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The Crime

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Theories and

Trends

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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1. Discuss the difference between a hypothesis and a theory in the context of criminology.

2. Contrast the medical model of addiction with the criminal model of addiction.

3. Identify the publication in which the FBI reports crime data and list the two main ways in which the data are reported.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (continued)

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4. Describe the three ways that victims’ rights legislation increases the ability of crime victims to participate in the criminal justice system.

5. Explain why income level appears to be more important than race when it comes to crime trends.

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LO 1

Discuss the difference between a hypothesis and a theory in the context of criminology.

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Criminology, Correlation, and Cause

• Criminology: Scientific study of crime and the causes of criminal behavior • Criminologists study the causes of crime

• Correlation: Relationship between two variables that tend to move in the same direction

• Causation: Relationship in which a change in one variable creates a recognizable change in another

LO 1

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Theory and Hypothesis

• Theory • Explanation of a happening or circumstance that

is based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning

• Hypothesis • Possible explanation for an observed occurrence

that can be tested by further investigation

• Criminological theories attempt to determine reasons for criminal behavior

LO 1

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Rational Choice Theory and Trait Theories of Crime

• Rational choice theory • Holds that wrongdoers act as if they weigh

possible benefits of criminal or delinquent activity against expected costs of being apprehended

• Trait theories • Suggest that certain biological or psychological

traits in individuals could incline them toward criminal behavior, given a certain set of circumstances

LO 1

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Traits and Crime: Trends

• Genetics helps in determining criminality • Neurocriminology is the study of the influence of

genetics and brain activity on criminal behavior

➖Criminal activity in males has been linked to elevated levels of hormones

➖Female violent behavior is believed to stem from hormones

• Violent crime has been linked to schizophrenia

LO 1

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Psychological Theories of Crime

• Assume that individuals have traits that make them more or less predisposed to criminal activity • Social psychology focuses on human behavior in

the context of how human beings relate to and influence one another

LO 1

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Social Disorganization Theory (Slide 1 of 2)

• Assumes that deviant behavior is more likely in communities where social institutions fail to exert control over the population

• Stages of social disorganization • Poverty

• Social disorganization

• Breakdown of social controls

LO 1

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Social Disorganization Theory (Slide 2 of 2)

• Criminal careers

• Cultural transmission

• Criminal areas

• Factors that lead to crime in neighborhoods • High levels of high school dropouts

• Chronic unemployment

• Deteriorating buildings and other infrastructures

• Concentrations of single-parent families

LO 1

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Strain Theory and Social Conflict Theory

• Strain theory • Holds that crime is the result of frustration felt

by individuals who cannot reach their financial and personal goals through legitimate means

• Has its roots in the concept of anomie ➖Anomie: Condition in which the individual

feels a disconnect from society due to breakdown or absence of social norms

• Social conflict theories: View criminal behavior as the result of class conflict

LO 1

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Social Process Theories

• Consider criminal behavior to be the predictable result of a person’s interaction with his or her environment • Learning theory: Delinquents and criminals

must be taught practical and emotional skills necessary to participate in illegal activity

• Control theory

➖Assumes that all individuals have the potential for criminal behavior but are restrained by the consequences of such actions on relationships

LO 1

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Life Course Criminology

• Based on the belief that behavioral patterns developed in childhood can predict delinquent and criminal behavior later in life

• Self-control theory • Criminal behavior is linked to low self-control

➖Individuals with low self-control are impulsive, thrill-seeking, and likely to solve problems with violence rather than intellect

LO 1

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LO 2

Contrast the medical model of addiction with the criminal model of addiction.

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Criminology of Drug Use: Drugs and the Learning Process

• First-time drug users become habitual users because they learn: • The techniques of drug use

• To perceive the pleasurable effects of drug use

• To enjoy the social experience of drug use

LO 2

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Criminology of Drug Use: Drug Abuse

• Use of any drug, licit or illicit, that causes either psychological or bodily harm to the abuser or to third parties

• Theory regarding drug use and abuse • Some people possess overly sensitive drug

receptors in their brains and are therefore biologically disposed toward drug use

LO 2

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Criminology of Drug Use: Drug–Crime Relationship

• Drug-defined offenses • Violation of laws that prohibit possession, use,

distribution, or manufacture of illegal drugs

• Drug-related offenses • Crimes motivated by drug abuse

• Drug-using lifestyle • Experienced by drug abusers who do not

participate in the legitimate economy

➖Rely on crime for the means of survival

LO 2

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Criminology of Drug Use: Models of Addiction

• Medical model of addiction • Treats drug abuse as a mental illness • Focuses on treating and rehabilitating offenders

rather than punishing them • Advocated by the people who believe in the

enslavement theory of addiction

• Criminal model of addiction • Holds that illegal drug abusers and addicts

endanger society with their behavior ➖Should be punished the same as persons who

commit non-drug-related crimes

LO 2

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Marijuana Law Trends in the United States

• Eight states have legalized the possession and sale of small amounts of marijuana for recreational use

• Nationwide legalization would: • Put the black market for marijuana out of

business

• Remove the stigma of recreational marijuana use

• Save the criminal justice system costs associated with marijuana arrests

LO 2

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LO 3

Identify the publication in which the FBI reports crime data and list the two main ways in which the data are reported.

