like a firm would outsource the manufacturing of some component of a physical product, firms are also now outsourcing information system development, support, and management. In 2015, the global market of outsourcing services was almost US$90 billion (Statista, 2017). Companies are choosing to outsource some or all of their information systems development, support, or management for a variety of reasons, including (King, 2003)

• To reduce or control costs • To free up internal resources

Globalization The integration of economies throughout the world, enabled by innovation and technological progress.

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• To gain access to world-class capabilities • To increase revenue potential of the organization • To reduce time to market • To increase process efficiencies • To outsource noncore activities • To compensate for a lack of specific capabilities or skills

In addition to these factors, a “buy-versus-build” mentality is becoming more perva- sive with increases in cloud computing. Additionally, with better low-level support and more programming tasks being outsourced, organizational IT groups increasingly are being used to integrate off-the-shelf modules with applications developed by outsourc- ing partners. Increased system integration and the use of global outsourcing providers make effective project planning and management extremely important. Next, we will examine some of the challenges associated with managing global information systems project teams.

Ethical Dilemma: Implications of Global Outsourcing

From software development to call centers, many companies have used outsourcing to gain access to highly skilled but inexpensive labor in foreign countries, mainly India and China. Often, companies choose to outsource certain jobs because they have a hard time finding the right workers in the United States; in many cases, however, outsourcing is done to decrease costs, which increases a company’s bottom line.

Although outsourcing can be beneficial for com- panies, it often results in domestic job cuts. For the displaced worker, the outsourcing is not beneficial. However, recent studies claim that offshore out- sourcing is not a zero-sum game; companies often use the cost reductions from outsourcing to move into new business segments or to invest in new prod- ucts, thereby creating new jobs domestically.

More importantly, global outsourcing can come at a cost for the overseas workers. In many developed countries, workers have fought for decades over their working conditions and, as a result, are treated well and are paid fair wages. For the overseas workers, this is often not the case. While global outsourcing creates jobs and provides additional ways of generat- ing income, factors such as equitable pay, workplace safety, or respectful treatment are often lacking. As a project manager, you may find yourself in a quandary. On the one hand, you may struggle to find qualified team members domestically or you may be forced to reduce labor costs. On the other hand, you may not be sure if the overseas team members are treated as they would be in your home country.

Discussion Questions 1. Although you suspect that the overseas team members might not be treated as well as your domestic

team members, you know that their work ultimately helps them provide for their families. Should this consideration outweigh other ethical issues? Why or why not?

2. As a project manager, how can you ensure the ethical treatment of overseas team members? Explain.

Based on: Welinder (2017).

Challenges for Managing Global Information Systems Project Teams Whether or not a firm is trying to integrate information systems across countries, develop a system in one country for use in another, or outsource parts of its systems development abroad, it faces many challenges when it seeks to operate across national boundaries. Challenges for managing global information systems project teams can be categorized into four broad categories (see Figure 3.15):

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1. Technology-related challenges 2. Cultural challenges 3. Human-resource challenges 4. Environmental challenges

Technology-Related Challenges

The primary technological challenge faced by organizations operating across national boundaries is related to the telecommunications infrastructure. The quality and speed of telecommunications can vary from country to country. For example, the quality of the telecommunications infrastructure can vary significantly, causing problems in data transfer and connectivity. Likewise, the sophistication and geographic coverage of a country’s telecommunications infrastructure can also vary. In less developed countries, such as those in Asia or Africa, large areas can exist where no network access is available. Such gaps act as a significant barrier to developing global partnerships.

Cultural Challenges

Culture can be defined as the “collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 9). According to Hofstede, cultures differ in a number of dimensions—namely, power dis- tance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, long- term orientation versus short term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint (see Table 3.6). As different nations have their own cultures and differ in these dimensions, it is essential to understand these differences when managing global project teams.

The first dimension, power distance, describes that different societies have different views on hierarchies and power structures in organizations and teams. Whereas cultures high in power distance prefer hierarchical structures, cultures lower in power distance

Figure 3.15 Challenges of managing global information systems project teams

Culture The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.

Power distance A cultural characteristic that describes how different societies handle the issue of human inequality.

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view individuals as equals. As a result, this is likely to influence leadership styles and collaborative behavior.

For instance, an information systems development project was undertaken by a Jamaican insurance company to improve its claims processing (Walsham, 2001). For this project, Indian software developers were hired to jointly develop the new infor- mation system with their Jamaican counterparts. In the initial project stages, the group worked effectively together. Over time, however, there was significant and ongoing conflict between the two groups. One of the major causes of this conflict related to differences in power distance between the Indian and Jamaican cultures. The Indian software developers, originating from a country with a relatively high power-distance culture, were viewed as being highly autocratic and were not used to being contradicted or questioned. In contrast, the Jamaican developers came from a relatively low pow- er-distance culture, believing in consensual and democratic management styles. For them, it was most natural to sit down as a group and talk through issues when making decisions. The difference in power distance for these teams led to extensive clashes, delaying the actual development process and hurting the overall project quality.

Cultures also differ in terms or uncertainty avoidance, or people’s willingness to take risks. Whereas team members from cultures high in uncertainty avoidance tend to be more cautious, people from cultures low in uncertainty avoidance are more willing to try new techniques or technologies. Relatedly, individualism/collectivism describes whether a culture values the individual over groups or vice versa. Whereas in individ- ualistic societies, people tend to value personal achievement, the focus in collectivist cultures is on group goals. Consequently, this can cause conflicts within global project teams. The masculinity/femininity dimension explains in how much a culture values masculine qualities such as strength or dominance, or is characterized by feminine qual- ities such as modesty. As the other dimensions, this can have important consequences for not only user preferences, but also for team collaboration.

Table 3.6 Critical Cultural Dimensions for Various Countries

Countries Critical Cultural Dimensions Group 1:

United States, Canada, Australia

Group 2: Germany, Austria, Switzerland

Group 3: Mexico, Venezuela, Peru

Group 4: Japan Group 5: China, Hong Kong, Singapore

Power Distance Moderately low

Moderately low

Moderately high

Moderately high

High

Individualism/Collectivism Highly individualistic

Moderately individualistic

Moderately to highly collectivistic

Moderately collectivistic

Moderately to highly collectivistic

Masculinity/Femininity Moderately masculine

Moderately masculine

Moderately to highly masculine

Highly masculine

Moderately masculine

Uncertainty Avoidance Moderately weak

Moderately strong

Moderately strong

Strong Moderately weak

Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation

Short term / normative

Long term / pragmatic

Short term / normative

Long term / pragmatic

Long term / pragmatic

Indulgence versus Restraint Indulgence Indulgence Indulgence Restraint More on restraint

Based on: Hofstede (2018).

Uncertainty avoidance A cultural characteristic that helps in understanding the risk-taking nature of a culture.

Individualism/ collectivism A cultural characteristic that reflects the extent to which a society values the position of an individual versus the position of a group.

Masculinity/femininity A cultural characteristic that refers to the degree to which a society is characterized by masculine or feminine qualities.

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In addition, cultures can have a longer-term orientation or a short-term orienta- tion, as implied by a culture’s long-term orientation versus short-term orientation. In particular, cultures with a long-term orientation are willing to forego short-term gratifications (such as material or social success) for the promise of future rewards. Finally, cultures can differ in indulgence versus restraint, or their focus on quantity of life versus quality of life. Whereas in cultures with a focus on quantity of life, the acquisition of material goods and competition is valued highly, cultures focusing on quality of life tend to value relationships and concern for others. In sum, global project teams composed of people with differing cultural values will be much more difficult to manage. Effective project teams will require members who are sensitive and respectful to the differences of others; it is crucial that project managers employ differing and flexible management techniques in order to help a team reach its optimal performance.

Other factors influencing global project team interaction include the following:

• Language, including accents, regional idioms, or colloquialisms • Work culture, including habits and attitudes about work • Aesthetics, such as different views about visual design • Education, including literacy and attitudes about formal versus informal education • Religion, beliefs, and attitudes about the role of spirituality in society as well as

moral values • Social organizations, such as the role of the family in society • Political life and stability

As outlined in Table 3.7, these different factors can have tremendous effects on team interaction and performance. For instance, differences in language proficiency can lead to misunderstandings, which can have grave consequences when communicating crucial project information, such as technical specifications. Further, team members of global project teams have to adjust to different work cultures; for example, whereas Americans tend to first focus on a project’s outcome, Europeans tend to use a more linear, incremental approach (Heichler, 2000). Clearly, managers of global project teams need to take a number of factors into account, so as to build a well-functioning team and achieve a successful project outcome.

Expertise Related Challenges

Apart from the cultural issues, the nature of the IS workforce can also pose significant challenges for global project teams. The level of workers’ education and skills often widely varies, as does the cost for employing workers. Whereas companies operating in developed nations can draw on a large pool of skilled information systems person- nel, these employees tend to be paid higher than in developing countries. In addition, different countries have historically focused on different industries, leading to different types of skills prevalent in different countries.

For instance, a cross-cultural software development project involving analysts and developers from both Norway and the United States led to conflict regarding the pre- ferred development methodology and programming environment (Sarker and Sahay, 2004). This conflict hindered workload sharing and team cohesiveness.

Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation A cultural characteristic that reflects the extent to which a culture has a longer- or shorter-term orientation.

Indulgence versus restraint A cultural characteristic that contrasts the extent to which a culture focuses on quantity of life versus quality of life.

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Regulatory and Geoeconomic Challenges Regulatory and geoeconomic issues can also pose significant challenges for managing global IS projects and teams due to differing rules and regulations. One example is the European Union General Data Protection Regulation of 2018, which regulates various ways in which data can be collected, stored, or transferred. For example, personal data collected in Europe can only be used for the purposes for which it was collected and cannot be easily transferred across national borders. This has caused significant chal- lenges for U.S. organizations that employ European project team members.

Legal policies can also differ, which is often an outgrowth of the inherent culture of the country. For example, the copyright laws in China are fairly relaxed because copy- ing is seen as a compliment to the originator of the work. The concept of ownership of intellectual property goes against the Chinese notion that the value of the society is greater than the value of the individual. The political environment can also play an important role in global project team management. A stable, political government that is keen on investing in information systems infrastructure is always more attractive to potential partners. Likewise, currency fluctuations can have significant implications for global operations and teams where changes in the exchange rate can quickly transform a low-cost geographical area to a high-cost area and vice versa.

In sum, various challenges can influence the difficulty of managing global project teams. In addition to these challenges, relatively minor issues such as differences in time zones or how intellectual property is viewed can pose formidable challenges to global project teams.

Developing Global Information Systems Project Teams One of the keys to creating successful global project teams is to have members who can work together effectively. This means that effective project team members will not only have strong technical skills but will also be effective at working in cross-cultural teams. Unfortunately, people with good cross-cultural team training are in short supply. Nevertheless, there are several effective strategies for developing stronger global project teams, and these are discussed next (see Figure 3.16).

Table 3.7 How Various Cultural Elements Can Affect Project Team Interaction and Performance

Cultural Element How It Can Impact the Project Language Communication problems can influence project team efficiency, understanding, and

performance. Work Culture Different skills, work habits, and attitudes can influence project performance and

manpower constraints. Aesthetics Art, music, and dance reflect nonwork interests that can be used to enrich team

communication and cohesiveness. Education Education levels limit skill levels, technological sophistication, and infrastructure.

Religion, Beliefs, and Attitudes Basic values and beliefs can influence attitudes toward work, promptness, punctuality, mutual trust, respect, and cooperation.

Social Organization Social norms can influence formal and informal communication, including negotiations and job assignments.

Political Life Differing political systems can influence the delivery of supplies and equipment, human rights, the legal system, and overall stability.

Adapted from: Verma (1997).

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Hire Individuals Experienced in Working across Cultures The first strategy is very straightforward. Simply put, hiring individuals who are expe- rienced in working on cross-cultural project teams and possess the necessary cultural sensitivity to empathize with other cultures will greatly enhance global project team performance. Pat Zilvitis, the CIO of Gillette, has repeatedly found that people who have “technical astuteness, business understanding, cultural sensitivity, and ability to communicate well” are perfect candidates for global project team assignments (Heichler, 2000). Given that it is often difficult to find people with global project team experi- ence, another strategy is to develop the skills of existing employees. For example, many companies are rotating staff into global project teams or assigning staff to locations throughout the world.

Hire Individuals Who Can Speak Multiple Languages A second strategy is to hire individuals who can speak different languages. Language problems within global project teams are often hidden beneath the surface. Many peo- ple are embarrassed to admit when they don’t completely understand a foreign col- league. Unfortunately, the miscommunication of important design information can have disastrous effects on a project. Having at least one person at each remote location who is fluent in the host country’s language can help alleviate this problem.

Make the Organizational Culture More Flexible A third strategy is to design a flexible organizational culture that best reflects the cul- tural values of the local employees. For example, Fujitsu has been making strong gains in its international markets, especially in internet and multimedia products, after years of overseas failure. To gain flexibility, Fujitsu changed its culture significantly to fit the needs of local environments, such as the relaxation of strict Japanese standards of dress and the introduction of flexible working hours. This flexibility has led to enhanced organizational and project team performance.

Figure 3.16 Strategies for developing global information systems project teams

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Sensitize Teams to Global Cultural and Political Issues A fourth strategy focuses on the development of mechanisms to help global project teams be more sensitive to the various cultural and political differences of their mem- bers. Such sensitivity and awareness can be developed through careful and in-depth training and by having a diverse mix of employees representing different cultures within the organization and team. Project team members who understand current events and the political climate of a global project team member’s country will enhance project communication, team cohesiveness, and performance.

Globalization is a reality within the information systems departments of most large organizations. In the not too distant future, it will be a reality in virtually all organiza- tions, both large and small. For better or worse, it appears that global outsourcing is here to stay. Thus, to be an effective project manager in this increasingly global environment, you must become skilled in understanding and working with cross-cultural teams.

Global Implications: Managing International Projects

Project managers who are successful in managing projects within their home countries are not always successful when assigned to manage a project in an international location. To increase your chances of success, prior to your assignment do the following:

1. Inform yourself about the country from books, newspapers, magazines, and websites.

2. Learn from others who’ve already experienced the country and culture.

3. Never assume that literal translations convey the spirit of a text.

4. Stay on top of current events by watching locally produced television and monitoring the local news.

5. Familiarize yourself with your host country by touring local parks, monuments, museums,

entertainment locations, and other cultural venues.

6. Share meals and breaks with local workers and discuss more than just work-related issues, such as current local events and topics.

7. Know which sensitive topics to avoid during conversations.

8. Learn several words and phrases in the local language.

9. Download a translation app. To create a successful project team environment,

you need to build trust. Trust is built by showing sen- sitivity to and awareness of local issues, language, and culture. By following these steps, you will not only increase the project’s likelihood of success; you will also make your project experience much more enjoyable.

Based on: Treitel (2000); Valacich and Schneider (2018).

