Women and Leadership Project

edwardgoe

CH2_ConceptsofGenderandLeadership.pptx

Home >Psychology homework help >Women and Leadership Project

Concepts of Gender and leadership

Social and Historical Contexts

Week 2

Chapter 2: A Critical Moment for Women and Leadership

This is the first slideset for Week 2, which corresponds to Chapter 2 in the assigned class text.

Goals

In this slideset, we are going to be going over the four waves of feminism, the history of leadership studies, what social constructs are and how they relate to gender and leadership, and lastly, some important concepts related to leadership, including the bases of power.

History of feminism

History of leadership studies

Gender and leadership as social constructs

Bases of power

The “F” Word: Feminism

Before we get into the history of feminism, we actually need to have a solid understanding of what feminism even is!

What Feminism is Not

Feminism is NOT:

Anti-male and anti-family

Closely tied to activism and politics and therefore too radical or extreme

Lesbianism

Historically exclusionary endeavor practiced by white women from privileged backgrounds

There are a lot of misconceptions floating around regarding what feminism is, so let’s start with what feminism is not. Feminism is not anti-male nor anti-family. It is not closely tied to activism and politics and therefore too radical or extreme. It is not lesbianism, and lastly, it is not historically exclusionary endeavor practiced by white women from privileged backgrounds.

Defining Feminism

“Feminism is the struggle to end sexist oppression. Its aim is not to benefit any specific group of women, any particular race and class of women. It does not privilege women over men. It has the power to transform all of our lives.”

- Bell Hooks, Feminism Is for Everybody (2000)

Bell Hooks said it best in her book, Feminism is for Everybody. She defined feminism as the struggle to end sexist oppression. Its aim is not to benefit any specific group of women, any particular race and class of women. It does not privilege women over men. It has the power to transform all of our lives. This is the definition we’ll be using when referring to feminism through the course.

Social and Historical contexts for Women

Now that we have a working understanding of what feminism is and is not, we can get into the history of feminism.

Waves of Feminism

First Wave

Second Wave

Third Wave

Emerging Fourth Wave

You may or may not have heard the phrase “waves of feminism” before. The metaphor of a wave shows that it takes many iterations of action to make change.

It is now more common to talk about multiple feminisms, based on the intersectional identities of those involved. We’ll get into intersectional identities in a later week.

There are three waves of feminism over the course of history, and there is now what is considered to be an emerging fourth wave of feminism. We’ll go over each wave in more detail now.

First Wave of Feminism

Let’s start with the first wave of feminism.

First Wave

Typically refers to the suffragette movements in the U.S. and England in the late 1800s and early 1900s

Some date this wave as beginning with the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and ending with the passing of the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote, in 1920

Women of all class levels faced a wide variety of gender discrimination

Women were restricted to the home, not allowed to own property or vote, and many were not given access to education beyond primary schooling

Late 1800s: Women were part of reform movements aimed at:

Improving treatment of the mentally ill

Enacting prohibition

The abolition of slavery

In the 1830s, the main issues were abolition of slavery and women’s rights. Women could not vote, receive higher education, or access birth control. Women were not permitted to give evidence in court, nor did they have the right to speak in public before an audience. When a woman married, her husband legally owned all she had (including her possessions, any money she earned, her body, and her children). If he died, she was entitled to only a third of her husband’s estate. Very rarely were women allowed to file for divorce and until 1891, if a woman attempted to flee an unhappy marriage, she could be captured by the law and punished.

As such, the first wave of feminism typically refers to the suffragette movements in the U.S. and England in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Some date this wave as beginning with the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, and ending with the passing of the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote, in 1920. In the late 1800s, women were part of reform movements aimed at improving the treatment of the mentally ill, enacting prohibition, and the abolition of slavery.

First Wave

Women then began to examine their own disenfranchisement

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

Passed a list of 12 resolutions calling for specific equal rights, including the right to vote

1920: 19th Amendment passed and gave women the right to vote

It remained difficult for women of color to vote, especially in the South (Grady, 2018)

Because of women’s reform movements aimed at these other causes, women started to examine their own disenfranchisement. In 1948, the Seneca Falls Convention was held, where a list of 12 resolutions calling for specific equal rights, including the right to vote, were passed. In 1920, the 19th Amendment was passed, giving women the right to vote. However, it remained difficult for women of color to vote, especially in the south.