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Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) (Slide 1 of 3)

• Set of annual reports compiled by the FBI to give an indication of criminal activity in the United States

• Information is based on the following measurements: • Number of persons arrested

• Number of crimes reported by victims, witnesses, or the police themselves

• Police employee data

LO 3

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Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) (Slide 2 of 3)

• Information is sent to the FBI, which publishes the crime data in the following ways: • As a rate per 100,000 people

• As a percentage change from the previous year or other time periods

• Crime data is published in Crime in the United States • Criminal offenses are categorized into Part I and

Part II offenses

LO 3

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Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) (Slide 3 of 3)

➖Part I offenses: Murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny or theft, arson, and motor vehicle theft

➖Part II offenses: Drug abuse violations, simple assaults, driving under the influence, and disorderly conduct

LO 3

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National Incident-Based Reporting System (Slide 1 of 2)

• Local agencies collect data on every crime occurrence within twenty-three offense categories made up of forty-nine specific crimes called group A offenses

• Data are recorded on computerized record systems provided by the federal government

LO 3

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National Incident-Based Reporting System (Slide 2 of 2)

• Provides information about offenses, victims, offenders, and arrestees that are unavailable through the UCR

• Presents a complete picture of crime by monitoring criminal incidents reported to the police

LO 3

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Victim Surveys and Self-Reported Surveys

• Victim surveys • Example: National Crime Victimization Survey

(NCVS)

• Provide a better understanding of the dark figure of crime, or the actual amount of crime that takes place

• Self-reported surveys • Rely on offenders to reveal and detail their own

criminal or delinquent behavior

LO 3

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LO 4

Describe the three ways that victims’ rights legislation increases the ability of crime victims to participate in the criminal justice system.

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Legal Rights of Crime Victims

Right to be informed

Right to be present

Right to be heard

LO 4

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Routine Activities Theory

• Requirements for a criminal act • Offender, suitable target, and the absence of a

capable guardian

• Offenders attach “values” to suitable targets • The higher the value, the more likely that target

is going to be the subject of a crime

LO 4

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Repeat Victimization

• Theory that certain people and places are more likely to be subject to repeated criminal activity

• Past victimization and past criminal activity increase the risk of future victimization

LO 4

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LO 5

Explain why income level appears to be more important than race when it comes to crime trends.

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Factors of Crime Fluctuation That Help in Interpreting and Predicting Crime Trends

Imprisonment Youth populations

The economy

LO 5

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Crime in the 1990s and 2000s

• Crime rates dropped between 1990 and 2000 • Economy was robust and the incarceration rate

was skyrocketing

• The United States is presently enjoying historically low levels of crime • Rise in national murder rate was seen in 2015

➖Attributed to gang violence, the heroin epidemic, and the economy

LO 5

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Crime, Race, and Poverty

• Strong correlation exists between minority status and crime

• Neighborhoods with higher levels of disadvantage have uniformly higher violent crime rates

• Income levels and lack of education correlate with criminal behavior

LO 5

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Women and Crime

• Female presence in the criminal justice system has been increasing • Reasons

➖Dramatic changes in the life circumstances and behavior of women

➖The criminal justice system’s attitude toward women

• Women face greater risk of domestic violence and stalking

LO 5

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KEY TERMS

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• Social psychology • Sociology • Social

disorganization theory

• Strain theory • Anomie • Social conflict

theories • Social process

theories • Learning theory

• Control theory • Life course

criminology • Drug • Criminology • Correlation • Causation • Theory • Hypothesis • Rational choice

theory • Biology

38Copy r i gh t ©201 6 Cenga g e Lear ni n g . A l l Ri ghts Res er v ed . M ay not be s c anne d , c opi ed or dupl i c at e d , or pos te d to a publ i c l y ac c e s s i bl e webs i te , i n whol e or i n par t. HIST4 | CH6 38CJ5 | CH2 38

KEY TERMS (continued)

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• Psychology • Genetics • Hormone • Testosterone • Psychoactive drug • Drug abuse • Medical model of

addiction • Criminal model of

addiction • Legalization

• Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

• Part I offenses • Part II offenses • Victim surveys • Dark figure of crime • Self-reported surveys • Victim • Repeat victimization • Domestic violence • Stalking

39Copy r i gh t ©201 6 Cenga g e Lear ni n g . A l l Ri ghts Res er v ed . M ay not be s c anne d , c opi ed or dupl i c at e d , or pos te d to a publ i c l y ac c e s s i bl e webs i te , i n whol e or i n par t. HIST4 | CH6 39CJ5 | CH2 39

SUMMARY

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• Criminology has different theories to explain why people commit crimes

• Medical and criminal models of addiction explain how society should deal with addicts

• The UCR is an annual report compiled by the FBI to give an indication of criminal activity

• All states have passed legislation creating certain rights for victims

• Crime rates have significantly dropped between the years 1990 and 2000