Managing Project Teams and PMBOK In this chapter, we have focused on an important part of Knowledge Area 9, Project Resource Management, of the Project Management Institute Body of Knowledge (PMBOK, 2017; see Figure 3.17). Specifically, we have discussed topics related to the processes Develop Team and Manage Team. Additionally, we have discussed issues related to Knowledge Area 2, the Project Management Context, by examining various organi- zational influences on projects and project managers, as well as several key general management skills for project managers. Together, this information provides a solid foundation for managing project teams.

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Figure 3.17 Chapter 3 and PMBOK coverage

Key: �� where the material is covered in the textbook; ⚫ current chapter coverage

Textbook Chapters --------------> 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PMBOK Knowledge Area

1 Introduction

1.2 Foundational Elements �� �� 2 The Environment in Which Projects Operate

2.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors ��    

2.2 Organizational Process Assets ��                    

2.3 Organizational Systems   ��              

3 The Role of the Project Manager

3.2 Definition of a Project Manager ��            

3.3 The Project Manager’s Sphere of Influence ��                

3.4 Project Manager Competences �� �� ⚫                

3.5 Performing Integration   ��                

4 Project Integration Management 

4.1 Develop Project Charter         ��              

4.2 Develop Project Management Plan         ��          

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work �� 4.4 Manage Project Knowledge �� 4.5 Monitor and Control Project Work �� �� 4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control �� 4.7 Close Project or Phase �� �� 5 Project Scope Management

5.1 Plan Scope Management         ��              

5.2 Collect Requirements �� 5.3 Define Scope         ��              

5.4 Create WBS         �� ��            

5.5 Validate Scope         ��              

5.6 Control Scope         ��             �� 6 Project Schedule Management

6.1 Plan Schedule Management           ��            

6.2 Define Activities �� 6.3 Sequence Activities           ��            

6.4 Estimate Activity Durations �� 6.5 Develop Schedule           ��          

6.6 Control Schedule           ��         �� 7 Project Cost Management

7.1 Plan Cost Management             ��        

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7.2 Estimate Costs �� 7.3 Determine Budget             ��        

7.4 Control Costs             ��       �� 8 Project Quality Management

8.1 Plan Quality Management               ��        

8.2 Manage Quality               ��      

8.3 Control Quality               ��       �� 9 Project Resource Management

9.1 Plan Resource Management           ��          

9.2 Estimate Activity Resources �� �� 9.3 Acquire Resources           ��     ��  

9.4 Develop Team     ⚫           ��  

9.5 Manage Team ⚫ �� 9.6 Control Resources �� �� 10 Project Communications Management

10.1 Plan Communications Management     ��              

10.2 Manage Communications     ��             ��  

10.3 Monitor Communications     ��               �� 11 Project Risk Management

11.1 Plan Risk Management                 ��      

11.2 Identify Risks                 ��   ��  

11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis                 ��      

11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis                 ��      

11.5 Plan Risk Responses                 ��      

11.6 Implement Risk Responses �� �� 11.7 Monitor Risks                 ��     �� 12 Project Procurement Management

12.1 Plan Procurement Management                   ��    

12.2 Conduct Procurements                   �� ��  

12.3 Control Procurements                   ��   �� 13 Project Stakeholder Management

12.1 Identify Stakeholders       ��              

12.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement       ��              

12.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement       ��           ��  

12.4 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement       ��             ��

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Running Case: Managing Project Teams

James Cheung, the assistant director of information technology at Jackie’s, a Bay Area–based electronics retail store chain, walked into his building’s conference room. It was early in the morning for James, but the meeting was important to him. He was going to put together his team for the customer-relationship project he had just been named to manage. It was James’s first big project to manage at Jackie’s, and he was excited about getting started.

“Hi, James,” said Sarah Codey, the chief opera- tions officer. Sarah sat next to a guy James did not know. “This is Trey Lyman, James. I’ve asked that he be on your project team to represent me.”

James and Trey shook hands. “Nice to meet you, James. I’m looking forward to working with you on this project.”

“Trey knows how important this project is to me,” Sarah said, “so I expect him to keep me informed about your progress.” She smiled.

Great, James thought, more pressure. That’s all I need. Just then, Nick Baldwin, the head of marketing, walked into the conference room. With him was a young woman James recognized, but he wasn’t sure where he had seen her.

“James,” Nick said, “let me introduce you to Cindy Kobayashi. She is the assistant director of market- ing. She will be representing marketing and me on your No Customer Escapes project.”

“Hi, James,” Cindy said. “I have a lot of ideas about what we can do. Even though I still have my regular job to worry about, I’m excited about working on this project.”

“Who else will be on your team?” Sarah asked. “I am bringing Kevin Woodfield from IT,” James

said. “He is in charge of systems integration in the IT department and reports to me. In addition to me and Kevin and Cindy and Trey, we will also have a store manager on the team. I’m trying to get Maria Gutierrez, the manager of the store in Riverside. Like the rest of us, she is really busy, but I think we have to have a store manager on the team.”

“Riverside?” Sarah asked. “That’s one of our top stores. Maria should have a lot of insight into the issues related to keeping customers if she is man- aging the Riverside store. And you are right, she is going to be very busy.”

“So,” Nick asked, “when is your first meeting?”

Adapted from: Valacich and George (2017).

Chapter Summary Describe the characteristics of a project team and the factors that influence team performance. A project team consists of two or more people who are mutually accountable to the organization and to each member of the team; they are also highly interdepen- dent, having both shared goals and complementary skills. Project teams do not automatically become highly interdependent and productive but must develop and evolve through various stages as they work together over time. When teams develop, they pass through five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Work design, composi- tion, context, and process factors are just some of the many factors that influence team performance. The tools and techniques of two key processes, Develop Team and Manage Team, can help managers and their teams achieve successful projects.

Explain how to motivate team members. Motiva- tion refers to an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. There have been contrasting views of how, why, and when

people are motivated. Need theories of motivation deal with factors within a person that act to ener- gize, direct, or stop various behaviors. For example, good working conditions may energize a person to work hard on a project. Process theories of motivation attempt to understand a person’s behavior based on intrinsic or personal factors that are used to motivate specific behavior. In general, this perspective suggests that project managers need to create a proper envi- ronment, work processes, and rewards to inspire the greatest levels of motivation in people.

Explain the sources and effects of leadership, power, and conflict in a project team. Leadership is the ability to influence people toward the achievement of goals. There are three primary schools of thought regarding why certain people are great leaders. First, trait theories of leadership posit that personality, appearance, competency, and other personal charac- teristics differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Second, behavioral theories of leadership propose that people’s actions, rather than personal traits, determine their

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potential to be successful leaders. Third, contingency theories of leadership propose that the situation is the most critical element for successful leadership. Power refers to the absolute capacity of a person to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more target persons at a given point in time. Researchers have identified two general types of power that can be used to influ- ence the behavior and attitudes of others: positional power and personal power. Positional power is based on an individual’s position in an organization and can be one of five types: legitimate, reward, coercive, informational, and ecological. Personal power is based on an individual’s unique characteristics and can be one of three types: expert, referent, and charismatic. Conflict is the opposition of people in an organization arising from incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or external or internal demands. There are two general types of conflict within project teams: func- tional and dysfunctional. Functional conflict helps

support the goals of the team and improve its perfor- mance, whereas dysfunctional conflict hinders group performance and is destructive to team performance.

Explain why global project teams are increasing and describe the challenges of managing these teams. The use of global teams for information systems projects has become increasingly popular due to three primary factors: (1) advances in telecommunications, (2) increased globalization, and (3) increased out- sourcing. Although global project teams have become widespread, there are many challenges for managing these teams, including (1) technology-related chal- lenges, (2) cultural challenges, (3) human-resource challenges, and (4) regulatory and geoeconomic chal- lenges. Because of this, you must become skilled in understanding and working with cross-cultural teams to be an effective project manager.

Key Terms Review A. Absenteeism B. Behavioral theories of leadership C. Conflict D. Conflict management E. Contingency theories of leadership F. Culture G. Dysfunctional conflict H. Equity theory I. ERG theory J. Expectancy theory K. Functional conflict L. Global project team M. Globalization N. Goal-setting theory O. Hierarchy of needs P. Individualism/collectivism Q. Indulgence versus restraint R. Job satisfaction S. Leader T. Leadership

U. Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation

V. Manager W. Masculinity/femininity X. Motivation Y. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Z. Personal power AA. Positional power BB. Power CC. Power distance DD. Project team EE. Reinforcement theory FF. Theory of needs GG. Theory X HH. Theory Y II. Theory Z JJ. Trait theories of leadership KK. Turnover LL. Two-factor theory MM. Uncertainty avoidance

Match each of the key terms with the definition that best fits it.

1. A cultural characteristic that contrasts the extent to which a culture focuses on quantity of life versus quality of life.

2. A cultural characteristic that describes how different societies handle the issue of human inequality.

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3. A cultural characteristic that helps in understanding the risk-taking nature of a culture. 4. A cultural characteristic that refers to the degree to which a society is characterized by masculine or

feminine qualities. 5. A cultural characteristic that reflects the extent to which a culture has a longer- or shorter-term

orientation. 6. A cultural characteristic that reflects the extent to which a society values the position of an individual

versus the position of a group. 7. A formal position of authority in an organization that is responsible for planning, organizing, directing,

monitoring, and controlling the activities of others. 8. A hierarchy of needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization—where as each need

is met, the next higher-level need becomes the motivating focus. 9. A motivation theory that argues that both positive and negative feedback condition behavior. 10. A person, who, by virtue of his or her personal attributes, can exert influence on others. 11. A project team whose members are located throughout the world. 12. A set of leadership theories that argue people’s actions determine their potential to be successful leaders. 13. A set of leadership theories that suggest personality, appearance, competency, and other personal char-

acteristics differentiate leaders from nonleaders. 14. A set of leadership theories that suggest that the situation is most critical for identifying leadership

success. 15. A widely used personality test. 16. An individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. 17. Conflict that hinders group performance and interferes with team performance. 18. Conflict that supports the goals of the team and improves its performance. 19. Individuals compare their work inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate

any inequities. 20. Individuals’ motivation can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation. 21. Intrinsic factors (motivational factors) are related to job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic factors (hygiene

factors) are associated with dissatisfaction. 22. Motivational theory reflecting the Japanese work philosophy that includes a belief in lifetime employ-

ment, strong company loyalty, and group consensus. 23. Motivational theory that assumes people dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibilities, and must be

coerced to work hard. 24. Motivational theory that assumes people like work, are creative, like autonomy, and seek responsibility. 25. People exert a high level of effort when they believe that (1) effort will lead to a good performance

appraisal, (2) a good appraisal will lead to rewards, and (3) these rewards will satisfy their needs. 26. Power derived from an individual’s position in an organization. 27. Power derived from an individual’s unique characteristics. 28. Specific and difficult goals, with clear feedback on how well a person is meeting the goals, can enhance

a person’s work productivity. 29. The ability to influence people toward the achievement of goals. 30. The absolute capacity of a person to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more target persons

at a given point in time.

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31. The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.

32. The failure to report to work. 33. The general attitude a person has toward his or her job. 34. The integration of economies throughout the world, enabled by innovation and technological progress. 35. The opposition of people in an organization arising from incompatible or opposing needs, drives,

wishes, or external or internal demands. 36. The rate at which people voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization. 37. The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve a desired level of team conflict. 38. Three core needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—of which more than one need may be operative

at the same time; if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need becomes the motivating focus.

39. Two or more people who share the same goals, are interdependent, have complementary skills, and are mutually accountable to the organization and to each member of the team.

Review Questions 1. How is a project team different from a group? 2. Describe the five stages of project team development. 3. Discuss how work design, composition, context, and process influence project team performance. 4. What is motivation, and why is it important for project managers to understand why and how people

are motivated? 5. Describe and contrast the hierarchy of needs, the ERG theory, and the two-factor theory. 6. What are process theories of motivation? 7. Contrast what is meant by hygiene factors versus motivational factors in the two-factor theory of

motivation. Which is more important? Why? 8. Describe how leadership and power can be used to influence project team members. 9. Explain and contrast trait, behavioral, and contingency theories of leadership. 10. Describe various types of positional power and personal power. 11. Describe and contrast functional versus dysfunctional conflict and how conflict management tech-

niques can be used to manage conflict within a team. 12. What factors have led to the increased use of global project teams? 13. Explain and contrast various technological, cultural, human-resource, and geoeconomic challenges of

managing global project teams.

Chapter Exercises 1. Do you prefer to work as part of a team or alone? Why? How do you think your answer compares with

others in your class? Does this preference depend on what type of task you are working on? 2. What types of problems might occur at each stage in the five-stage team development model? 3. Can a person be too motivated? Why or why not? 4. What motivates professional employees? What motivates hourly workers? 5. Do you think you have the traits and skills to be a leader? Why or why not?

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6. Distinguish between leadership and management. Do you think you would be a better leader or a better manager? Why?

7. Which type of power—positional or personal—has the greatest influence on other team members within an information systems project team? Why?

8. Some conflict is good for a project team, whereas other types of conflict are bad. Which type of conflict causes the greatest problems in project teams? Why?

9. Global outsourcing appears to be here to stay. Use the web to identify a company that is providing low- cost labor from some less-developed part of the world. Provide a short report that explains who they are, where they are located, who their customers are, what services and capabilities they provide, how long they have been in business, and any other interesting information you can find in your research.

10. Examine Table 3.6 and rate yourself for each of the critical cultural dimensions. Do your ratings match those of your country in every instance? If they do, why do you think this is so? If not, why not?

11. Contrast the pros and cons of managing diverse project teams. 12. What are the implications of new forms of technology-mediated communication for managing project

teams? 13. Leaders can come from all backgrounds, genders, and races. Meet with a team of three to five students

and identify what makes the following individuals more effective (or less effective) leaders: Mark Zuckerberg, Harry Welch, Elon Musk, Bill Gates, and Oprah Winfrey. Write a one-page summary of your results.

14. Throughout your life—at school, work, or socially—you have undoubtedly participated on a team. Meet with a team of three to five students and identify, without naming names, the “worst team member I have ever worked with.” During this discussion, identify the key factors as to why each nominated worst team member was chosen, and summarize this in a one-page report to your instructor.

Chapter Case: Sedona Management Group and Managing Project Teams

The Sedona Management Group (SMG) recognizes the importance of teamwork in the successful completion of projects. Tim Turnpaugh also believes in building a project team based on both the skills and diversity in background of the project team members. To Turnpaugh, diversity in background adds fresh ideas that can enhance the quality of SMG’s products. As an example, the chief programmer at SMG not only has the expected skills in PHP, Ajax, and MySQL, but he is also a professional jazz musician. Another member of SMG’s team, a graphic designer, was a physical therapist and an artist prior to joining the team. Turnpaugh believes that such diverse backgrounds allow people to approach problems differently, see issues from different perspectives, and in many ways, enhance the quality of the work environment. All these factors not only result in enhanced project quality but also help the team learn to “think outside the box” and build new products and services that enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty.

