New assignment

Chapter 18

Fieldwork

Zikmund, W., Babin, B. J., Carr, J., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business research methods (9th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

AT-A-GLANCE

I. The Nature of Fieldwork

II. Who Conducts Fieldwork?

III. In-House Training for Inexperienced Interviewers

A. Making initial contact and securing the interview

· Personal interviews

· Telephone interviews

· Internet surveys

· Gaining participation

B. Asking the questions

C. Probing when no response is given

D. Recording the responses

E. Terminating the interview

IV. Principles of Good Interviewing

A. The basics

B. Required practices

V. Fieldwork Management

A. Briefing sessions for experienced interviewers

B. Training to avoid procedural errors in sample selection

VI. Supervision of Fieldworkers

A. Sampling verification

B. Interviewer cheating

C. Verification by reinterviewing

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe the role and job requirements of fieldworkers

2. Summarize the skills to cover when training inexperienced interviewers

3. List principles of good interviewing

4. Describe the activities involved in the management of fieldworkers

5. Discuss how supervisors should minimize errors in the field

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Software for Fieldwork? Ask Askia

In the past, fieldworkers used notebooks and clipboards to gather specialized or detailed data. Fortunately, technology has made this process significantly easier. One example of a company that has specialized in face-to-face fieldwork software is Askia. This company has developed a fully functioning software application that works with tablet PCs and PDAs for field researchers. Their interface provides seamless integration with telephone-assisted survey databases and an ability to directly download data into an analysis program. Additionally, survey applications can be updated on-the-fly, and users can even use multimedia to present products or services, or provide illustrations for the respondent.

SURVEY THIS!

Students are asked to examine the section of the questionnaire shown and to answer several questions. Respondents answered these questions without the benefit of an interviewer. Do you think an interviewer could help provide better answers to these questions? What are the pros and cons of a personal interviewer or a telephone interviewer for this type of information? If you think an interviewer should be used, explain why and give an indication of the instructions the fieldworker should receive. How might the interviewer actually contribute to lower quality in responses?

RESEARCH SNAPSHOTS

· Interviewing for Horizon Research Services

Many smaller research companies offer interviewing and other services to clients in their city or region, and an example is Horizon Research Services. This company conducts focus groups, telephone surveys, and other research projects. Horizon uses part-time employees to staff its dozen computer workstations whenever a client requests a telephone survey. One of biggest challenges is keeping the respondent from hanging up, so in the first few seconds, an interviewer quickly reassures the person that the call is for research, not to sell something. Retaining respondents becomes a matter of reinforcing that they are doing something good for research. Recruiting 12 people to participate in a focus group typically requires four interviewers to spend about three hours, perhaps requiring up to 600 phone calls.

· Why is “Why” Important?

While the use of field interviews has many logistic and quality management challenges, they are unique in the ability to really capture what a respondent is thinking about. This is due to the ability to follow up and probe deeper on a respondent’s initial response, and key way is through asking “why” follow-up questions. Calo Research Services makes asking “why” their business. Regardless of the reason for the research, they have adopted a philosophy from the top down that stresses the importance of asking why. Field interviewers that can probe deeper into the question of interest will recognize the value of this approach.

· Probing for Deeper Meaning at Olson Zaltman Associates

This research firm’s method, called ZMET (for Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique), begins by asking respondents to come to a one-on-one interview, bringing along a set of 8 to 10 photographs related to their thoughts and feelings about the topic. The photos are used as nonverbal clues about the associations the person makes with the product and brand. A typical interview lasts 2 hours, and the challenge is to ask questions that reveal what is behind the selection of the photographs. Probing is used to uncover a deeper meaning by asking respondents to elaborate on their initial statements. Skill based on training in fields such as psychotherapy and sociology is needed by interviewers. Finally, a computerized collage that illustrates the respondent’s thoughts and feelings about the topic is created and submitted to computer software to identify response patterns that suggest “metaphors” for the product—a general theme that describes respondents’ attitudes.

· Total Quality Management for Interviewing

Interviewers and their supervisors can improve the process of data collection to minimize errors, and total quality management (TQM) seeks continuous improvement by getting everyone involved in measuring performance and looking for ways to improve processes:

· Measure response rates, and improve interviewer training to improve response rates.

· Measure defects in terms of measurement errors, and improve interviewer techniques and respondent behavior.

· Measure the interview process, including the training provided, the application of principles from training, and feedback about the interviewer.

OUTLINE

I. THE NATURE OF FIELDWORK

· A personal interviewer administering a questionnaire door-to-door, a telephone interviewer calling from a central location, and an observer counting pedestrians in a shopping mall are all examples of researchers conducting fieldwork.

· All of these people are fieldworkers.

II. WHO CONDUCTS FIELDWORK?

· The actual data collection process is rarely done by the person who designs the research.

· The people who gather the data typically have little research training or experience.

· Much fieldwork is conducted by research suppliers who specialize in data collection.

· In some cases, a company may subcontract the fieldwork to a field interviewing service that specializes in gathering data.

· Field interviewing services and full-service research agencies typically employ field supervisors who supervise and train interviewers, edit completed questionnaires in the field, and confirm that interviews have been conducted by telephoning or recontacting respondents.

· Whether the research administrator hires in-house interviewers or selects a field interviewing service, it is desirable that field workers meet certain job requirements.

· Interviewers should be healthy, outgoing, and of pleasing appearance (i.e., well-groomed and tailored).

· In ethnographic research, however, the interviewers should dress to blend in with the group being studied.