Second Wave of Feminism

Let’s move into the second wave of feminism.

Second Wave

Refers to the women’s liberation movements in the 1960s and 1970s

Focused on equal pay and reproductive freedom

Shifted the conversation from women’s political equality to women’s social equality

The second wave refers to women’s liberation movements in the 1960s and the 1970s, and focused on equal pay and reproductive freedom. This wave shifted the conversation from women’s political equality to women’s social equality.

Legislative and Legal Victories of the Second Wave

The passing of the Equal Pay Act of 1963

A series of Supreme Court cases that gave married and unmarried women the right to use birth control

Title IX (1972): Gave women the right to educational equality

Had a ripple effect on women’s sports and later sexual harassment, assault, and dating violence on college campuses

Roe v. Wade (1973): Guaranteed women reproductive freedom

During the second wave, women exerted more control of their finances, raised awareness about sexual violence and workplace harassment, and strove to name the systemic sexism ingrained in U.S. society at the time. As a consequence, there were several legislative and legal victories during this wave. In 1963, the Equal Pay Act was passed, which aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex. A series of Supreme Court cases during this time gave married and unmarried women the right to use birth control. Title 9 gave women the right to educational equality, which had a ripple effect on women’s sports and later sexual harassment, assault, and dating violence on college campuses. You might be familiar with this last legislative victory, Roe v. Wade, which has resurfaced in recent discussions surrounding women’s reproductive rights. This landmark decision of the U.S. supreme court guaranteed women reproductive freedom.

Third Wave of Feminism

So, now we can move into the third wave of feminism.

Third Wave

Increased activism around gender starting in the early 1990s with the Anita Hill testimony during Supreme Court candidate Justice Clearance Thomas’s confirmation hearings

1922: “Year of the Woman”

24 women won seats in the House of Representatives and 3 more won seats in the Senate

Third-wave feminists made it okay to embrace female sexuality

No centralizing political or social reform goals during this wave

The third wave of feminism increased activism around gender starting in the early 1990s with the Anita Hill testimony during Supreme Court candidate Justice Clearance Thomas’s confirmation hearings. If you’re unfamiliar with this event, it is similar to what happened with Brett Kavanaugh’s confirmation hearings with regard to Christine Blasey Ford-- Anita Hill testified against Clearance Thomas, claiming that he had sexually harassed her.

1922 was deemed the Year of the Woman, given that 24 women won seats in the House of Representatives and 3 more won seats in the Senate that year.

Additionally, third wave feminists made it okay to embrace female sexuality. However, this wave had no centralizing political or social reform goals, unlike the two previous waves of feminism.

Fourth Wave of Feminism

Finally, we have the fourth wave of feminism.

Fourth Wave

Characterized by online activism and more interpersonal approaches to gender liberation

More global consciousness

People are noticing that women across the globe face vastly different gendered expectations and continue to experience severe oppression in many places

Movement towards transnational feminism

Focuses on “intersections across nationality (including race and ethnicity), sex, gender, and class within the context of modern-day imperialism” (Valoy, 2015)

Has been described as “queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and digitally driven” (Sollee, 2015)

The fourth wave of feminism is characterized by online activism and more interpersonal approaches to gender liberation. It is also characterized by more global consciousness, as people are noticing that women across the globe face vastly different gendered expectations and continue to experience severe oppression in many places. There is also a movement towards transnational feminism, which focuses on intersections across nationality, including race and ethnicity, sex, gender, and class within the context of modern-day imperialism. Lastly, the fourth wave has been described as queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and digitally driven. However, it remains to be seen how historians will describe current actions to end sexist oppression.

Social and historical contexts for Leadership studies

That’s it for the history of feminism. Now, let’s get into the history of leadership studies.

Leadership is…

“A relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change”

- Komives, Lucas, & McMahon (2013, p.95)

Let’s first define leadership as a relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change.

