human growth

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Ch1IntroductiotoLifePsanDevelopment.ppt

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What is Lifespan Development?

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan.

Remind students that LD involves study of ways in which we stay the same, as well as ways we grow and change over time.
Ask: In what ways is a person different when he is one week old and 100 years old? Now ask, how is this person the same?

Specialists in Lifespan Development

Focus

Biological processes
Genetic endowment
Cognitive development
Physical growth
Social development

Assumptions about Developmental Study

Scientific, developmental approach that focuses on continuous human development

Every period of life contains potential for growth and decline in abilities

Process of development persists throughout every part of people's lives

Neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range of human develop

Scientific, developmental approach that focuses on human development
Neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range of human develop
Development is continuing process throughout lifespan
Every period of life contains potential for growth and decline in abilities
Process of development persists throughout every part of people's lives

Table 1-1. Approaches to Lifespan Development

*Numbers in parentheses indicate in which chapter the question is addressed.

The Scope of the Field: Age and Range Differences

Prenatal period
Infancy and toddlerhood
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Emerging adulthood
Young adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

Paint a Word Picture

Take a few minutes to quickly write down a phrase that describes each developmental period.

Share with your classmates.

Ask: Are your conceptions of each of these broad age ranges the same as, similar to, or different than the authors. For example, if you are 19, do you still consider yourself an adolescent? How might your personal conceptions influence your interpretation of different age ranges presented in the text?
Ask: What role do individual differences play in the timing of events in people's life? Can you give an example?

Cultural Factors and Developmental Diversity

Broad factors

Orientation toward individualism or collectivism

Finer differences

Ethnicity
Race
Socioeconomic status
Gender

See How Cultural, Ethnicity, and Race Influence Development on page7
Define:
INDIVIUDALISM
COLLECTIVISM
RACE
ETHNIC GROUP and ETHNICITY

Key Issues in Field of Development

Continuous vs. discontinuous change
Critical periods vs. sensitive periods
Lifespan approach vs. particular periods approach
Nature vs. nurture

(See Table 1-2)
CONTINUOUS VERSUS DISCONTINUOUS: define each term; either/or position is not appropriate.
CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE: Define each term; both occur in development.
LIFESPAN APPROACH VERSUS FOCUS ON PARTICULAR PERIOD: Discuss each approach; encourage students to think about how these approaches may have changed over time.
RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF NATURE AND NURTURE ON DEVELOPMENT: Define each term; explain how nature is related to maturation; discuss why INTERACTION of genetic and environmental factors is complex and important in the understanding of human development.

Table 1-2. Major Issues in Lifespan Development

Table 1-3 Freud's and Erikson's Theories

Perspectives, Theories, and Approaches

Second, we can match theories and approaches with each perspective:

Psychodynamic
Psychoanalytic
Psychosocial

Behavioral
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social-Cognitive Learning

Each perspective:
emphasizes somewhat different aspects of development
steers developmentalists in particular directions
continues to evolve and change

Perspectives, Theories, and Approaches (continued)

Cognitive
Information Processing
Cognitive Neuroscience
Humanistic
Contextual
Bioecological
Sociocultural
Evolutionary

We will use theory maps that contain the following sections:

Perspective
Theory
Theorist
What develops
How development proceeds
Principles
Key terms

Maps can be distributed for students to complete, completed with input from class, or presented in pre-completed format.

Theory Map

Psychodynamic Perspective: Assessing

Widely Accepted

FREUD

Notion of unconscious influences accepted by many

ERIKSON

Notion of development throughout lifespan receives considerable support

Widely Questioned or Rejected

FREUD

Effects of childhood stages on later development not validated

Generalizability to broader, multicultural populations not supported

Primary focus on male development criticized

ERIKSON

More focus on men than women

Vague and difficult to test rigorously in some parts

Slogan for Psychodynamic Perspective: “Good past behavior described; imprecise future predicted”

Theory Map

Define: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Theory Map

Define: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Theory Map

Define: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Behavioral Perspective: Assessing

Widely Accepted

WATSON AND SKINNER

Based on observable behaviors that are easier to quantify in research

Contributions to educational techniques for children with severe mental retardation

Widely Questioned or Rejected

WATSON AND SKINNER

Social learning theorists suggest oversimplification

Behaviorism does not account for free will, internal influences (e.g., moods, thoughts, feelings), or other types of learning

Slogan for Psychodynamic Perspective: “Good past behavior described; imprecise future predicted”