What does it take to be an employee at SMG? The Sedona team looks for intrinsically motivated

individuals, people who enjoy their work, whether it be building applications or interacting with SMG’s diverse client base.

While these individuals should have the neces- sary technical expertise, such as skills in PHP, Ajax, and MySQL, their ability to work as members of the Sedona team and create a fun work environment are also highly valued. SMG looks for people who strive for perfection in what they do. Turnpaugh believes that these characteristics—while they can be developed to some extent—are highly dependent on the person’s basic personality and attitudes. Indi- viduals who enjoy their work and pay attention to details make great employees for a self-managed work team environment, such as that at SMG. While compensation and other forms of extrinsic motiva- tion are always important for any work environment, Turnpaugh seeks employees who are self-motivated to succeed and have fun while working.

In several situations, Turnpaugh has trained unskilled employees—what he calls rookies. He emphasizes that if an individual comes from a dif- ferent background, the focus is not on stripping the

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employee’s knowledge and starting over again but rather on finding ways to complement that existing knowledge with the knowledge that will be gained working with the team. In the case of the graphic designer turned web interface designer, the employ- ee’s knowledge as an artist augments her ability in designing the interface for the system. As these skills are merged, Turnpaugh calls these people Ninjas, in that they become experts in their areas—beyond the normal black belt. He adds that he would rather have a few Ninjas on his team than a bunch of non-Nin- jas. Central to SMG’s personnel philosophy is that recruitment is key. A smart, personable, hard-working individual can, in many instances, acquire the appro- priate skills for his position. The reverse, however, is not true. While skilled, a person who isn’t motivated to work hard and cannot enjoy the work environment may never acquire these attributes.

SMG’s reward and recognition system is set up to reward both individual behavior and teamwork. While Turnpaugh recognizes individual members of

the Sedona team who have done something extra to ensure customer satisfaction, rewards are also given for group-level performance to ensure people are pulling together as a team. To further enhance the social fabric and teamwork aspects of his organi- zation, social events are frequently planned after the team has successfully completed a project. Many members of the Sedona team genuinely like each other and share common hobbies and time together after work.

Finally, Turnpaugh stresses the importance of smaller teams with three to seven members. Larger teams frequently suffer from problems associated with managing schedules and interteam communi- cation. The Sedona team has found that communi- cation is vital to the management and success of any project and that members of a smaller team tend to be in constant communication with each other. Consequently, these smaller teams can work more effectively toward fulfilling the customer’s needs.

Chapter 3 Project Assignment As you have learned from this chapter, it takes teamwork to successfully complete most projects. The members of your entertainment website development team must work together to achieve the project objectives. For this assignment, you will find out what you need to work as a successful team.

1. As an individual-level assignment, determine at least five things that really work well, and five that do not, when managing teams.

2. Get together with your team members and discuss what each of you has written in response to Question 1.

3. Establish a set of ground rules that you will use during the project to manage team interactions.

4. Also determine a responsibility assignment matrix that defines who will perform what work at a very general level.

5. Identify the skills that are most important for the project manager.

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Komaki, J. L., Coombs, T., and Schepman, S. (1996). Motivational Implications of Reinforcement Theory. In R. M. Steers, L. W. Porter, and G. Bigley (eds.), Motivation and Work Behavior (6th ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill, pp. 87–107.

Locke, E. A. (1968). Towards a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, May, pp. 157–189.

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row. McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. Melymuka, K. (2004, April 12). How to Pick a Project Team. ComputerWorld. Retrieved July 4, 2018, from http://

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Opening Case: Microsoft Broadcasts Channel 9 to Enhance Developer Communication

For any company, communicating and interacting with the larger stakeholder community is essential. In an attempt to improve communication with its developer community, Microsoft launched Channel 9, a website promoting dialogue between internal

software evangelists (Microsoft programming and application experts) and its external developer community (see Figure 4.2). Channel 9 provides up-to-date collections of video interviews with members of various Microsoft product groups so

C H A P T E R 4

Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication

Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 learning objectives

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that the developer community can be the first to learn about changing plans, new developments, or potential problems. The site provides an online forum, allowing developers to create profiles for themselves and to post comments and questions about videos and other content. Channel 9 also incorporates blogs, wikis, and user-editable web pages to better reach out to the Microsoft developer community.

Visitors can gain an insider’s view of current and future developments. The site was named after the United Airlines in-flight audio channel that

broadcasts cockpit communications. Similarly, Mic- rosoft envisions enhanced communication that will enable the organization to learn how to best serve its developer community by allowing developers to listen in on internal Microsoft communication. The welcome page on the site makes this point by stat- ing, “We think developers need their own Channel 9, a way to listen in to the cockpit at Microsoft, an opportunity to learn how we fly, a chance to get to know our pilots.” Microsoft is convinced that better communication is fundamental to better serving its customers through dialogue and learning.

Based on: Evers (2004); Microsoft (2016, 2018).

Introduction In the previous chapter, we discussed how critical people are to the success of a project. We examined various aspects of project team composition and management, includ- ing motivation, leadership, power, conflict, and a variety of other issues. In addition, a project’s stakeholders can positively or negatively affect a project. Thus effective com- munication within a project team as well as with a project’s stakeholders is essential to project success. In information systems project teams, effective communication is particularly important because there is often a broad communication gap between tech- nical development team members and nontechnical individuals, both inside and outside the team. This gap is the result of at least three factors: First, some individuals with

Figure 4.2 Channel 9 is improving Microsoft’s communication with its developer community.

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technical training might not have adequate communication skills. Second, the nature of information technology is constantly changing, with new devices and jargon. Third, nontechnical stakeholders may not be able to effectively communicate their needs to the technical development team members. Together these factors can create formidable communication barriers between technical and nontechnical people. Likewise, identi- fying and effectively engaging stakeholders can help shape their expectations and align them with the project’s objectives. In this chapter, therefore, we focus on managing stakeholders and project team communication. In the next section, we examine the key processes of project stakeholder management: Identify Stakeholders, Plan Stakeholder Engagement, Manage Stakeholder Engagement, and Monitor Stakeholder Engagement. We then examine three key communication processes for project teams: Plan Communica- tions Management, Manage Communications, and Monitor Communications. We conclude by discussing several methods or techniques for enhancing project communication and describe various collaboration technologies that project teams can utilize to enhance communication.

Project Stakeholder Management As defined in Chapter 1, stakeholders are individuals, groups, and organizations that are actively involved in the project, who have a vested interest in its success, and/or who have influence over the project and its results. As their influence can be positive or negative, the project management team must identify the project stakeholders in order to manage their expectations. If stakeholders expect too much from a project or if their expectations are not realistic, then they are unlikely to be satisfied with the proj- ect’s progress or its end product. Failure to identify a key stakeholder can cause major problems for a project. Many different individuals can be stakeholders for a particular project. Key stakeholders include

• Project manager • Customer • Performing organization—those doing the work of the project • Project team members • Influencers—those who may not buy or use the project’s product but who can

have a positive or negative influence on the project • Project management office • Sponsor

The sponsor is the individual in the organization who has ultimate responsibility for the project and its success, and who may also have financial responsibility for it. Many others both inside and outside the project organization may be stakeholders. These include sellers, owners, government agencies, media, lobbying organizations, and so on. For example, stakeholders of a data center project that uses the water of a nearby river for cooling purposes include not only project team members and the performing organization, but also entities external to the organization, such as the data center’s customers, neighbors, or even anglers who regularly fish downstream from the new data center. While the latter may not seem to be important at first, they may be highly concerned about the project’s impact on recreational (or commercial) activities and may have a strong voice in the local community. As you can see, the types of stakeholders, their level of interest, and their potential influence are quite diverse, and it is critical to continuously engage stakeholders so as to resolve potential issues and steer their

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expectations into the intended direction. Many different individuals and groups with a stake in a project can contribute to different and conflicting expectations. The more expectations there are, and the more they contradict each other, the more difficult it will be to manage them. How does a project manager decide whom to try to keep happy? This is a big challenge. One rule of thumb is to try to meet the customer’s requirements, but that does not mean everyone else can be safely ignored. Project stakeholder man- agement thus includes four key processes (PMBOK, 2017):

1. Identify Stakeholders. The process involved in identifying stakeholders and analyz- ing and classifying their levels of interest, expectations, and potential influence

2. Plan Stakeholder Engagement. The processes for developing a stakeholder manage- ment plan, which specifies how to engage stakeholders at various phases of the project and how to maintain relationships with key stakeholders

3. Manage Stakeholder Engagement. The processes of communicating with stakehold- ers to increase support and/or minimize resistance

4. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement. The processes of monitoring the effectiveness of the stakeholder engagement processes and adjusting processes to maximize effectiveness

Next, we will discuss each of these processes individually.

Identify Stakeholders The Identify Stakeholders process is critical to successful stakeholder engagement, as it helps managers understand the nature of the stakeholders, their interests, and potential influence they may have on project success. Consequently, identifying and classifying stakeholders helps guide the communication efforts throughout the different stages of a project. A key technique in the Identify Stakeholders process is stakeholder analysis, which involves identifying the different stakeholders, assessing their potential impact, as well as assessing possible stakeholder responses. Importantly, as the interest and influence of stakeholders may change, the project manager should conduct this analysis not only at the beginning of a project but also over the different stages of a project. In addition to having an interest in the project or its outcomes, stakeholders may have rights or ownership, or promote the project through the contribution of resources or knowledge. To help with the classification of stakeholders, project managers use tools such as power/interest grids, power/influence grids, or influence/impact grids, which are used to classify stakeholders based on their interest, influence, level of authority, or potential impact on a project’s outcome (see Figure 4.3). Similarly, a salience model (typically in the form of a Venn diagram) classifies stakeholders based on the three dimensions: power, legitimacy, and urgency. A stakeholder’s position in the diagram determines the level of needed engagement, based on the ability to influence the proj- ect outcome (power), legitimacy of their involvement, and urgency of communication needs (see Figure 4.4). The stakeholder register is created as an output of the Identify Stakeholders process. The stakeholder register contains not only names, addresses, and other pertinent information about stakeholders, but also assessments of their expecta- tions of and influence on the various phases, as well as each stakeholder’s classification.

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Figure 4.3 Power/influence grid

Figure 4.4 Salience model

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Plan Stakeholder Engagement Once the stakeholders and their interests, influence, and expectations have been iden- tified, the next step is to plan how to effectively maintain relationships with the various stakeholders, so as to harness positive influences and minimize any potential negative impacts. Typically, this process includes classifying stakeholders based on their level of support and their level of awareness of the project and its impacts (see Figure 4.5). A stakeholder engagement assessment matrix is used to indicate current and desired engagement levels for each stakeholder (see Figure 4.6). This matrix can be shared easily among team members and stakeholders outside the project team, to ensure that the right people are getting the right information in the right format at the right time.

The stakeholder engagement plan details the outputs of the stakeholder classifica- tion, as well as the methods of how and when information needs to be distributed, so as maximize the effectiveness of stakeholder engagement. Needless to say, analysis and assessment of stakeholders may contain sensitive information, and project managers should ensure that only information should be included or distributed that would not hurt the project if it were made public.

Manage Stakeholder Engagement The Manage Stakeholder Engagement process puts the previous process in motion; during this ongoing process, communication activities are conducted to engage stakeholders, manage their expectations, and address concerns and resolve issues that may arise as the project progresses through the different phases. Typical outputs are the communications (such as reports or presentations), but also change requests arising from interactions with stakeholders, updates to other project documents (such as the stakeholder register), or lessons learned for future projects.

Figure 4.5 Project stakeholders can range from being unaware of the project and its impact to being actively engaged in ensuring the success of a project.

Figure 4.6. A stakeholder engagement assessment matrix is used to indicate the current (“C”) and desired (“D”) level of each stakeholder’s engagement.

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Monitor Stakeholder Engagement Just as the Monitor Communications process involves continuously assessing the effec- tiveness of communication processes, the Monitor Stakeholder Engagement process entails assessing the effectiveness of the strategies for engaging stakeholders and man- aging their relationships. For example, if the activities performed in the Manage Stake- holder Engagement process are ineffective in bringing a particular stakeholder from the current to the desired engagement level, communication activities may have to be adjusted, or changes to the project will need to be made to account for this.

Project Communications Management Communication—a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior (Verma, 1997)—is the life- blood of a project team. Without effective communication, a team cannot be successful. Likewise, communication is key to engaging the project’s stakeholders. In order for communication to be successful, the communication receiver must understand the mes- sage that the communication sender intended to send, and both the sender and receiver must agree that the receiver has understood the message (see Figure 4.7). After the sender encodes and transmits a message, the receiver decodes the message, acknowledges receipt, and sends feedback to ensure that the message was understood and provides a response. Within the communication process, noise can affect the transmission and reception of the message, either consciously or unconsciously, through audio, visual, or environmental interference. Communication noise can be as simple as an open window with a warm breeze, the smell of food when hungry, or the sight or sounds of people outside an open office door. The aforementioned example is an example of interactive communication, in which two or more parties exchange information. Another form of communication is push communication, such as emails or letters, where information is distributed by the sender to specific recipients or general audiences, but receipt of the information is not ensured, and the recipient may or may not acknowledge receipt or provide feedback. In contrast, pull communication takes place when the receiver accesses or retrieves information, such as from books or online repositories. Given the importance of communication for project success, the Project Management Institute has identified three key project communication processes (PMBOK, 2017):

Figure 4.7 Successful communication requires that both the sender and receiver agree that the receiver has understood the message.

Communication A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.

Feedback The response process by a receiver to a sender within the communication process.

Noise Audio, visual, or environmental interference within the communication process.

Interactive communication A form of communication in which two or more parties exchange information.

Push communication A form of communication where information is distributed by the sender to specific recipients or general audiences, but receipt of the information is not ensured.

Pull communication A form of communication where the receiver must retrieve the information.

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1. Plan Communications Management. A process for developing a comprehensive communications management that describes how project information will be communicated to meet stakeholders’ information needs

2. Manage Communications. The processes involved in providing project information to all relevant stakeholders in a timely manner

3. Monitor Communications. The processes of monitoring the effectiveness of the communication processes and, if needed, adjusting processes to maximize effectiveness

In the remainder of this section, we examine each of these three key communication processes.

Tips from the Pros: Defining a Secure Communications Policy

Misuse of corporate email, instant messaging, and other communication resources has become a source of substantial liability in many organizations. Because of this, organizations are defining policies to better ensure that government regulations are met, sensitive data are secure, and customer privacy is protected.

Ken Beer, product line manager of Tumbleweed Communications, outlined ten steps to establishing a secure email policy.

1. Clearly outline all personal use restrictions. Make sure employees understand whether personal use is permitted and, if so, what types of correspondence and content are acceptable and unacceptable.