History of Leadership

Earliest conceptions of leadership focused on heroic men accomplishing great feats (kings, warriors, & religious leaders)

1700s: Belief in a genetic component to leadership

Strengthened with the rise of Darwinism and a new understanding of heredity

Women in leadership have been omitted from historical writings and teachings

We know they existed– think of Joan of Arc or Catherine the Great

The earliest conceptions of leadership focused on heroic men accomplishing great feats, including kings, warriors, and religious leaders. In the 1700s, there was a widely held belief that there was a genetic component to leadership, meaning that some people were born with some sort of “leadership trait”, and those were the individuals most qualified and prepared for leadership. Those without the genetic leadership trait were left out of the conversation. This belief was exacerbated by the rise of Darwinism and a new understanding of heredity.

Over the course of time, women in leadership have been omitted from historical writings and teachings, but we know that they existed. Think of Joan of Arc or Catherine the Great, for instance.

History of Leadership

Early 1900s: Research linked leadership to traits like height, intelligence, and confidence

The story evolved that leadership may not only be about genetics and birthright, but also have something to do with one’s inherent traits

Trait research has made a reappearance among leadership scholars, but focuses on traits like intelligence, determination, self-confidence, integrity, and sociability

In the early 1900s, research started linking leadership to traits like height, intelligence, and confidence. The story evolved that leadership may not only be about genetics and birthright (like being born into royalty), but also have something to do with one’s inherent traits. Trait research has actually made a reappearance among leadership scholars, but instead focuses on traits like intelligence, determination, self-confidence, integrity, and sociability.

History of Leadership

1940s and 1950s: People began to see the limitations of trait-based approaches to leadership

Studies indicated that effective leadership behaviors involved both paying attention to relationships (consideration) and to tasks (initiating structure)

1950s and 1960s: The effects of contexts or situations on leadership began to be considered

Situational leadership: Proposed that leaders should adjust their behaviors based on the situation, and that different situations call for different kinds of leadership

1980s + : Explosion of research on leadership

In the 1940s and 1950s, people began to see the limitations of a trait-based approach to leadership. Those returning from WWII engaged in psychological testing for career placement, given that they needed to find jobs upon returning from war. However, even when someone scored high on an assessment for leadership traits, they did not always exhibit leadership in the workplace. So as it turns out, behaviors matter! By the late 1950s, the prevailing definition of leadership was “a behavior that influences people toward shared goals” (Northouse, 2018, p.3).

Studies during this time indicated that effective leadership behaviors involved both paying attention to relationships, also known as “consideration”, and to tasks, also known as “initiating structure”. Thus, leadership effectiveness can be split into these two facets: consideration and initiating structure.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the effects of contexts or situations on leadership began to be considered as well. This was also called situational leadership, which proposes that leaders should adjust their behaviors based on the situation, and that different situations call for different kinds of leadership. Situational leadership is also part of a set of theories in leadership called “contingency theories”. Finally, since the 1980s, there has been an explosion of research on leadership.

“Women, people of color, and other minoritized groups are disassociated from the dominant narrative about leadership. Their stories are rarely told, their contributions delegitimized, and in the process, leadership becomes associated with the dominant majority. When examples of women, people of color, and other minoritized groups are connected to leadership, it is typically framed as an exception to the rule.”

- Dugan (2017, p.67)

Here’s a good quote, explaining the disassociation between minoritized groups and the leadership narrative.

Fourth-Wave Leadership

Invites conversations about ideology, hegemony, social location, power, and agency in leadership development

Connects concepts from critical theory to the study of leadership and acknowledges that, like gender, leadership is also a social construct

Now, there is said to be a fourth wave of leadership, which invites conversations about ideology, hegemony, social location, power, and agency in leadership development. This wave connects concepts from critical theory to the study of leadership and acknowledges that, like gender, leadership is also a social construct. We’ll get into what social constructs are now.

The Social Construction of Gender

As previously mentioned, let’s get into the social construction of gender in society.

What is Gender?

Related to biological sex assignment

A personal identity

A social category

A social role or an ongoing activity

A schema for organizing & understanding the world

A set of interpersonal, cultural, institutional constraints that govern what goals and activities are typical and acceptable for a person, across a vast range of domains

<- “What am I?”

<- “Who am I?”

<- “Who are we and who are they?”

<- “How should I act/think/feel?”

<- “What is going on around me right now?”

<- “How does the world work?”