Theory Map

Define:
ASSIMILATION- process in which people understand an experience in terms of current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking
ACCOMMODATION- changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Cognitive Perspective: Assessing

Widely Accepted

PIAGET

Theory profoundly influenced understanding of cognition

Broad view of sequence of cognitive development is accurate

Widely Questioned or Rejected

PIAGET

Some specifics questions about changes in cognitive capabilities over time (e.g., timing of emerging skills)

Universality of stages has been disputed

Cultural differences in emergence of particular cognitive skills suggested

Growth is more continuous than proposed

Slogan for Cognitive Perspective: “Good past behavior described; imprecise future predicted”

Theory Map

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Assumption of limited capacity of mental system
Control mechanism required to oversee processes (e.g., encoding, transformation, processing, storage, retrieval, utilization of information)
Two-way flow of information required to make sense of the world
Humans genetically prepared to process and organize information in specific ways

Cognitive Perspective: Assessing

Widely Accepted

INFORMATION-PROCESSING

Theory may currently be central part of understanding of development

Widely Questioned or Rejected

INFORMATION-PROCESSING

Theory does not offer complete explanation for behavior or address social context in which development takes place

Theory Map

Define:
ASSIMILATION- process in which people understand an experience in terms of current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking
ACCOMMODATION- changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Cognitive Approach: Assessing

Widely Accepted

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

New frontier in child and adolescent development

Approach offers important clues to appropriate treatments and fuller understanding of a range of developmental phenomena

Widely Questioned or Rejected

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Approach sometimes provides a better description than explanation of developmental phenomena

Theory Map

BACKGROUND:
Explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory
SELF-ACTUALIZATION is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way; a primary goal in life
Approach has roots in existentialist thought which claims humans create the meaning in their own lives

Humanistic Perspective: Assessing

Widely Accepted

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

Some concepts (e.g., self-actualization) help describe important aspects of human behavior

Humanistic influences seen in wide range of areas from health care to business

Widely Questioned or Rejected

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

No clear, major impact on field of lifespan development due to lack of identification of broad developmental change that is the result of increasing age or experience

Theory Map

The four systems:

MICROSYSTEM: Immediate environments ( family, school, peer group, neighborhood, and childcare environments)
MESOSYSTEM: A system comprised of connections between immediate environments (i.e., a child's home and school)
EXOSYSTEM: External environmental settings which only indirectly affect development (such as parent's workplace)
MACROSYSTEM: The larger cultural context ( Eastern vs. Western culture, national economy, political culture, subculture)

Later a fifth system was added:

CHRONOSYSTEM: The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the course of life.

Bioecological Approach: Assessing

Widely Accepted

BIOECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Perspective helped generate much research

Suggestion of mutual accommodation between the developing individual and the environment affects children's develop is of considerable importance to child development

Widely Questioned or Rejected

BIOECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Some argue that perspective pays insufficient attention to biological factors

Difficult to test for “neighborhood” effects

Theory Map

BACKGROUND:
Explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory
SELF-ACTUALIZATION is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way; a primary goal in life
Approach has roots in existentialist thought which claims humans create the meaning in their own lives

Sociocultural Approach: Assessing

Widely Accepted

SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

One of first developmentalists to recognize importance of culture

Perspective becoming increasingly influential with growing acknowledgement of central importance of cultural factors in development

Widely Questioned or Rejected

SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Some argue that emphasis on role of culture and social experience presented at expense of focus on effects of biological factors on development

Approach minimizes role individuals play in shaping own environment

Theory Map

BACKGROUND:
Explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory
SELF-ACTUALIZATION is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way; a primary goal in life
Approach has roots in existentialist thought which claims humans create the meaning in their own lives

Evolutionary Approach: Assessing

Widely Accepted

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

Evolutionary approach is increasingly visible in field of lifespan development

Widely Questioned or Rejected

EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

Some argue that perspective pays insufficient attention to environmental and social factors involved in producing children's and adults’ behavior

Experimental testing of theory is difficult

Major Perspectives on Lifespan Development

Why asking about right may be wrong…

Each perspective is based on its own premises and focuses on different aspects of development

Same developmental phenomenon can be examined from a number of perspectives simultaneously

Psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior.
Behavioral perspectives emphasize overt behavior, paying far more attention to what people do than to what goes on inside their heads, which is deemed largely irrelevant.
Cognitive and humanistic perspectives take quite the opposite tack, looking more at what people think than at what they do.
Evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development.