2. Strictly prohibit unauthorized transmission of company trade secrets, confidential information, or privileged communication. Because the majority of a company’s intellectual capital is now stored digitally, it is crucial that employees do not transmit these valuable assets without consent.

3. Be aware of industry-specific government regulations. Various industries such as health care and financial services have differing standards for privacy of information; policies should reflect each industry’s unique restrictions.

4. Inform employees that their email and other computing activities may be monitored. It is the organization’s right to monitor electronic transmission, but employees should be notified and asked to sign a waiver acknowledging the acceptance of this policy.

5. Implement tools to enforce polices. Firewalls, spam filters, virtual private networks (VPNs), and other emerging tools should be utilized

by the organization to better implement the policy.

6. Carefully define what content can and cannot enter or leave your organization. To limit corporate liability, firewall filters should look for profane, sexually explicit, racist, or other potentially litigious content, as well as for keywords that might refer to confidential product or customer information.

7. Employ “intelligent” policy enforcement. Not everyone in the organization should be treated equally. Different job functions and seniority may require different levels of restrictiveness.

8. Protect sensitive business data from the vulnerability of plain-text email. Use VPN, encryption, passwords, and other data securing technologies when transmitting sensitive information on public networks.

9. Establish a secure public network. Use capabilities of the existing messaging infrastructure to create secure and trusted communications channels between key members of the organization (e.g., CEO and CFO).

10. Ensure the privacy of your customers’ data. Secure customer data as if it were critical organizational intellectual property.

Especially as the use of mobile devices has increased dramatically over the past years, email policies and standards should not be restricted to users’ desktops. Rather, companies need to ensure that any devices used to access company-related emails need to be encrypted, password protected, and secured using company-approved security apps. This can be achieved using dedicated mobile device management (MDM) software, or by using MDM tools provide by services such as Office 365.

Based on: Beer (2003); Microsoft Office (2018).

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Plan Communications Management For a project to run smoothly, all project stakeholders need various types of information throughout the life of the project. Plan Communications Management is the process of developing a comprehensive plan for informing project stakeholders of all relevant information on a timely basis, so as to ensure effective and efficient communication. In short, this process focuses on identifying how information will be communicated; the resulting communications management plan should include how project information is stored, retrieved, and discarded at the end of the project.

Part of determining the communication requirements is not only analyzing who needs what information, but also how much effort should be expended to communicate particular information, so as to avoid wasting effort on unnecessary communication. Other considerations include the choice of communication medium, which include how urgently the information needs to be communicated, whether or not technology is available and sufficiently easy to use, whether the communication technology is suf- ficiently secure to guarantee the confidentiality of information, as well as other factors, such as team culture or dispersion across time and space. Because effective communi- cation is fundamental to project success, planning communications is done very early in the life of the project. Normally, a communications management plan includes answers to various questions, including

• Who are the project’s stakeholders / stakeholder groups? • What are the information needs of each stakeholder or stakeholder group? • When does this information need to be produced, and at what intervals? • Where will this information be generated from? • Who will be responsible for collecting, storing, and verifying the accuracy of this

information? • Who will be responsible for organizing, packaging, and disseminating this

information? • Who will be the contact person for each stakeholder or stakeholder group? • In what format will this information be packaged and disseminated? • What communication medium will be preferred for each stakeholder or stake-

holder group? • What resources (in terms of time and budget) are available for communication?

Once these questions are answered for each stakeholder, a comprehensive commu- nications management plan can be developed. Typically, project teams use the proj- ect management plan, the stakeholder register, enterprise environmental factors, and organizational process assets as inputs to developing this plan. This plan will outline a summary of communication documents, work assignments, schedules, and distribution methods.

Manage Communications Manage Communications focuses on getting needed project information to project stakeholders in a timely manner. In other words, the ongoing Manage Communications process is the execution of the Plan Communications Management process and includes responding to any ad hoc information requests by stakeholders. Thus Manage Com- munications is concerned with ensuring that project information is properly created,

Plan Communications Management The process of developing a comprehensive plan for informing project stakeholders of all relevant information on a timely basis.

Communications management plan The plan for informing project stakeholders of all relevant information on a timely basis, including how project information is stored, retrieved, and discarded at the end of the project.

Manage Communications The process of ensuring that project information is properly created, collected, stored, retrieved, distributed, monitored, and discarded.

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collected, stored, retrieved, distributed, monitored, and discarded. Normally, informa- tion can be distributed using a broad variety of methods, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Some methods are easier for the information sender but more difficult or less convenient for the receiver. Apart from face-to-face meetings, most information today is exchanged digitally. One key purpose of many communication activities—espe- cially within teams, but also between the project team and external stakeholders—is performance reporting. Project teams communicate in a variety of ways: written versus oral versus nonverbal, informal versus formal, vertical versus horizontal, or internal versus external to the team. Next, we briefly review the strengths and weaknesses of these various communication options. Given the importance of managing commu- nications, we will devote the following section to different topics related to effective communication.

Common Problems: Communication in a Crisis

Internet of Things (IoT) devices such as the Nest Thermostat (by a company owned by Google) are becoming increasingly popular. Made possible by advances in hardware and software, IoT devices, as other digital devices, need continuous maintenance to improve performance, add features, or fix bugs in the software. In December 2015, Nest released a software update, which, unfortunately, introduced a new bug. This software bug caused the battery to drain, such that in an unusually cold night in mid- January 2016, many users woke up in the cold, leading Nest to scramble to fix the bug. In addition to fixing the bug, key to handling such incidents is communication, with the users, the general public, as well as Google’s shareholders. As the Nest software update, any IS project carries risks that may necessitate emergency communication.

While not every issue results in widespread public attention, such issues can result in negative publicity, lack of consumer confidence, as well as have nega- tive effects on share prices. Consequently, compa- nies need to be prepared to deal with such crises, and

an important step is to manage communication with the different stakeholders. Members of the Forbes Agency Council have proposed various rules to han- dle communication in such crises. Some of the most pertinent rules include

1. Take responsibility, rather than trying to cover up.

2. Be proactive, transparent, and accountable. 3. Be fast; don’t wait until the situation spins out

of control. 4. Be prepared for what might happen on social

media. 5. Respond like a human, not like a lawyer. 6. Monitor social media and react fast. 7. Try to get an understanding of the situation. 8. Engage your PR team. 9. Put yourself in the affected stakeholders’

shoes. 10. Be prepared and have a good communications

plan.

Based on: Bilton (2016); Forbes Agency Council (2018).

Performance Reporting Performance reporting involves the collection and distribution of project performance information to stakeholders so that they understand the status of the project at any given time. Performance reporting involves three general types of reports: status, progress, and forecasting. Status reports describe current information about the project, such as proj- ect schedule or budget information. Progress reports describe what the project team has accomplished. Finally, forecasting reports make predictions about future status and progress. In general, performance reporting analyzes baseline versus actual data on proj- ect scope, schedule, cost, risk, and quality (PMBOK, 2017). Numerous standard tools

Performance reporting The collection and distribution of project performance information to stakeholders so that they understand the status of the project at any given time.

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and techniques for performance reporting will be described throughout the remainder of this book, including variance analysis, trend analysis, and earned value analysis.

Written, Oral, and Nonverbal Communication Written communication—the exchange of memos, reports, letters, email, instant messaging, and so on through the use of standard symbols—provides a record of the communication and is particularly useful for formal and complex communication. Of course, written communication is relatively time-consuming to produce, and no matter what medium is chosen, key to effective communication is using the appropriate writ- ing style for the audience. Oral communication—the exchange of spoken words—is fast, requires little effort to produce, and is less formal than written communication. One major drawback of oral communication is the ease with which messages can be distorted as they are passed along to others. Oral communication, especially presenta- tions, can often be enhanced, however, through the use of visual aids, such as flip charts, handouts, or computer-based presentations (we will examine the factors that influence the quality of a presentation later in the chapter).

Nonverbal communication—information that is conveyed by body language through our posture, hands, facial expressions, eye contact, and personal space—can play an important role in transmitting and decoding oral communication. Research studies have found that up to 70 percent of what is really being communicated between individuals is done nonverbally (Barnum and Wolniansky, 1989). Table 4.1 summarizes whether oral or written communication is more effective for different types of proj- ect-related communication (see also Robbins and Judge, 2017; Verma, 1996).

Informal versus Formal Communication Informal communication grows out of people’s social interactions and is bound by convention, custom, and culture (Tucker, McCarthy, and Benton, 2003). Every project team has one or more informal communication methods, whether it is hallway conver- sations or instant messaging using technology such as WhatsApp, Google Hangouts, or Skype for Business. Different people with different relationships will have different ways of exchanging informal information. Sometimes informal information is very accurate, and sometimes it is not. It is often used to exchange rumors or gossip, but also serves some important uses for a project team. For example, informal communication

Status reports Reports designed to disseminate current information about the project.

Progress reports Reports designed to disseminate what the project team has accomplished.

Forecasting reports Reports designed to disseminate predictions about future status and progress.

Written communication The exchange of memos, reports, letters, email, instant messaging, and so on through the use of standard symbols.

Oral communication The exchange of spoken words.

Nonverbal communication The exchange of communication through body language, posture, hands, facial expressions, eye contact, and personal space.

Informal communication The exchange of ad hoc, casual communications, usually taking place outside official communication channels.

Table 4.1 How and When to Use Oral and Written Communication

Communication Method (Level of Effectiveness) Purpose of Communication Oral Written Oral + Written General overview Medium Medium High Immediate action required Medium Low High Future action required Low High Medium Directive, order, or policy change Low Medium High Progress report to supervisor Low Medium High Awareness campaign Low Low High Commendation for quality work Low Low High Reprimand a team member High Low Medium Settle a dispute High Low Medium Adapted from: Verma (1996).

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is useful for having personal and collegial conversations, and it can be used to quickly exchange information when clarifying communications related to work activities.

In contrast, formal communication comprises the routine methods for commu- nicating official information within organizations. Formal communication often fol- lows customs and norms with regard to authority, rank, and the type of information. Formal communication is typically in writing and often follows a standard format so that formal documents can be easily identified and stored. Project teams use a variety of settings and communication technologies when exchanging formal versus informal communication, as shown in Figure 4.8.

Vertical versus Horizontal Communication.

Vertical communication refers to communication that flows between higher and lower levels within an organization. Upward communication typically flows to a single indi- vidual such as a superior, while downward communication can flow to one or many individuals. Of course, there are exceptions, but vertical communication tends to be more formal.

In contrast, horizontal communication refers to communication that flows among team members or across functional areas within the same level of an organization. Within-team communication is typically viewed as horizontal communication—even when cross-functional—and is typically less formal. External team communication is often viewed as being vertical and is more formal (see Figure 4.9).

There are a broad range of options to choose from, with each communication method having strengths and weaknesses for exchanging different types of information. In the past, the general rule for communication was that formal communication was written and informal communication was oral. However, in addition to the actual information being distributed and updates to the project management plan, an important output of the Manage Communications process is ensuring that the communication and lessons learned will be available for future projects. Thus, given the need for having an effective team memory and the capability of modern web-based project management solutions, more and more information is being distributed digitally. In Chapter 5 we discuss the project management information system, a repository that contains all project-related documents, both paper and electronic.

Formal communication The exchange of official information communicated through formal channels within organizations.

Vertical communication The exchange of information between higher and lower levels within an organization.

Horizontal communication The exchange of information among team members or across functional areas within the same level of an organization.

Figure 4.8 How project teams exchange formal and informal communication

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Internal versus External Communication Teams can draw on a variety of communication and collaboration tools—ranging from email to electronic meeting systems—to exchange information or to communicate with internal stakeholders (discussed later). However, for projects involving external stake- holders, a variety of tools suited for push communication are needed. Given the per- vasiveness of social media, organizations communicate with external stakeholders and the general public not only via press releases but are using a wide variety of social media tools, ranging from Facebook to Twitter. These tools are especially useful when urgent information needs to be disseminated. While push communication is generally used to distribute project-related information, social media users are increasingly engaging in conversations with companies. Thus, especially for projects of wider public concern, the project manager needs to ensure that posts, tweets, and conversations are monitored and social media users’ messages and concerns are responded to.

Monitor Communications Given the importance of communications, it is necessary to monitor the effective- ness of the communication activities. Consequently, the Monitor Communications pro- cess involves assessing how well the communication reached the intended audiences, whether the communication had the intended impact, and what actions need to be taken to resolve any issues that may arise. Likewise, social media monitoring can help assess public sentiment on social media toward particular issues surrounding a project

Figure 4.9 Horizontal communication is typically less formal than vertical communication.

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and can enable the project manager to formulate appropriate responses. Consequently, the Monitor Communications process may lead to renewed activities related to the Plan Communications Management and Manage Communications processes, so as to maintain the effectiveness of communication-related activities.

In this section, we discussed a variety of processes and techniques for better man- aging communication with project stakeholders. By actively managing the communi- cation with stakeholders, you will more likely keep the project on track and head off problems due to ineffective communication. Making sure that all stakeholders clearly understand the project status as well as all outstanding issues that might impact the project is fundamental to success. Next, we examine several ways to enhance project communication.

Enhancing Project Communication Although many people are natural communicators, nearly everyone can improve their communication skills. Being an effective communicator is likely the single biggest fac- tor in determining how successful you will become in your career. In other words, if you cannot effectively use oral and written communication, the likelihood of great career success is quite low. Fortunately, there are many options for helping you improve your communication skills. For example, some organizations provide training semi- nars within the human resource management department to help employees develop these valuable skills. Another option that many students pursue is to join Toastmasters International (www.toastmasters.org), a worldwide organization dedicated to helping people become better communicators. Likewise, software tools such as Grammarly can be used to instantly provide feedback on grammatical errors in written communi- cation, helping improve clarity and reduce the potential for misunderstandings. In the remainder of this section, we examine several techniques for improving your project communication skills.

Running Effective Project Meetings

Meetings are an important part of project team interaction. They are used for a broad variety of purposes, including planning actions, reviewing status, providing briefings and presentations, solving problems, and negotiating contracts. Unfortunately, most meetings are not as effective as they could be. Researchers have identified numerous potential problems that make meetings less effective than they could be. Among the most important problems are the following:

• Lack of adequate notification and preparation • No agenda • Wrong people or too many people in attendance • Lack of control • Political pressure and hidden agendas • No conclusions or follow-up

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Nonetheless, meetings need to occur and can provide many benefits to the team. Meetings that are well planned and executed can have a big positive impact on the team’s performance. For example, well-planned meetings can help (Verma, 1996)

• Define the project, team members, and key stakeholders. • Provide a forum for revising, updating, modifying, and clarifying key aspects of

the project. • Provide an opportunity for team members to better understand how their con-

tribution fits within the scope of the overall project. • Increase team member commitment to the project and the team through shared

decision-making and collaboration. • Increase work productivity and job satisfaction by clarifying task assignments and

other project details. • Provide an opportunity for the project manager to demonstrate leadership and

vision. • Provide an opportunity for project members to demonstrate their creativity, skills,

and commitment to the project and team.