Gender is related to biological sex assignment, but is also a personal identity, a social category, and a social role or an ongoing activity. Gender is also a schema for organizing and understanding the world. It is a set of interpersonal, cultural, and institutional constraints that govern what goals and activities are typical and acceptable for a person, across a vast range of domains. Gender answers the questions: What am I? Who am I? Who are we and who are they? How should I think, act, and feel? What is going on around me right now? And how does the world work?

Gender Schema

Schema: cognitive structures that represent a person’s knowledge about an object, person, or situation

Gender Schema: the mental representation of the category of traits, attitudes, and behaviors that are traditionally associated with men or women (Martin & Halverson, 1981)

AKA: gender stereotypes!

Can be prescriptive (what “ought” to be) and descriptive (what “actually” is) expectations:

Attitudes, physical attributes, occupational roles & division of labor, personality traits, behaviors

I just mentioned that gender is a schema in the last slide, so what does that mean? A schema is a cognitive structure that represents a person’s knowledge about an object, person or situation. Gender schemas specifically are the mental representation of the category of traits, attitudes, and behaviors that are traditionally associated with men or women. Gender schemas are also known as gender stereotypes. These stereotypes can be prescriptive or descriptive expectations about attitudes, physical attributes, occupational roles and division of labor, personality traits, and behaviors. Prescriptive gender stereotypes are what one “ought” to be, while descriptive gender stereotypes are what one “actually” is.

Schemas

Schemas affect:

The way we process information

The way we make inferences

Predictions

Interpretations

What we remember

Schemas are especially likely to be used when information is deficient or ambiguous, to “fill in the gaps”

Schema-driven processing contrasts with data-driven processing

Schemas can affect a variety of things, including the way we process information, the way we make inferences, our predictions, interpretations, and what we remember. Schemas are especially likely to be used when information is deficient or ambiguous– schemas essentially fill in the gaps in our brain. Schema-driven processing is different from data-driven processing, in that schema-driven processing is “lazy thinking”. A simple example is to think of your schema for dog. Within that schema you most likely have knowledge about dogs in general (they bark, have four legs, teeth, hair, tails, etc.) and probably information about specific dogs, such as collies (long hair, large, Lassie). You may also think of dogs within the greater context of animals and other living things; that is, dogs breathe, need food, and reproduce. Your knowledge of dogs might also include the fact that they are mammals and thus are warm-blooded and bear their young as opposed to laying eggs. Depending on your personal experiences, the knowledge of a dog as a pet (domesticated and loyal) or as an animal to fear (likely to bite or attack) may be part of your schema. Each new experience incorporates more information into one’s schema. With regard to gender, one might believe that a woman’s role is in the caring and raising of children, while a man’s role is in work and industry.

What is Meant by “Social Construct”?

To say something is socially constructed indicates that its meaning is determined through social interactions or the things we do and say with others

Messages about the socially acceptable ways to enact gender begin before birth and are accelerated in childhood socialization

For much of society, sex and gender are considered binary:

Male / female

Man / woman

Gay / straight

To say that something is socially constructed indicates that its meaning is determined through social interactions or the things we do and say with others. Messages about the socially acceptable ways to enact gender begin before birth and are accelerated in childhood socialization. Think about this: why do parents need to know the gender of a neonate?

Take a look at these images of baby clothes. Your mind probably immediately thinks that the pink outfit with a quote about having an attitude is intended for baby girls, and the blue outfit with weights on it and a quote about flexing is intended for baby boys. Gender schemas have an impact not only on how people process information, but also on the attitudes and beliefs that direct “gender-appropriate” behavior. Men and women are tacitly aware of the consequences of not adhering to the cultural norms. A girl who wears a suit, like Pink’s daughter at the 2017 VMAs for instance, or boys who wear tutus, like Megan Fox’s sons, might be considered strange, because their behaviors contradict our expectations of how boys and girls should dress.

For much of society, sex and gender are considered binary. That is, one can only be male or female, man or woman, gay or straight. There are consequences of this type of binary thinking for adults– the unequal division of labor.