Correlational Studies

Remember: Correlations

Do not prove causality
Do provide important information

Correlation Coefficient

Strength and direction of relationship between two factors represented by mathematical score that ranges from +1.0 to -1.0

Although it is possible that the variables are linked causally, this is not necessarily the case.
Important information examples:
The closer the genetic link between two people, the more highly associated is their intelligence.
The more parents speak to their young children, the more extensive are the children's vocabularies.
The better the nutrition that infants receive, the fewer the cognitive and social problems they experience later.
Define:
Correlation Coefficient: mathematical score ranging from +1.0 to -1.0 that denote strength and direction of relationship between two factors
+ correlation = when value of one factor increases it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase
- correlation = when value of one factor decreases it can be predicted that the value of the other will also decrease
0 correlation = two factors are unrelated to one another

Types of Correlational Studies

Naturalistic observation

Ethnography and qualitative research

Case studies
Diaries
Survey research

Psychophysiological methods

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan

Naturalistic observation
Observe/study in natural context or habitat
Does not allow for control over factors of interest
Ethnography
Uses to investigate cultural questions
Researcher serves as participant observer
Does not control for researcher bias; generalizability may be difficult
Case studies
Used with individual or small group to derive broader principles or tentative conclusions
Diaries
Survey research
Used with group chosen to represent larger population
Inferences drawn from responses
Psychophysiological methods
Focus on relationship between physiological processes and behavior
Used in cognitive neuroscience
EEG, CAT scan, fMRI

Among the most frequently used psychophysiological measures:

Electroencephalogram (EEG). The EEG records electrical activity within the brain recorded by electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. That brain activity is transformed into a pictorial representation of the brain, permitting the representation of brain wave patterns and diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities.
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan. In a CAT scan, a computer constructs an image of the brain by combining thousands of individual x-rays taken at slightly different angles. Although it does not show brain activity, it does illuminate the structure of the brain.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan. An fMRI provides a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the brain. It offers one of the best ways of learning about the operation of the brain, down to the level of individual nerves.

Choosing Research Settings

Field study

Capture behavior in real-life settings
Participants may behave more naturally
May be used in correlational studies and experiments
Often difficult to exert control over situation and environment

Define:
Field study is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting.
Laboratory study is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant.

From Research to Practice

Using Developmental Research to Improve Public Policy

Research findings can provide policymakers a means of determining what questions to ask in the first place.
Research findings and the testimony of researchers are often part of the process by which laws are drafted.
Policymakers and other professionals use research findings to determine how best to implement programs.
Research techniques are used to evaluate the effectiveness of existing programs and policies.

Consider this…

What are some policy issues affecting children and adolescents that are currently being debated nationally?

Despite the existence of research data that might inform policy about development, politicians rarely discuss such data in their speeches. Why do you think that is the case?

Measuring Developmental Change

Longitudinal Studies

Measuring individual change

Cross-Sectional Studies

Measuring people of different ages at same point in time

Sequential Studies

Define:
Longitudinal research, the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age. Longitudinal research measures change over time; Terman IQ study; require significant investment of time; high attrition; test-wise participants
In cross-sectional research, people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. Cross-sectional studies provide information about differences in development between different age groups; cohort effects; selective dropout; unable to inform about changes in individuals or groups.
In sequential studies, researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time; a combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies; permits developmental researchers to tease out the consequences of age change versus age difference.

Ethics and Research

Ethical Guidelines for Researchers (SRCD)

Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm.

Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before their involvement in a study.

The use of deception in research must be justified and cause no harm.

Participants’ privacy must be maintained.

Becoming An Expert about Experts!

Consider the source.
Evaluate credentials.
Understand difference between anecdotal and scientific evidence.
Find details of research-based advice.
Do not overlook cultural context of information.
Recognize that popular consensus does not guarantee scientific validity.

EPILOGUE

Before proceeding to the next chapter, take a few minutes to reconsider the prologue of this chapter—about Louis Brown, the first child to be born through in vitro fertilization. Based on what you now know about lifespan development, answer the following questions:

What are some of the potential benefits, and the costs, of the type of conception-in vitro-fertilization-that was carried out for Louise's parents?

What are some questions that developmentalists who study either physical, cognitive, or personality and social development might ask about the effects on Louise of being conceived via in vitro fertilization?

EPILOGUE

Louise reported feeling lonely and isolated as a child. Why do you think this occurred, and what effects might it have on her as an adult?

Louise's own son was conceived in the traditional manner. How do you think his development will differ from that of his mother, Louise, and why?