To run an effective meeting, you need to conduct several activities before, during, and after the meeting. For instance, prior to the meeting, you must carefully plan what should be accomplished; during the meeting, you must carefully control the agenda; and after the meeting, you must carefully document its outcomes and communicate them to all relevant parties. Figure 4.10 provides clear pre-, during, and post-meeting guidelines. Given that meetings are so valuable and important to project success, all project managers need to be skilled at running an effective meeting. In fact, to enable more effective meetings, many organizations develop a set of ground rules that are widely distributed to and agreed on by all organizational members (see Figure 4.11).

Making Effective Presentations Presentations are used throughout the duration of the project for briefing team mem- bers and external stakeholders. Like meetings, presentations can provide many benefits to the team. Also, like meetings, presentations are often not well prepared or exe- cuted. Today, almost every presenter uses computer-based presentation software, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, or the online presentation software Prezi. One of the key benefits of such software is its ease of use—anyone can easily create a well-designed presentation and incorporate a variety of professional-looking anima- tions, transitions, or other visual effects. Unfortunately, however, many tend to overuse these features, which distracts from the content of the presentation.

Thus any presentation needs to be well planned and designed. The planning and design of a presentation also includes organizing the content and ensuring a consis- tent design and readable fonts. In addition, effective delivery is a skill that is crucial in getting one’s message across. As an effective presenter, you should help the audience focus on the content, rather than on the delivery, by making use of a clear voice, body language, eye contact, and so on. In sum, planning, design, and delivery are essential for an effective presentation, as highlighted in Table 4.2.

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Figure 4.11 Meeting ground rules.

Being a Better Listener Most people believe that they are good listeners; however, research has repeatedly shown that most people are relatively poor listeners (Kramer, 2001). Listening is an active activity that consists of hearing, understanding, remembering, and acting. Most people speak at a rate of around 120–140 words per minute, whereas people can listen to up to 600 words per minute. This gap between the speeds at which people talk and listen will sometimes allow our minds to wander to a point where we fail to listen—hear, understand, remember, and act on what is being said. The difference between a good and bad listener is usually easy to spot (see Table 4.3). Fortunately, a few simple rules can help you be a better listener (Tucker, McCarthy, and Benton, 2002):

1. Listen without evaluating. Don’t judge or guess what is being said. 2. Do not anticipate. Don’t assume you know what someone is going to say. 3. Note taking. Take detailed notes because we forget one-third to one half of what

we hear within eight hours. 4. Listen for themes and facts. Try to organize what is being said into larger concepts. 5. Do not fake attention. Really paying attention is actually easier than faking it. 6. Review. Review what is being said and restate it back to the speaker as you under-

stand it.

Listening An active activity that consists of hearing, understanding, remembering, and acting.

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Table 4.2 Guidelines for Making an Effective Presentation

Presentation Planning

Consider the audience To design the most effective presentation, you need to consider the audience (e.g., What do they know about your topic? What is their education level?).

Focus on the message Your presentation should be designed with a particular objective in mind.

Consider the presentation environment

Knowledge of the room size, shape, and lighting is valuable for designing an optimal presentation.

Presentation Design

Organize the sequence Organize your presentation so that like elements or topics are found in one place instead of randomly scattered throughout the material.

Keep it simple Make sure that you don’t pack too much information onto a slide so that it is difficult to read. Also, work to have as few slides as possible; in other words, only include information that you absolutely need.

Be consistent Make sure that you use consistent types of fonts, font sizes, colors, design approach, and backgrounds.

Use variety Use both textual and graphical slides to convey information in the most meaningful format.

Don’t rely on the spellchecker alone

Make sure you carefully review your presentation for typographical and wording errors.

Use bells and whistles sparingly Make sure that you use familiar graphical icons to guide and enhance slides; don’t lose sight of your message as you add bells and whistles. Also, take great care when making transitions between slides and elements so that special effects don’t take away from your message.

Handle supplemental materials carefully

Take care when using supplemental materials so that they don’t distract the audience. For example, don’t provide handouts until you want the audience to actually read them.

Have a clear beginning and end At the beginning, introduce yourself and your teammates (if any), thank your audience for being there, and provide a clear outline of what will be covered during the presentation. At the conclusion, have an ending slide so that the audience clearly sees that the presentation is over.

Presentation Delivery

Practice the presentation Make sure that you thoroughly test your completed work on yourself and others to be certain it covers your points and presents them in an effective manner within the time allowed.

Arrive early and cue up your presentation

It is good practice when feasible to have your presentation ready to go before the arrival of the audience.

Learn to use the special software keys

Using special keys to navigate the presentation will allow you to focus on your message and not on the software.

Have a backup plan Have a backup plan in case technology fails or your presentation is lost when traveling.

Speak confidently To make an effective presentation, you must become an effective public speaker through practice.

Pay attention to your personal appearance

Your appearance and demeanor can greatly enhance how the audience receives your presentation.

Adapted from: Valacich and George (2017); Verma (1996).

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Being a better listener can pay numerous dividends when working with stakehold- ers and your team members. You will not only have better job performance; you will also improve your personal relationships with others.

Using Communication Templates and Glossaries

Virtually all successful organizations have standard templates for most formal com- munications. Communication templates ensure that all formal documents follow a standard layout and contain all required information. Communication templates are used for both internal and external communication. Many organizations also prepare templates for crisis communication, so as to be able to react quickly and effectively in case a crisis arises. With the use of the web, communication templates can be further enhanced. For example, using the project management information system (discussed in Chapter 1), organizations can quickly create online templates for most project-related documents in which project members only have to fill in the blanks to create a report; once the report is created, other team members can be automatically notified, or online documents can be automatically routed to other team members or stakeholders. Thus, not only does the use of templates enhance team productivity, it also ensures that all related documents follow a standard format and include all required information. Given these benefits, there are countless possibilities for using predefined templates within project teams (see Figure 4.12). Further, as discussed throughout this book, communi- cation among team members and with stakeholders external to the team is of crucial to project success. However, communication between technical and nontechnical people is often challenging due to differences in background knowledge, vocabularies, and so on. Often, one term means different things to different people, or different terms are used to mean the same thing. Consequently, having a project glossary that provides explanations for project-specific terms and acronyms can help establish a common vocabulary and can help avoid miscommunication.

Table 4.3 What Makes a Good Listener?

The Poor Listener . . . The Good Listener . . .

Always interrupts Does not interrupt

Is impatient Waits until the end, then asks questions

Makes hasty judgments Asks for clarification

Pays close attention Shows disinterest (poor posture, wandering eyes)

Doesn’t try to understand Verifies understanding by repeating what was said

Doesn’t respond Gives feedback: smiles, nods, or frowns

Mentally prepares an argument to “win” Avoids arguing and its negative effects on a relationship

Reacts to people and loses temper Responds to the idea, not to the person

Fidgets with pen, paper clips Gets rid of distractions

Goes off-subject Concentrates on both the words and feelings behind them; stays on track

Adapted from: Verma (1996).

Communication templates Specifications that enforce standards for the appearance and content of formal project documents.

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Making a Walk-Through Presentation

Users, management, developers, and other stakeholders attend numerous formal meet- ings to review various aspects of the project throughout its life. These meetings are called walk-throughs and are widely used by most professional development organi- zations. Walk-throughs have two primary objectives (Hoffer, George, and Valacich, 2007): First, they are used to ensure that a deliverable being reviewed at the meeting conforms to organizational standards and project specifications. Second, they are used to ensure that all relevant stakeholders understand and agree with the correctness and completeness of the deliverable. Experience has shown that walk-throughs are a very effective way to ensure the quality of an information system, and they have become a common day-to-day activity for many project managers. Walk-throughs have been used to review virtually all aspects of projects, including

• Project scope statements • Budget and schedule reviews • System specifications • Logical and physical designs • Code or program segments • Test procedures and results • Documentation and user training materials

Walk-throughs typically do not have to be overly formal or exceedingly long. How- ever, to be most effective, it is important for all participants to understand the goals of the walk-through and when it should be completed. Typically, a walk-through should include participants with the following roles (Yourdon, 1989):

Figure 4.12 A project template for requesting a design change

Walk-through A peer-group review of any product created during the systems development process.

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• Coordinator. Often the project leader or key analyst. Responsible for planning and facilitating the meeting. This person plans the meeting and facilitates a smooth meeting process.

• Presenter. Typically an analyst involved in the work being reviewed. Responsible for presenting the work product to the other participants.

• User. Participant(s) external from the project team. Responsible for ensuring that the work product evaluated meets the customers’ requirements.

• Secretary. Usually a clerk assigned to the project team, or an analyst. Responsible for taking minutes and recording decisions or recommendations made during the walk-through.

• Standards bearer. Person from an organizational group that is responsible for establishing standard procedures, methods, and documentation formats. Respon- sible for adherence to technical standards established by the organization and for validating the work product.

• Maintenance oracle. Responsible for ensuring that the work product will be easy to maintain.

Typically, a walk-through review form (see Figure 4.13) is used to inform the attendees of the agenda, date, time, and place of the meeting, as well as to ensure that each role (outlined previously) is filled by a qualified individual. During the walk- through, the focus should be on reviewing various aspects of a project and finding defects, rather than finding solutions to any problems identified. As with any meeting, the focus should be on the work product, rather than the person or group responsible for creating the work product. Once the participants agree that the major weaknesses or defects have been identified, the coordinator polls the participants for their recom- mendations, which can include validation, validation pending specific changes, or the request for major changes. In case major changes are needed, these are recorded by the secretary in a walk-through action list (see Figure 4.14), and another walkthrough is scheduled to review the revised work product.

One of the key advantages to using a structured review process like a walkthrough is to ensure that formal review points occur during the project. At each subsequent phase of the project, a formal review should be conducted (and shown on the project schedule) to make sure that all aspects of the project are satisfactorily accomplished before assigning additional resources to it. This conservative approach of reviewing each major project activity with continuation contingent on successful completion of the prior phase is called incremental commitment. It is much easier to stop or redirect a project at any point when using this approach.

Using Collaboration Technologies to Enhance Project Communication To successfully complete a project, team members need to exchange various types of information, using a variety of communication technologies. Traditionally, the commu- nication tools of choice were the telephone and fax machines. However, especially for global project teams (which are separated by geographical boundaries and time zones), these tools are not well suited. Likewise, these tools are not well suited for multiperson communication and collaboration. Email, in contrast, can be used for exchanging doc- uments and other content, but can quickly become unmanageable, especially in large project teams. Next, we discuss communication tools frequently used by project teams.

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Ethical Dilemma: Is Big Brother Watching You?

If you think you are the only one reading your private email, we have some bad news for you. Ever since the inception of employer-employee relationships, employers have been trying to determine whether employees are doing their jobs effectively—if at all. Traditionally, offices have been equipped with surveillance equipment, which was mostly used for security purposes. Information technology, however,

has taken employee monitoring to a whole new level. Using the right software, your employer can read your emails, monitor your web surfing, and even log the keystrokes on your computer.

In addition to this, technologies like radio- frequency identification (RFID) tags can be used to track employee movements throughout the com- pany’s buildings. Global positioning system (GPS)

Figure 4.13 Walk-through review form

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Figure 4.14 Walk-through action list

technology could track your location virtually any- where in the world if you are using a company vehicle or a company-issued mobile device. In the current legal environment, your company has the right to collect almost any information about what you do. Often, companies use this freedom to collect sen- sitive data under the disguise of attempting to safe- guard their data or equipment. The Boston-based startup Humanize even introduced ID badges that are able to record biometric information, which can be analyzed to provide a plethora of information about each particular employee—for example, voice data can be analyzed to detect emotional states or

communication behavior in team meetings. Likewise, companies have started to distribute fitness moni- tors such as Fitbit to track employees’ behavior and adherence to wellness plans. Clearly, all these tech- nologies are intrusions on the employees’ privacy.

You might think that you are not affected by this. But if you are using a computer in your universi- ty’s library for private activities that are not directly related to your studies, you might already be violating your university’s appropriate use policies. Moreover, because you are using your university’s (organiza- tion’s) resources, they have complete rights to mon- itor what you are doing.

Discussion Questions 1. Do you believe that organizations have the right to monitor employees? Explain. 2. What communication monitoring policy should organizations use to best manage project teams?

Based on: Derousseau (2017), James (2004).

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How Communication Methods Differ All communication methods have strengths and weaknesses for supporting different types of project team communication (see Table 4.4). In addition, communication methods can differ in factors such as ease of use, urgency, and confidentiality. Likewise, collaboration technologies vary in their ability to structure the team-communication and problem-solving process. Electronic meeting software (discussed later) provides rigid communication and voting templates that highly structure the team’s interaction (see Figure 4.15). Some technologies allow simultaneous, synchronous communica- tion, whereas others support asynchronous communication. For example, videocon- ferencing supports synchronous communication, and voicemail and email are examples of asynchronous technologies (see Figure 4.16).

Communication technologies also vary in their ability to exchange rich information. Information richness is the extent to which a communication environment allows the exchange of verbal and nonverbal cues, supports interaction and feedback, and can be personalized to the communicator (Daft and Lengel, 1986). Rich environments support the exchange of verbal and nonverbal cues and rapid feedback; they are highly personal. Face-to-face communication is considered the richest environment. Lean environments allow a limited range of cues to be exchanged and limited or delayed feedback and are relatively impersonal. Because of their potential for information richness, various types of collaboration technologies are more appropriate for some communication than for others (see Figure 4.17). For example, when your communication is complex, difficult to accept, or involves a nonroutine problem, it may need a richer environment that provides a broad variety of cues, rapid feedback, and a personal orientation. However, for simple, routine, or impersonal communication, a relatively lean environment may be adequate.

Communication methods also differ in the number of people who can effectively participate in a specific communication event. For example, telephone communication is most effective with a low number of participants, whereas email can be used to communicate effectively with a large number of participants. As the quality, variety, and sophistication of communication methods have greatly improved, the role of these technologies within project teams, especially within information systems project teams, has continued to expand. To be a more effective communicator, you need to understand

Table 4.4 Different Communication Methods and Technologies Can Be Configured to a Situation and Have Strengths and Weakness for Different Types of Information

Communication Method Structure Interaction Richness Number of People Face-to-face Low-high Synchronous High Low-high Video conference Medium-high Synchronous Medium-high Low-medium Telephone Low-medium Synchronous Medium Low Instant Messenger Low Synchronous Medium Low Synchronous groupware

Medium-high Synchronous Medium Low-medium

Asynchronous groupware

Low-high Asynchronous Low-medium Low-high

Email Low-medium Asynchronous Low-medium Low-high Written mail Medium-high Asynchronous Low Low-high

Synchronous communication A form of communication where all parties involved are present at the same time but not necessarily in the same place.