Gender Terminology

Let’s go over some more important terminology related to gender. We already discussed that gender is related to biological sex assignment, so what is the difference between gender and sex? Sex is biologically-based, while gender is a social construct. Sex is the classification of a person as male or female at birth, and is based on a combination of bodily characteristics, including chromosomes, hormones, internal and external reproductive organs, and secondary sex characteristics. Sexual orientation describes a person’s enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction to others. This is different from gender identity, which we’ll get into on the next slide. Lastly, gender expression is the external display of one’s gender through a combination of dress, demeanor, social behavior, and other factors. This is generally measured on scales of masculinity and femininity. On the last slide, Pink’s daughter, for instance, was engaging in gender expression through her choice of wearing a suit.

SEX

- The classification of a person as male or female at birth

- A combination of bodily characteristics including chromosomes, hormones, internal and external reproductive organs, and secondary sex characteristics

GENDER EXPRESSION

- The external display of one’s gender through a combination of dress, demeanor, social behavior, and other factors

- Generally measured on scales of masculinity and femininity

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

- Describes a person’s enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction to others

- Not the same as gender identity

Gender Terminology

Gender Identity: a person’s internal, deeply held sense of their gender which may or may not match the sex they were assigned at birth; gender identity is not visible to others, unlike gender expression

Cisgender: when gender identity and biological sex are aligned

Transgender: when gender identity and/or gender expression differs from sex assigned at birth

Gender Nonconforming: when gender expression is different from conventional expectations of masculinity and femininity

Nonbinary and/or Genderqueer: when gender expression and/or gender identity falls outside the categories of man and woman

Questioning: exploring one’s own sexual orientation or gender identity

Let’s get into what gender identity is. This is a person’s internal, deeply held sense of their gender which may or may not match the sex they were assigned at birth. Gender identity is not visible to others, unlike gender expression. There are several different gender identities, including cisgender, transgender, gender nonconforming, nonbinary and/or genderqueer, and questioning. A cisgender identity is when gender identity and biological sex align. A transgender identity is when gender identity and/or gender expression differs from sex assigned at birth. A gender nonconforming identity is when gender expression is different from conventional expectations of masculinity and femininity. A nonbinary or genderqueer identity is when gender expression and/or gender identity falls outside the categories of man and woman. Lastly, questioning refers to exploring one’s own sexual orientation or gender identity.

Note that the term “gender nonconforming” is not synonymous with “transgender”. Not all gender nonconforming people identify as transgender, nor do all transgender people identify as gender nonconforming. Many transgender men and women have gender expressions that are conventionally masculine or feminine. Similarly, the terms “nonbinary” and “genderqueer” are not synonymous for transgender or transsexual. These terms should only be used if someone self-identifies as nonbinary and/or genderqueer.

More on Gender

There is no concrete biological reality of gender that causes us to behave in certain ways (i.e., more masculine, more feminine, etc.)

Instead, gender is performed in the way that one walks, talks, wears, and the meaning society ascribes to it

If gender performance does not match society’s idea of binary gender, there are often harsh and sometimes violent consequences

This is especially true in Western cultures

Gender roles and norms are often justified by religion and culture, and backed by the law. Think of some cultural practices related to gender: female and male genital circumcision, the wearing of veils, foot binding, breast augmentation, etc. It is a major component of structural inequality, yet is often rendered invisible such that we cannot imagine another way. Gender creates distinguishable and unequal social statuses associated with rights and responsibilities.

There is no concrete biological reality of gender that causes us to behave in certain ways. Instead, gender is performed in the way that one walks, talks, wears, and the meaning society ascribes to it.

If gender performance does not match society’s idea of binary gender, there are often harsh and sometimes violent consequences, and this is especially true in Western cultures. If you watched Game of Thrones, you might remember Brienne of Tarth. She often faced negative consequences as a result of being a woman who strived to be a knight. But recall that there were rules that infringed upon her ability to become a knight. She’s a great fictional example of the consequences of not matching society’s idea of gender.

Nonetheless, there are several places where the notion of a third, or even fourth, gender is a recognized part of the culture:

Mashoga in Kenya

Ashtime in Ethiopia

Muxe in Mexico

Xaniths in Oman

Two Spirit in several indigenous communities

The social Construction of LEadership

Now, let’s talk a little bit about the social construction of leadership, as gender is not the only thing that is a social construct.

Exercise

Social Experiment: Ask some of your friends to describe what kinds of attributes they think leaders should have…

So try this little experiment with your friends and family. Ask them to describe what kinds of attributes they think a leader should have.

Leadership Norms

You might hear things like: strong, decisive, commanding, persuasive, powerful

How many of those traits are stereotypically associated with men? Are they accurate, or are we socialized to view leadership this way?

Just as there are norms around binary views of gender that have consequences if violated, there are norms about leadership

Society creates “expectations for the way people ought to behave, and these mandates permeate leadership studies, popular notions about leadership, and follower’s expectations for how leaders should perform” (Muhr & Sullivan, 2013, p. 417)

You might get responses that involve the following words: strong, decisive, commanding, persuasive, and powerful. But how many of those traits are stereotypically associated with men? Are they accurate, or are we socialized to view leadership this way?

Just as there are norms around binary views of gender that have consequences if violated, there are norms about leadership. Norms are expectations for the way people ought to behave. Society creates expectations for the way people should behave, and these mandates permeate leadership studies, popular notions about leadership, and follower’s expectations for how leaders should perform.

Critical Concepts

Now we’re going to get into the concepts of ideology, hegemony, social location, power and agency, and how these processes shape our approaches to leadership and learning.

Ideology v. Hegemony

Ideology

The broadly accepted set of values, beliefs, myths, and explanations that appear to be true and desirable to a majority of the population

Typically functions through coercion and fear

Hegemony

The process of social, cultural, and ideological influence exerted by a dominant group

A subtler form of social control than ideology

Functions through the silent acceptance of the status quo

Let’s first go over the difference between ideology and hegemony. Ideology is the broadly accepted set of values, beliefs, myths, and explanations that appear to be true and desirable to a majority of the population, while hegemony is the process of social, cultural, and ideological influence exerted by a dominant group. Hegemony is actually a more subtle form of social control than ideology, and functions through the silent acceptance of the status quo. Ideology, however, functions through coercion and fear.

Social Location

Refers to the position one holds in society based on a variety of personal and social identities

These identities also manifest themselves in different forms of power and agency

Social location refers to the position one holds in society based on a variety of personal and social identities. These identities also manifest themselves in different forms of power and agency.

Power

Directly related to leadership, as they both involve the process of influence

6 distinct types of power (French & Raven, 1968):

Legitimate power – formal authority

Reward power – ability to confer reward

Coercive power – ability to confer punishment

Information power – power from information

Expert power – power from expertise

Referent power – power to influence

People can hold many of these simultaneously

Power is directly related to leadership, as they both involve the process of influence. There are 6 distinct types of power according to French and Raven: legitimate power, which is formal authority; reward power, which is the ability to confer reward; coercive power, which is the ability to confer punishment; information power, which is power that comes from information; expert power, which is the power from expertise; and lastly, referent power, which is power to influence.

People can hold many of these bases of power simultaneously. For instance, someone who has legitimate power probably also has reward and coercive power, but maybe they don’t have referent power.

Legitimate Power

Power that comes from holding a title or position

The higher the status of the position, the more perceived power

So let’s go into a little more detail with regard to each bases of power. The first is legitimate power. Here, you have the “right” to manage, lead, or control and to expect compliance because of your place in society or in an organization. This is power that comes from holding a title or position. The higher the status of the position, the more perceived power one has.

Think of queens, politicians, and CEOs of companies– these all have legitimate power because of their title or position. Queen Elizabeth, Bob Iger, and Justin Trudeau are all examples of people who hold legitimate power.

Reward and Coercive Power

Reward Power

The ability to give positive or negative consequences

Coercive Power

The ability to deliver negative consequences or remove positive ones

Reward and coercive power are on the same slide because it is definitely possible for one to have both powers simultaneously. Typically, if you can give positive or negative consequences, you can also remove them.

Reward Power

Reward power is the ability to give positive or negative consequences. To be effective, reward power requires that others value the incentives offered and that they believe that you can and will provide them. Coercive power is based on your capacity and willingness to produce conditions that the others want to avoid, or find unpleasant. This tends to be the least effective form of power, as it builds resentment within the targets of that power. Some often coin coercive power as the opposite of reward power.

Generally, supervisors have reward power, such that they have the ability to give you a promotion, a raise, or fire you!