Asynchronous communication A form of communication where all parties involved need not be available or present at the same time or the same place.

Information richness The extent to which a communication environment allows the exchange of verbal and nonverbal cues, supports interaction and feedback, and can be personalized to the communicator.

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the strengths and weaknesses of the various methods available, and select those that are most appropriate for the message and the audience. Next we examine various col- laboration technologies that are being utilized by project teams and conclude with a description of enterprise-wide project management environments.

Collaboration Technologies To build the best project teams, organizations constantly need to bring together the right combinations of people who as a group have the appropriate set of knowledge,

Figure 4.15 Electronic meeting software provides highly structured communication and voting templates.

Figure 4.16 Videoconferencing supports synchronous communication, and voicemail and email are examples of asynchronous technologies.

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skills, information, and authority to solve problems quickly and easily. Often, teams can consist of members from different locations or from around the world. Consequently, organizations need technologies that enable team members to interact either at the same place and time or at different times and in different locations, with structure to aid in interactive problem solving and access to software tools and information. Various technologies can fit the bill, as described in the following sections.

Videoconferencing Videoconferencing has become an essential tool for person-to-person as well as multi- person team collaboration. Desktop videoconferencing, enabled by high-speed internet connections and applications such as Skype, Apple FaceTime, or Cisco WebEx, can facilitate various collaborative activities (see Figure 4.18). Likewise, people can use their mobile devices to conduct videoconferences on the go. In addition to enabling video calls, some videoconferencing applications (such as Skype for Business) also offer the possibility to share a participant’s desktop, programs, or presentations with others during online meetings (see Figure 4.19). Whereas desktop videoconferencing is fre- quently used by smaller groups, large organizations use dedicated videoconferencing systems that can cost thousands of dollars.

Global Implications: Managing Effective Global Development Teams

Many high-technology organizations have home locations near other technology firms in order to leverage the local talent pool and other resources; within the United States, for example, such cities include Austin, Cambridge, San Jose, and Seattle. Being located near other related firms can provide many advantages but can also make hiring the best developers extremely competitive. Given this competitive hiring environment, the possibility of adding a second or third development shift is not likely (not to mention the fact that many talented developers only want “normal” working hours). To address this problem, many organizations have

moved to global development teams with members throughout the world. These global teams can provide a clear strategic advantage to organizations by enabling them to work on mission-critical applications literally around the clock.

Although there are cost advantages to moving toward global development teams, these savings are often offset at least somewhat by additional travel and communication costs. For example, Colum Joyce, a global e-business strategy manager for the shipping giant DHL Worldwide Express Inc., stresses the importance of effective team communication. “A mastery of English is a key skill set, as it is the

Figure 4.17 Communication can range from relatively lean to relatively rich. Adapted from: Kramer (2001).

Videoconferencing The use of integrated telephone, video recording, and playback technologies by two or more people to interact with each other from remote sites.

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operating language of all cross-group communica- tion for all development, whether it be verbal, hard copy, or electronic communication.” Likewise, Stacy Kenworthy, president of ApplianceWare of Fremont, California, states that “you need to make substantial investments in communications . . . there is no get- ting away from face-to-face contact, so there’s air- fare, investments in process creation, investments in learning curve, and other frontend work. You’re basically changing your organizational structure.”

Some recommendations for managing global development teams include having a face-to-face

kickoff meetings to conduct team-building activities, training team members on intercultural issues, and building trust by encouraging informal communica- tion, in addition to establishing a communications management plan that accommodates for cultural, temporal, and spatial separation of team members.

It is clear that global teams can be an effective strategy for handling labor shortages, reducing costs, and shortening the development cycle for mission-critical applications. However, it is also clear that effective team communication processes are paramount to realizing the benefits of this strategy.

Based on: Gilhooly (2001); Wagner (2017).

Figure 4.18 Desktop videoconferencing is used for various collaborative activities.

Figure 4.19 Skype for Business offers the possibility to share a participant’s screen with others.

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Groupware

Groupware refers to a variety of different tools that aim to facilitate group collabora- tion. Group interactions can be distinguished based on time and space:

1. Time: Synchronous (coordinated in time) versus asynchronous (not coordinated in time)

2. Space: Face-to-face/collocated versus distributed

Different groupware tools offer different support for the resulting four types of interactions, as shown in Figure 4.20. Given the increasing use of global project teams, choosing the right groupware system can significantly increase team productivity, ulti- mately contributing to project success. Table 4.5 highlights the benefits of using group- ware systems.

Asynchronous Groupware

While real-time (synchronous) communication (as enabled by conference calls or video conferences) is important for team collaboration, asynchronous collaboration tools are widely used when no immediate response from the communication partner is needed. Likewise, in globally distributed project teams, asynchronous collaboration is typically the norm, as the team members are distributed over different time zones.

Groupware Software that enables people to work together more effectively.

Figure 4.20 Groupware supports same and different time, as well as same and different place group interaction.

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The internet has enabled a variety of asynchronous groupware systems, the most common being email. Other asynchronous tools commonly used in organizations include newsgroups and mailing lists for disseminating project information, workflow management systems to reduce paperwork and set up and monitor tasks, group cal- endars to facilitate scheduling, or collaborative writing tools to enable joint editing of documents. Wikis, made famous by the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, are one widely used class of collaborative writing tools. A wiki site consists of a web-based document that is linked to a database that records all edits made to that document. As all edits are recorded, any changes made to a document can be viewed and, if needed, easily reverted (see Figure 4.21).

Various solutions incorporate different functionalities of stand-alone tools. This integration can be traced back to the release of Lotus Notes in 1989. Today, the suc- cessor of Lotus Notes, IBM Notes, continues to be one of the most widely used group collaboration environments that facilitates various communication and collaboration needs. For the needs of smaller projects or organizations, there are various free web- based communication and project management tools (such as Asana).

Synchronous Groupware In contrast to asynchronous groupware, which supports interactions taking place that are not coordinated in time, synchronous groupware enables real-time interaction. Commonly used tools enable not only videoconferencing, but also online chat, collab- oration using shared whiteboards or shared computer screens, or electronic meetings. Tools focusing on facilitating electronic meetings are referred to as electronic meeting systems (EMSs). Traditionally, EMSs were designed to support co-located meetings in dedicated facilities by providing a variety of advanced features to support group deci- sion-making, ranging from idea generation to evaluation and voting, either identified or anonymous. Thus EMSs are useful for a variety of scenarios, such as brainstorming system requirements, conducting strategic planning sessions, or even board meetings. Today, EMSs are increasingly used to support real-time interactions of distributed teams. Most electronic meeting systems, such as the Microsoft Surface Hub, facilitate real-time communication by offering a virtual conference room; EMSs such as Cisco

Table 4.5 The Benefits of Groupware

Benefits Examples Process structuring Keeps teams on track and helps them avoid costly diversions (e.g., doesn’t allow

people to get off topic or the agenda) Parallelism Enables many people to speak and listen at the same time (e.g., everyone has an

equal opportunity to participate) Group size Enables members in larger teams to participate (e.g., brings together broader

perspectives, expertise, and participation) Group memory Automatically records member ideas, comments, votes (e.g., allows members to

focus on content of discussions rather than on recording comments) Access to external information

Can easily incorporate external electronic data and files (e.g., plans and proposal documents can be collected and easily distributed to all members)

Spanning time and space Enables members to collaborate from different places at different times (e.g., reduces travel costs or allows people from remote locations to participate)

Anonymity Member ideas, comments, and votes not identified to others (if desired) (e.g., can make it easier to discuss controversial or sensitive topics without fear of identification or retribution)

Electronic meeting system A collection of personal computers networked with sophisticated software tools to help group members solve problems and make decisions through interactive electronic idea generation, evaluation, and voting.

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WebEx enable virtual conferences that anyone can join using their own preferred vid- eoconferencing software, from Skype to Polycom (see Figure 4.22). Likewise, Skype for business enables conference calls for up to 250 participants; other tools such as Convene support managing and electronically signing meeting documents or voting on resolutions. As a result, these tools are now commonplace in most global project teams.

Enterprise Social Networks Enabled by the internet, many tools are converging, so that it becomes increasingly dif- ficult to clearly differentiate synchronous and asynchronous groupware tools. Another class of tools that has gained popularity is enterprise social networks. Social networks such as Facebook offer a variety of tools that support communication and collaboration. For example, users can post status updates, share pictures or videos, or use online chat. Enterprise social networks such as Yammer are designed to offer similar functionality, but in a private, secure network that only authorized team members can access. Using such tools, team members can post updates on the completion of milestones or deliv- erables, can post documents and manage version control, or communicate and make group decisions.

Many large organizations set up enterprise social networks that are only accessible to authorized individuals (such as members of the organization, or key stakeholders). Within such networks, project teams can set up a private group to discuss technical specifications or other project-related issues or share key documents. Enterprise social networks such as Yammer enable team members to edit documents and view document changes made by other team members (see Figure 4.23). Often, the private group can

Figure 4.21 A wiki site consists of a web-based document that is linked to a database that records all edits made to that document.

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Figure 4.23 Enterprise social networks such as Microsoft Yammer offer a private, secure network that only authorized team members can access.

Figure 4.22 EMSs provide virtual conference rooms that anyone can access using their own preferred vid- eoconferencing software.

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be extended to external stakeholders, such as customers, freelancers, or contractors, and different permissions can be assigned to different people or groups. Today’s enterprise social networks can be integrated with a variety of other platforms, such as the SAP enterprise resource planning system, the Salesforce customer relationship system, or Microsoft SharePoint, a platform for team collaboration (Kelly, 2013).

Enterprise Project Management Environments In addition to utilizing collaboration technologies to improve project team communi- cation, many organizations are deploying enterprise-wide project management envi- ronments. These environments, such as Microsoft’s Enterprise Project Management, provide a variety of capabilities to enhance the management of a portfolio of projects, especially when project teams are composed of members who are geographically dis- persed. These environments provide a web-based interface for accessing all relevant project information and provide numerous capabilities, enabling an organization to

• Manage multiple projects as an overall portfolio for better decision-making in regard to resource assignment, problem identification, and trend and risk analysis

• More closely track resource usage and workload as well as plan better for short- and long-term resource assignments

• Manage stakeholders’ expectations by effectively reporting project status in regard to time and resources

• Enforce organizational best practices of project methodologies and processes • Support improved participation by enabling team members to easily manage,

track, and report project updates • Better manage project-related deliverables through the use of a central document

repository with versioning and editing control

Given these capabilities, enterprise project management environments have become a powerful tool for enhancing project team communication and collaboration, especially for complex project environments where members are dispersed (potentially across the globe) and multiple projects are utilizing shared resources.

Managing Project Stakeholders and Communication and the PMBOK In this chapter, we have focused primarily on Knowledge Area 10, Project Communi- cations Management, and Knowledge Area 13, Project Stakeholder Management, within PMBOK (2017; see Figure 4.24). Specifically, three key processes of stakeholder man- agement—Identify Stakeholders, Plan Stakeholder Engagement, Manage Stakeholder Engagement, and Monitor Stakeholder Engagement—and four key processes of commu- nications management—Plan Communications Management, Manage Communications, and Monitor Communications—have been discussed. Together, this information provides a solid foundation for managing project stakeholders and communication.

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Figure 4.24 Chapter 4 and PMBOK coverage

Key: �� where the material is covered in the textbook; ⚫ current chapter coverage

Textbook Chapters --------------> 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PMBOK Knowledge Area

1 Introduction

1.2 Foundational Elements �� �� 2 The Environment in Which Projects Operate

2.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors ��    

2.2 Organizational Process Assets ��                    

2.3 Organizational Systems   ��              

3 The Role of the Project Manager

3.2 Definition of a Project Manager ��            

3.3 The Project Manager’s Sphere of Influence ��                

3.4 Project Manager Competences �� �� ��                

3.5 Performing Integration   ��                

4 Project Integration Management 

4.1 Develop Project Charter         ��              

4.2 Develop Project Management Plan         ��          

4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work �� 4.4 Manage Project Knowledge �� 4.5 Monitor and Control Project Work �� �� 4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control �� 4.7 Close Project or Phase �� �� 5 Project Scope Management

5.1 Plan Scope Management         ��              

5.2 Collect Requirements �� 5.3 Define Scope         ��              

5.4 Create WBS         �� ��            

5.5 Validate Scope         ��              

5.6 Control Scope         ��             �� 6 Project Schedule Management

6.1 Plan Schedule Management           ��            

6.2 Define Activities �� 6.3 Sequence Activities           ��            

6.4 Estimate Activity Durations �� 6.5 Develop Schedule           ��          

6.6 Control Schedule           ��         �� 7 Project Cost Management

7.1 Plan Cost Management             ��        

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7.2 Estimate Costs �� 7.3 Determine Budget             ��        

7.4 Control Costs             ��       �� 8 Project Quality Management

8.1 Plan Quality Management               ��        

8.2 Manage Quality               ��      

8.3 Control Quality               ��       �� 9 Project Resource Management

9.1 Plan Resource Management           ��          

9.2 Estimate Activity Resources �� �� 9.3 Acquire Resources           ��     ��  

9.4 Develop Team     ��           ��  

9.5 Manage Team �� �� 9.6 Control Resources �� �� 10 Project Communications Management

10.1 Plan Communications Management     ⚫              

10.2 Manage Communications     ⚫             ��  

10.3 Monitor Communications     ⚫               �� 11 Project Risk Management

11.1 Plan Risk Management                 ��      

11.2 Identify Risks                 ��   ��  

11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis                 ��      

11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis                 ��      

11.5 Plan Risk Responses                 ��      

11.6 Implement Risk Responses �� �� 11.7 Monitor Risks                 ��     �� 12 Project Procurement Management

12.1 Plan Procurement Management                   ��    

12.2 Conduct Procurements                   �� ��  

12.3 Control Procurements                   ��   �� 13 Project Stakeholder Management

12.1 Identify Stakeholders       ⚫              

12.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement       ⚫              

12.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement       ⚫           ��  

12.4 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement       ⚫             ��

Running Case: Managing Stakeholders and Project Communication

It was the big project kickoff meeting. James and three other members of his team—Kevin, Trey, and Cindy—were all in the conference room down the hall from James’s office in IT. Also meeting with them

was Sarah Codey, Jackie’s COO. Sarah was now the official executive sponsor of the project. She would not meet with the team on a regular basis—in fact, she would hardly meet with them at all—but she

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would be a key stakeholder for the project, and she would be their main link to the executive team at Jackie’s. She had already convinced Nick Baldwin, the head of marketing, to free up Cindy from many of her daily duties as assistant director of marketing so Cindy could concentrate on the project. Sarah would be able to help the team in other ways as the project progressed. Sarah had just finished her “official” kickoff remarks to the team.