Coercive Power

Coercive power is the ability to deliver negative consequences or remove positive ones. If you’ve seen the movie Horrible Bosses, you might remember this scene I’m about to show you. Kevin Spacey plays Jason Bateman’s evil boss who threatens to not promote him to a higher position within the company he’s been working at for years if he doesn’t stay late to work on a project. That’s an excellent example of coercive power. Let’s watch the clip, and then we’ll move on to information power.

Information Power

One who has access to knowledge not available elsewhere or deemed important for a decision or task

Information power is based on you having access to information that others are not privy to, do not know about, and which they believe is important. Others comply because they believe that what you want them to do is based on some special and/or maybe even inside information that you have.

There’s a show on HBO called Avenue 5 with Hugh Laurie where the one guy who could engineer and pilot a spaceship dies trying to fix it– he had informational power, because nobody else on the ship knows how to get back home!

Expert Power

Comes from having unique knowledge, competencies or skills

Expert power comes from having unique knowledge, competencies, or skills. This type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is seen as trained and qualified. As such, others are willing to do what you want because they trust that your superior expertise will produce the desired results.

Some examples of those who have expert power are doctors, nurses, professors and teachers, and scientists. They are experts in their respective fields and this can often overlap with information power. You might be able to come up with other examples of individuals with information power.

Referent Power

Derived from relationships, who a person knows, and their ability to draw on relationships as a source of support

Referent power is derived from relationships, who a person knows, and their ability to draw on relationships as a source of support. Here, the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities the leader possesses, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower.

This type of power is based on personal feelings of attraction, or admiration, that others have for you. This is the “in the eye of the beholder” power, where others see something special in you allowing to take the lead, to be in the lead, or be given the lead. This “something special” is called charisma, where others are willing to do what the leader wants because they want to please the leader, have the leader like them, and/or want to become like the leader themselves. This attraction gives the leader power to influence the behavior of others.

Agency

“A sense of possessing power– or having the energy, intelligence, resources, and opportunity to act on the world” (Brookfield, 2005, p. 47)

Someone may have access to different types of power but not feel agency to use them

Remember in Week 1 when we talked about Hilary Clinton’s presidential campaign in 2008, and how she tried to focus on her ability to get things done? We briefly mentioned the term agency. Agency is having a sense of possessing power, or the energy, intelligence, resources, and opportunity to act on the world. Someone may have access to different types of power but not feel agency to use them.

Women and Power

Now, let’s talk about women and power specifically.

Power

How power is perceived by others may be moderated by one’s social identities and other factors

Power may look natural on a man, whereas a powerful woman might be seen as problematic or in need of special scrutiny or explanation

How power is perceived by others may be moderated by one’s social identities and other factors. Power, for instance, may look natural on a man, whereas a powerful woman might be seen as problematic or in need of special scrutiny or explanation.

Power vs. Authority

Power

Rarely do people talk about the limits of power

More personally held

Authority

Formally ascribed power

The formal right to make decisions that comes from holding a position or office

Can be articulated and designated

Can set limits of one’s authority

Let’s briefly talk about the difference between power and authority. Power is more personally held by an individual, whereas authority is actually formally ascribed power. Authority is the formal right to make decisions that comes from holding a position or office. With regard to power, people rarely talk about any limits, but there are limits to one’s authority.

Empowerment

The practice of sharing power and enabling others to exercise their own authority and influence

Frequently cited as a benefit of women in leadership

Critical analysis: do you think power can be given away?

When empowerment is reduced to a management buzzword or motivational poster on the wall, it may actually be perpetuating powerlessness

False empowerment: people are invited to exercise agency and independent authority on a decision or program only to find that the decision was made elsewhere

Or to be countered when you make a decision contrary to what those with positional power had in mind

Empowerment is another key term relating to women and power. It is the practice of sharing power and enabling others to exercise their own authority and influence. It is frequently cited as a benefit of women in leadership. However, consider this: do you think power can be given away? Think of some of the bases of power we just discussed, would you be able to give away some of those, like expert power?

Another issue with empowerment is when it’s reduced to a management buzzword or motivational poster on the wall, it could actually just perpetuate powerlessness. This is termed false empowerment, where people are invited to exercise agency and independent authority on a decision or program only to find out that the decision was made elsewhere.

End

This is the end of the first slideset for Week 2.