James had been successful in getting Maria Guti- errez, the manager of the Riverside store, to be on the team. Due to work pressures, though, Maria was not able to be in San Francisco for the meeting, and she was also late joining the meeting by speakerphone.

Just then, Maria called into the meeting. “Hello? This is Maria.”

“Maria,” James said, “I just wanted to say how glad I am that you can join us today and that you can be on the team.”

“Can you hear me okay?” Maria asked. “Is that good? I can hear you, Jim.”

“I can hear you fine,” James replied “This is Cindy.” “And this is Trey.” “Kevin here.” “And this is Sarah, Maria. Can you hear us all

okay?” “Trey, you might want to move closer to the micro-

phone,” Maria said. “Well, I’m glad to be on the team. I think this is going to be a really fun project. I just hope I have the time that I want to devote to it. Oh, and for future reference, Monday afternoon is a really bad time for me to meet.”

“Why’s that?” James asked. “Tuesday is the release day for most new movies.

Monday is the day we get most of the movies in, and

we have to get ready to set up the new displays for what we expect to be the big sellers. Moreover, we have to move lots of other stuff around to get ready.”

“Of course,” Cindy said. “I should have known that.” “Me too,” James said. “I’ll try to be better about

that kind of thing. Which brings up a new topic—when can we meet? I need everyone to make sure I have access to their calendars, so I can set up a regular weekly meeting. That is part of the agenda I have for today’s meeting—communication planning, which includes meetings, and information distribution.”

“I need to leave,” Sarah said, getting up from the conference table. “Once again, I wish you all a lot of success with this.” Sarah walked toward the door.

“Thanks, Sarah,” James said. “And now about communication.”

“I think we should set up a SharePoint site for the project,” Kevin said.

“Using SharePoint for the team is a great idea,” Maria said, “since I am out here in Riverside and you guys are all in San Francisco.”

“I’m going to be traveling a lot this quarter,” Trey said, “so that works for me.”

“And distribution?” James asked. “Let’s figure out who outside the team needs to

know about what we are doing, and what they need to know and when,” Kevin suggested.

“Good plan,” Cindy said. “Well, we know that Sarah is first on that list,”

James said. “But we also know that Trey will keep her informed.” Everyone laughed. “But seriously . . .”

The team worked together through the rest of the meeting to list the project’s key stakeholders and to prepare a stakeholder engagement plan.

Adapted from: Valacich and George (2017).

Chapter Summary Understand the importance of stakeholders and how to manage stakeholder engagement. Stake- holders are individuals, groups, and organizations that are actively involved in the project, who have a vested interest in its success, and/or who have influ- ence over the project and its results. As their influence can be positive or negative, the project management team must identify the project stakeholders in order to manage their expectations. The Identify Stakehold- ers process helps us understand the nature of the stakeholders, their interests, and potential influence they may have on project success. The stakeholder register contains assessments of each stakeholder’s

expectations and influence in the various phases. Once the stakeholders and their interest, influence, and expectations have been identified, the next step is to plan how to effectively maintain relationships, so as to harness positive influences and minimize any potential negative impacts. A stakeholder engage- ment assessment matrix is used to indicate current and desired engagement levels for each stakeholder. The stakeholder engagement plan details the out- puts of the stakeholder classification, as well as the methods of how and when information needs to be distributed. In the Manage Stakeholder Engagement process, communication activities are conducted to

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engage stakeholders, manage their expectations, and address concerns and resolve issues that may arise as the project progresses through the different phases. The Monitor Stakeholder Engagement process entails assessing the effectiveness of the strategies for engag- ing stakeholders and managing their relationships.

Describe how the three key communications management processes are used to enhance proj- ect success. Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between individu- als through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. Effective communication is fundamental to project team success. Throughout a project, three key communications management processes are per- formed: Plan Communications Management, Manage Communications, and Monitor Communications. Plan Communications Management refers to the process of developing a comprehensive communications man- agement plan that identifies the information needs of the stakeholders, when they need it, and in what format it should be delivered. Manage Communica- tions includes the processes involved in providing project information to all relevant stakeholders in a timely manner. In other words, it is the execution of the communications management plan. The Monitor Communications process involves assessing in how far the communication reached the intended audi- ences, whether the communication had the intended impact, and what actions need to be taken to resolve any issues that may arise.

Describe various methods for enhancing team communication including how to run an effective meeting, deliver an effective presentation, be a better listener, utilize communication templates, and make a walk-through presentation. There are a variety of methods for enhancing project team

communication. Meetings can be more effective if they are carefully planned and executed. Additionally, to get the most out of a meeting, you must carefully document the meeting outcomes and communicate them to all relevant parties. Like meetings, presen- tations are much more effective if they are carefully planned, designed, and delivered. Because most people are relatively poor listeners, improving team members’ listening skills can enhance project team communi- cation and overall project performance. Project team communication can also be enhanced through the use of communication templates by helping ensure that many important documents follow a standard layout and contain all required information. Walk-throughs are a special type of team meeting that utilizes both presentations and templates to assess a broad variety of project team deliverables. During walk-throughs, team members play various important roles to ensure project quality and meeting effectiveness.

Describe various collaboration technologies and how they can be utilized to enhance team commu- nication. With the advent of the internet and other advanced communication technologies, project teams have many options to choose from when deciding how to communicate. All communication methods have strengths and weaknesses; not all methods are effective for all types of communication. Commu- nication methods differ in how much structure they impose on the communication, in how far rich infor- mation can be conveyed, whether they allow synchro- nous or asynchronous exchanges, and how many team members can effectively communicate. A variety of collaboration technologies has become commonplace in organizations for supporting project teams, includ- ing videoconferencing, asynchronous groupware, syn- chronous groupware, and enterprise social networks.

Key Terms Review A. Asynchronous communication B. Communication C. Communication templates D. Communications management plan E. Electronic meeting system (EMS) F. Feedback G. Forecasting reports H. Formal communication

I. Groupware J. Horizontal communication K. Informal communication L. Information richness M. Interactive communication N. Listening O. Manage Communications P. Noise

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Q. Nonverbal communication R. Oral communication S. Performance reporting T. Plan Communications Management U. Progress reports V. Pull communication W. Push communication

X. Status reports Y. Synchronous communication Z. Vertical communication AA. Videoconferencing BB. Walk-through CC. Written communication

Match each of the key terms with the definition that best fits it.

1. A collection of personal computers networked with sophisticated software tools to help group mem- bers solve problems and make decisions through interactive electronic idea generation, evaluation, and voting.

2. A form of communication in which two or more parties exchange information. 3. A form of communication where all parties involved are present at the same time but not necessarily

at the same place. 4. A form of communication where all parties involved need not be available or present at the same time

or the same place. 5. A form of communication where information is distributed by the sender to specific recipients or

general audiences, but receipt of the information is not ensured. 6. A form of communication where the receiver must retrieve the information. 7. A peer-group review of any product created during the systems development process. 8. A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of sym-

bols, signs, or behavior. 9. An active activity that consists of hearing, understanding, remembering, and acting. 10. Audio, visual, or environmental interference within the communication process. 11. Reports designed to disseminate current information about the project. 12. Reports designed to disseminate predictions about future status and progress. 13. Reports designed to disseminate what the project team has accomplished. 14. Software that enables people to work together more effectively. 15. Specifications that enforce standards for the appearance and content of formal project documents. 16. The collection and distribution of project performance information to stakeholders so that they under-

stand the status of the project at any given time. 17. The exchange of ad hoc, casual communications, usually taking place outside official communication

channels. 18. The exchange of communication through body language, posture, hands, facial expressions, eye contact,

and personal space. 19. The exchange of information among team members or across functional areas within the same level of

an organization. 20. The exchange of information between higher and lower levels within an organization. 21. The exchange of memos, reports, letters, email, instant messaging, and so on through the use of stan-

dard symbols. 22. The exchange of official information communicated through formal channels within organizations. 23. The exchange of spoken words.

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24. The process of ensuring that project information is properly created, collected, stored, retrieved, dis- tributed, monitored, and discarded.

25. The extent to which a communication environment allows the exchange of verbal and nonverbal cues, supports interaction and feedback, and can be personalized to the communicator.

26. The plan for informing project stakeholders of all relevant information on a timely basis, including how project information is stored, retrieved, and discarded at the end of the project

27. The process of developing a comprehensive plan for informing project stakeholders of all relevant information on a timely basis.

28. The response process by a receiver to a sender within the communication process. 29. The use of integrated telephone, video recording, and playback technologies by two or more people to

interact with each other from remote sites.

Review Questions 1. What are the major processes involved in managing project communication? 2. Describe a stakeholder engagement matrix. 3. What are the major processes involved in managing project stakeholders? 4. What information do you need in order to develop a communications management plan? 5. Describe and contrast written versus oral versus nonverbal, informal versus formal, and vertical versus

horizontal communication in a project team setting. 6. What is project performance reporting, and what reports are typically contained in a performance

report? 7. Why are many project meetings less effective than they could be? 8. What benefits can meetings bring to project teams? 9. Describe how to run an effective meeting. 10. Describe how to make an effective presentation. 11. What steps can you take to be a better listener? 12. What is a communication template, and why does it enhance project team communication? 13. Describe the walk-through process. What roles need to be performed during a walk-through? 14. Describe various communication methods and how they differ.

Chapter Exercises 1. Find a project (IS-related or non-IS-related) on campus. Identify the stakeholders, classify the stake-

holders using one of the techniques discussed, and prepare a three-minute briefing for your class to present your findings.

2. “Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender.” Do you agree or disagree? Why? 3. Construct a communication matrix for a project you have previously worked on or are currently working

on. 4. What is nonverbal communication? Does it help or hinder verbal communication? 5. Why do project teams need a broad variety of methods for distributing information? 6. Plan a project team meeting and write a memo that clearly defines the purpose of the meeting, iden-

tifies participants, and outlines the meeting agenda. 7. What problems can occur if a project team’s members fail to effectively listen to one another?

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8. Design a project communication template for sharing some type of project information with a project team.

9. Using the concept of information richness, give examples of project-related messages best conveyed face-to-face or using telephone, instant messaging, and email.

10. In what project situations would the richness of face-to-face communication be a drawback rather than an advantage? Which communication method would be preferable in those situations, and why?

11. Design a template that allows you to collect answers to at least ten different questions regarding a particular type of collaboration technology (e.g., email, instant messaging, videoconferencing, and so on) from family members, friends, or work colleagues who are not in your class and are regular users of this technology. Your goal is to find out how they use the technology, what they feel it is useful for, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Using email, send your template to these people and have them reply via email. Once you have your results, write a memo to your instructor reporting your findings; make sure you include your survey template.

12. Collect the same type of information requested in Exercise 11 from at least six people using interviews rather than an email survey. Once you have your results, write a memo reporting them to your instruc- tor; make sure you include your interview questions.

13. Using the findings from your survey or interviews on collaboration technologies from Exercise 11 or 12, prepare a three-minute briefing for your class. Make sure you follow the guidelines presented in the chapter on making effective presentations.

14. Attend a staff meeting of an organization on your campus. Obtain permission first if the meeting is not open to the public, explaining that your purpose for attending the meeting is to study meeting dynamics for a class project. Evaluate the meeting according to the guidelines presented in the chapter. Specifically, identify any problems that made the meeting less effective than it could have been; also identify things that were done well. Prepare an evaluation of the meeting in the form of a memo to your instructor.

15. Most organizations, including universities, have policies concerning acceptable computer/network use (see https://it.eller.arizona.edu/acceptable-use-policy for an example). Assume you work for a for-profit organization and are assigned by your boss to develop a policy statement regarding acceptable use of instant messaging. Make sure your policy differentiates between internal and external use, work-related and personal use, and so on.

Chapter Case: Sedona Management Group and Managing Project Communication

Communication is one of the more important factors for success in project management, and the team at Sedona Management Group (SMG) recognizes this. Traditionally, computer professionals have been viewed as people who like to work in isolation. Communication between these IT professionals and the users for whom systems are being developed has typically been difficult. IT professionals have been viewed as individuals who can only communicate things in technical terms, frequently beyond the understanding of the everyday system user. Fortunately, this state of affairs has changed over the years, and now computer professionals need a combination of both strong technical and “soft” skills. These soft skills include interpersonal abilities—such as those required to lead teams, understand user needs, and educate users—and

overall the ability to communicate effectively with all project stakeholders.

Two-way communication is critical to the Sedona team’s business model. At the start of any project at SMG, communication between the customer and the team is very crucial. Tim Turnpaugh indicates that most of the time the customers do not have a clear idea of what they want in the initiating phase of a project. Therefore, it is important for the team to spend time with customers to determine their needs. For such meetings, the Sedona team usually favors face-to-face meetings, not only because of the importance and sensitivity of the information being shared, but also because face-to-face meet- ings often provide a richer context for interactions when people are unfamiliar with each other. These early meetings are important for helping develop and

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nurture the relationship between the customer and the Sedona team.

Over the life of the project, the predominant form of communication the Sedona team uses to commu- nicate with the customer is verbal communication. This does not necessarily mean that face-to-face meetings are used all of the time. Instead, phone conversations are used occasionally for updates and any inquiries that the Sedona team or the customer may have when working on the project. Interest- ingly, Turnpaugh prefers that members of his team do not use voicemail for communication because he believes it creates a bad impression of inacces- sibility to the customer. Answering the phone and being accessible during business hours are critical components of SMG’s customer service and image management.

The company also makes extensive use of email to communicate with customers. Turnpaugh was a codeveloper of Continental Bank’s initial email sys- tem and has been an advocate of email use for more than thirty-three years. Although it may not be a good medium for early meetings employed to assess user needs, email, according to Turnpaugh, is very helpful for disseminating status reports to the customer, as well as to other uses. Over time, the Sedona team has become sensitive to the communication prefer- ences of their regular customers. For example, no one on the project team has ever personally seen one of SMG’s long-term customers, but instead phone conversations and email have been the predominant modes of communicating with her.

In addition to SMG’s need to communicate effec- tively with customers and other external stakehold- ers, the members of the Sedona team also must communicate with each other. Several forms of com- munication are used for this purpose. During a typi- cal working day, Turnpaugh has formal and informal face-to-face meetings with coworkers to determine progress on various projects. For example, team members may update each other on the status of a project during a coffee break. In addition, it is typical for a project status meeting to occur at the start of every business day. During the planning phase of the projects undertaken at SMG, milestones are estab- lished, and through frequent informal and formal meetings, Turnpaugh and his team members can ensure that these milestones are being met. SMG strives to complete projects in a timely fashion—in many instances around three to six weeks—and frequent team communication is essential to keep projects on track and decrease the risk of project failure. In addition to these face-to-face meetings, SMG also uses email and instant messaging to facil- itate team communication. The popularity of instant messaging as a form of communication has rapidly been increasing, and the Sedona team considers it a great way to keep each other updated on the sta- tus of a project and to collaborate. While such online communication is useful, Turnpaugh recognizes that it is not a replacement for face-to-face meetings or phone conversations.

Chapter 4 Project Assignment During the life cycle of the entertainment website development project, you will need to communicate with other project team members as well as various other stakeholders. The purpose of this assignment is to create a communications management plan. You will need to determine who the project stakeholders are, what type of communications they need to receive and how often, and the most effective media necessary for those communications.

1. Identify the stakeholders of your project. 2. Create a stakeholder register that documents

information such as key stakeholders’ names and organizations, their roles on the project, and their influence on the project.

3. Identify the different types of information needed by stakeholders throughout the project.

4. Indicate when you will use each type of communication.

5. Create a communications management plan, which is a document that guides communication throughout the life of the project. This communications management plan will be a table with columns identifying stakeholders, type of information to provide to stakeholders, communication frequency, and communication media.

References Barnum, C., and Wolniansky, N. (1989). Taking Cues from Body Language. Management Review, June 1, 1989,

59–60.

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https://products.office.com/en-us/business/articles/the-small-business-guide-to-secure-email Project Management Institute (2017). Agile Practice Guide. Newton Square, PA: Author. Project Management Institute (2017). PMBOK: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (6th ed.).

Newtown Square, PA: Author. Robbins, S. P., and Judge, T. A. (2017). Organizational Behavior (17th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Tucker, M. L., McCarthy, A. M., and Benton, D. A. (2002). The Human Challenge: Managing Yourself and Others

in Organizations (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Valacich, J., and George, J. F., (2017). Modern Systems Analysis and Design (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Verma, V. K. (1996). Managing the Project Team. Newton Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Verma, V. K. (1997). Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager. Newton Square, PA: Project Management

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P A R T I A P P E N D I X

Agile Project Management Foundations

Agile Project Management Introduction As highlighted in Chapter 1, ever more dynamic competitive environments, the increas- ing pace of technological change, and increasing uncertainty necessitate organizations to be highly adaptive. Instead of competing with well-known, predictable competitors, large and small organizations are facing competition from startups and small, nimble companies. Further, the requirements of many systems are not easily definable upfront and can change quickly.

Traditional organizations and project management approaches are not well suited for operating in such environments. In particular, approaches where most of the work is determined upfront and plans are difficult to adjust do not work well with unclear and frequently changing requirements. In contrast, agile approaches allow for such flexibility by incorporating frequent iterations and obtaining rapid and frequent feedback from customers. Above all, the agile mind-set places the customer at the center and aims to deliver valuable products.

Traditional approaches emphasize processes and tools, comprehensive documen- tation, contract negotiation, and following plans. In contrast, the Manifesto for Agile Software Development (often simply referred to as the agile manifesto), proposed in the early 2000s, emphasizes a focus on individuals and interactions, working software, customer collaboration, and responding to change (see Figure A1.1). Often seen as a subset of lean methods, agile methodologies focus on value, attempt to eliminate waste, and use small batch sizes. Note that agile itself is a philosophy, rather than a methodology that puts forth a set of principles; various methodologies (such as Crystal, Kanban, Scrum, and eXtreme Programming) implement the principles set out in the agile manifesto. Further, organizations are increasingly managing IS projects by using a DevOps approach, where, based on agile principles, engineers from both development and operations collaborate throughout the system’s life cycle from design to develop- ment to operations and support. By using DevOps teams, organizations can optimize the reliability of the software as well as productivity, helping the organization gain the agility needed for innovation.

The signatories to the agile manifesto further agreed on the following principles (presented verbatim from Beck et al., 2001):

Agile manifesto Declaration specifying the aims of agile approaches, emphasizing a focus on individuals and interactions, working software, customer collaboration, and responding to change, over processes and tools, comprehensive documentation, contract negotiation, and following plans.

DevOps Approach to managing IS projects, where, based on agile principles, engineers from both development and operations collaborate throughout the system’s life cycle.

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1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software.

2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes har- ness change for the customer’s competitive advantage.

3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.

4. Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project. 5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and

support they need, and trust them to get the job done. 6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within

a development team is face-to-face conversation. 7. Working software is the primary measure of progress. 8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and

users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely. 9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility. 10. Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount of work not done—is essential. 11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing

teams. 12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes

and adjusts its behavior accordingly.

The Agile Project Life Cycle Any project needs to balance time, costs, and scope to deliver a product with a specified performance or quality. In predictive life cycles, requirements are fixed at the start of

Figure A1.1 The agile manifesto. Source: Beck et al. (2001).

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the project, and the project team then moves through the different stages of analyzing, designing, building, testing, and deploying the system based on the requirements. As a result of defining the scope early in the project, the requirements drive time and costs, as well as the resulting quality. In contrast, agile approaches focus on quality, which delivers value to the customer; thus time, schedule, and scope are seen as mere constrains over- shadowed by this larger goal of quality. Further, in agile approaches, requirements are assumed to vary or change. In other words, agile life cycles focus on delivering valuable products early and continuous delivery. Typically, the intended features of the finished product are prioritized; the team then starts working on the most important feature; once the work on this feature is finished, the team begins working on the second most important feature, and so on. Thus, in each iteration, the team performs processes related to planning, executing, and controlling: the team gathers the requirements, per- forms the necessary analyses, and designs, builds, tests, and deploys the feature, before moving onto the item with the next highest priority (see Figure A1.2). Typically, the iterations take the form of timeboxes of equal duration (such as thirty days), with the goal of each iteration being the delivery of a working feature.

Depending on the project, hybrid approaches may be used. For example, some teams may choose to use agile approaches for building the software, but then use predictive approaches for later phases. At other times, agile approaches may be incorporated into predictive approaches, such as when new components or technologies are introduced into a well-known project. Conversely, some projects may necessitate incorporating external components, and an overall agile approach may include components that are built using predictive approaches. In any case, the choice of life cycle should depend on the needs of the particular project, such as the size or scope of the IS project, the time- line or duration of the project, and the number of people involved in the project. Like- wise, there are a variety of sets of processes under the agile umbrella, including Crystal, Kanban, Scrum, and eXtreme Programming; thus the specific methodology chosen will depend on the nature of the project, the team composition, and so on. In the following,

Figure A1.2 Predictive versus agile life cycles

Iteration Development phase (typically timeboxed) in which all work pertaining to a specific deliverable is performed.

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Managing Agile Project Teams • 161

we will provide a high-level overview of Scrum, a widely used agile methodology, as an illustration to guide later discussions of topics related to agile methodologies.

Scrum Scrum uses so-called sprints—iterations that last for one or two weeks—to deliver software at regular intervals. Each sprint consists of a sprint planning meeting, daily stand-ups, a sprint review, and a sprint retrospective. During the sprint planning meeting, the team jointly decides on which features to implement during the sprint; daily stand-ups (or Scrum meetings) are 15-minute stand-up meetings used to discuss issues faced during the previous day and goals for the current day; in the sprint review (sometimes called sprint demo), the team presents the work completed during the sprint; finally, the sprint retrospective is used to discuss the sprint, identify positive and negative aspects of the process, and agree on changes to the process for the next sprint.

Managing Agile Project Teams Key to successfully managing agile projects is not only the use of agile methodolo- gies, but also having a team with an agile mind-set. In particular, the focus on early and continuous delivery and the use of timeboxing requires minimizing distracting tasks and focusing on the items that currently have the highest priority. Further, agile teams—depending on the methodology comprised of three to nine collocated members dedicated to the project—are self-organizing teams that manage their own process and work together toward successful delivery. Also key to successful agile teams is having team members dedicated to the team. Given productivity losses associated with multitasking, agile team members should ideally be 100 percent dedicated to the team (which, apparently, is often infeasible in real-world projects). Agile teams normally have cross-functional team members who possess the skills needed to produce the finished product (such as designers, developers, and testers), without having to draw on outside people. An important role in agile teams is that of the product owner. Typically with a business background, the product owner is responsible for providing directions, interacting with stakeholders, and deciding on the feature to be delivered in the next iteration. Finally, agile teams have a team facilitator (see Figure A1.3).

In Scrum, these three specific roles are the product owner, the Scrum master, and the Scrum team. The product owner is the key stakeholder of the project, who con- veys the vision of the end product to the team and guides the team on the priority of features to deliver. The Scrum master does not have authority over the team, but acts as a facilitator, helping remove challenges and aiding the team in being effective. The Scrum team, typically consisting of five to seven cross-functional members, is jointly responsible for delivering the product on time and at the expected quality at the end of each sprint. Taken together, using sprints of short durations, with specific meetings that structure each sprint, and having well-defined roles, Scrum is an example of an effective agile methodology.

Rather than controlling, leaders of agile teams need to empower their team mem- bers and facilitate the team’s work. In agile teams, the leader’s role shifts toward that of a facilitator, in that the leader practices servant leadership. Coined by Robert K. Greenleaf in 1970, the term servant leader refers to leaders who focus on serving the team and helping the team members succeed by listening, coaching, and facilitating collaboration within the team, between teams, and across the organization. While every organization can benefit from leaders adopting a servant leadership style, this style of leadership is key to successful agile projects, as the servant leader is critical in enabling

Scrum Widely used agile methodology that uses short sprints to deliver software at regular intervals.

Sprint Iteration that lasts for one to two weeks and consists of a sprint planning meeting, daily stand-ups, a sprint demo, and a sprint retrospective.

Sprint planning meeting Meeting during which the team jointly decides on which feature to implement during the sprint.

Daily stand-ups Fifteen-minute stand-up meetings used to discuss issues faced during the previous day and goals for the current day.

Sprint review Meeting during which the team presents the work completed during the sprint.

Sprint retrospective Meeting during which the team discusses the sprint, identifies positive and negative aspects of the process, and agrees on changes to the process for the next sprint.

Product owner The key stakeholder of the project who conveys the vision of the end product to the team and guides the team on the priority of features to deliver.

Scrum master Facilitator aiding the Scrum team in being effective.

Scrum team Team of five to seven cross-functional members who are jointly responsible for delivering the product on time and at the expected quality at the end of each sprint.

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self-organizing teams to focus on feature delivery. The servant leader can interact with different organizational stakeholders and align their needs so as to remove organiza- tional obstacles or provide support for activities that are beyond the skill set of the agile team members.

Managing Communication in Agile Projects In agile teams, close collaboration, daily standups, and the focus on delivering features require a space where the team can interact, as well as spaces where the individual team members can complete their tasks with minimal interruption. Such a setup can be relatively easily established for collocated team members, and collocation is typically regarded as essential for teams using agile approaches. Nevertheless, various organiza- tions have started using agile approaches with distributed teams. In these cases, it is essential to use communication technology to create shared spaces for team interactions. Commonly used tools such as videoconferencing or repositories for sharing documents are often used together with tools that enable spontaneous interactions. One such technique is an always-on videoconference, sometimes referred to as fishbowl window, which is live during the workday, enabling team members to meet and interact without having to set up dedicated meetings. Using such technologies enables distributed team members to collaborate as if they were collocated; however, these technologies cannot solve any issues associated with differences in time zones.

Key Terms Review A. Agile manifesto B. Daily stand-ups

C. DevOps D. Iteration

Figure A1.3 Three distinct roles in agile teams

Servant leader A leader who focuses on serving the team and helping the team members succeed by listening, coaching, and facilitating collaboration within the team, between teams, and across the organization.

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E. Product owner F. Scrum G. Scrum master H. Scrum team I. Servant leader

J. Sprint

K. Sprint review

L. Sprint planning meeting

M. Sprint retrospective

Match each of the key terms with the definition that best fits it.

1. Meeting during which the team discusses the sprint, identifies positive and negative aspects of the process, and agrees on changes to the process for the next sprint.

2. Widely used agile methodology that uses short sprints to deliver software at regular intervals. 3. The key stakeholder of the project who conveys the vision of the end product to the team and guides

the team on the priority of features to deliver. 4. A leader who focuses on serving the team and helping the team members succeed by listening, coach-

ing, and facilitating collaboration within the team, between teams, and across the organization. 5. Meeting during which the team jointly decides on which feature to implement during the sprint. 6. Declaration specifying the aims of agile approaches, emphasizing a focus on individuals and interac-

tions, working software, customer collaboration, and responding to change, over processes and tools, comprehensive documentation, contract negotiation, and following plans.

7. Approach to managing IS projects, where, based on agile principles, engineers from both development and operations collaborate throughout the system’s life cycle.

8. Facilitator aiding the Scrum team in being effective. 9. Fifteen-minute stand-up meetings used to discuss issues faced during the previous day and goals for

the current day. 10. Team of five to seven cross-functional members who are jointly responsible for delivering the product

on time and at the expected quality at the end of each sprint. 11. Meeting during which the team presents the work completed during the sprint. 12. Iteration that lasts for one to two weeks and consists of a sprint planning meeting, daily stand-ups, a

sprint demo, and a sprint retrospective. 13. Development phase (typically timeboxed) in which all work pertaining to a specific deliverable is

performed.

Review Questions 1. What is the agile manifesto? 2. How do agile life cycles differ from traditional life cycles? 3. What is a sprint and what are the key features of a sprint? 4. Explain the three roles in a Scrum project. 5. What is a servant leader? 6. How can communication technology be used to facilitate distributed teams in agile projects?

Chapter Exercises 1. Interview an IS practitioner about her experiences with agile methodologies. What were the benefits?

What were the drawbacks?

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2. Using the web, find information about different agile methodologies. Choose two methodologies and compare and contrast their key aspects.

3. Research information about servant leadership. In what contexts is servant leadership used? Find an example where servant leadership has been helpful in the successful completion of a project.

4. In a team of three to five people, brainstorm about innovative technologies that can help bridge differ- ences in time and space to enable distributed teams to collaborate on agile projects.

References Beck, K., Beedle, M., van Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M., Grenning, J., Highsmith,

J., Hunt, A., Jeffries, R., Kern, J., Marick, B., Martin, R.C., Mellor, S., Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J., and Thomas, D. (2001). Manifesto for Agile Software Development. Retrieved July 4, 2018, from http://agile- manifesto.org

Mueller, E. (2017, July 24). What Is DevOps? The Agile Admin. Retrieved July 4, 2018, from https://theagileadmin .com/what-is-devops

Palmquist, M. S., Lapham, M. A., Miller, S., Chick, T., and Ozkaya, I. (2013). Parallel Worlds: Agile and Water- fall Differences and Similarities. CMU Software Engineering Institute. Retrieved July 4, 2018, from https:// resources.sei.cmu.edu/asset_files/TechnicalNote/2013_004_001_62918.pdf

Project Management Institute (2017). Agile Practice Guide. Newton Square, PA: Author. Project Management Institute (2017). PMBOK: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (6th ed.).

Newtown Square, PA: Author. Smartsheet (2017). What’s the Difference? Agile vs. Scrum vs. Waterfall vs. Kanban. Smartsheet.com. Retrieved

July 4, 2018, from https://www.smartsheet.com/agile-vs-scrum-vs-waterfall-vs-kanban

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