· Survey interviewers are generally paid an hourly rate or per-interview fees, and many are part-time workers from a variety of backgrounds.

· Some research projects require special knowledge or skills (i.e., health care professionals).

III. IN-HOUSE TRAINING FOR INEXPERIENCED INTERVIEWERS

· After personnel are recruited and selected, they must be trained.

· Almost always there will be a briefing session on the particular project.

· The objective of training is to ensure that the data collection instrument will be administered in a uniform fashion by all field workers.

· In most extensive training programs, the following topics are likely to be covered:

· How to make initial contact with the respondent and secure the interview.

· How to ask survey questions.

· How to probe.

· How to record responses.

· How to terminate the interview.

· Making Initial Contact and Securing the Interview

· Personal Interviews

· Interviewers will be trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the respondent that his or her cooperation is important.

· Telephone Interviews

· Giving one’s name personalizes the call and using the name of the research agency implies that the caller is trustworthy.

· Providing an accurate estimate of the time helps gain cooperation, but it also is the ethically correct thing to do.

· Internet Surveys

· The potential respondent may receive an email requesting assistance.

· Gaining Participation

· Avoid questions that ask permission for an interview, such as “May I come in?” and “Would you mind answering some questions?”

· Interviewers should be instructed on handling objections.

· In other cases, client companies will not wish to offend any individual, so in the case where a respondent refuses, the interviewer will be instructed to merely say, “Thank you for your time.”

· The foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face compliance techniques are useful in securing interviews.

· Foot-in-the-door theory attempts to explain compliance with a large or difficult task on the basis of respondents’ earlier compliance with a smaller initial request.

· With the door-in-the-face technique, the interviewer begins with an initial request so large that nearly everyone refuses it (that is, the door is slammed in his or her face); the interviewer then requests a small favor—to comply with a “short” survey.

· Asking the Questions

· There are five major rules for asking questions:

1. Ask the questions exactly as they are worded in the questionnaire.

2. Read each question very carefully and clearly.

3. Ask the questions in the specified order.

4. Ask every question specified in the questionnaire.

5. Repeat questions that are misunderstood or misinterpreted.

· Even the slightest change in wording may inject some bias into a study.

· If respondents do not understand a question, they will usually ask for some clarification, and the recommended procedure is to repeat the question.

· However, interviewers often supply their own personal definitions and ad lib clarifications and these may include words that are not free from bias.

· Often respondents volunteer information relevant to a question that is supposed to be asked at a later point in the interview.

· In this situation, the response should be recorded under the question that deals specifically with that subject.

· Probing When No Response is Given

· Training of interviewers should include instructions on how to probe when respondents give no answer, incomplete answers, or answers that require clarification.

· Probing may be needed in two types of situations:

1. It is necessary in situations in which the respondent must be motivated to enlarge on, clarify, explain, or complete his or her answers.

2. May be necessary when a respondent begins to ramble or lose track.

· The interviewer will have several possible probing tactics to choose from, depending on the situation:

· Repeating the question: When the respondent remains completely silent, he or she may not have understood the question or decided how to answer it. Mere repetition may encourage the respondent to answer.

· Using a silent probe: If the interviewer believes that the respondent has more to say, a silent probe—that is, an expectant pause or look—may motivate the respondent to gather his or her thoughts and give a complete response.

· Repeating the respondent’s reply: This may stimulate the respondent to expand on the answer.

· Asking a neutral question: Asking a neutral question may specifically indicate the type of information that the respondent is seeking. For example, if the interviewer believes that the respondent’s motives should be clarified, he or she might ask, “Tell me about this feeling?” Exhibit 18.1 shows some standard interview probes and the standard abbreviations that are recorded on the questionnaire with the respondent’s answer.

· Probes should be neutral and not leading.

· Probes may be general, or they may be questions specifically designed by the interviewer to clarify a particular statement by the respondent.

· Recording the Responses

· Although recording an answer seems extremely simple, mistakes can occur in this phase of the research.

· Each field worker should use the same recording process.

· The rules for recording responses to fixed-alternative questions vary with the specific questionnaire.

· The general instruction for recording open-ended questions is to record the response verbatim, a task that is difficult for most people.

· Some suggestions for recording open-ended answers include:

· Record responses during the interview.

· Use the respondent’s own words.

· Do not summarize or paraphrase the respondent’s answer.

· Include everything that pertains to the question objectives.

· Include all of your probes.

· Terminating the Interview

· The final aspect of training is to instruct interviewers on how to close the interview.

· The interviewer who departs hastily will be unable to record those spontaneous comments respondents sometimes offer after all formal questions have been asked.

· The field worker should also answer any respondent’s questions concerning the nature and the purpose of the study.

· The respondent should be thanked for his or her time and cooperation.

IV. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD INTERVIEWING

· This section presents the principles of good interviewing as put together by one of the nation’s top research organizations, Yankelovich and Partners.

· These principles have been divided into two categories:

1. the basics—the interviewing point of view

2. required practices —standard inquiry premises and procedures

· The Basics

· Interviewing is a skilled occupation. The basic qualities of a good interviewer are as follows:

1. Have integrity, and be honest.

2. Have patience and tact.

3. Pay attention to accuracy and detail. A good rule of thumb is not to record an answer unless you fully understand it yourself. Probe for clarification and rich, full answers and record all answers verbatim.

4. Exhibit a real interest in the inquiry at hand, but keep your own opinions to yourself.

5. Be a good listener.

6. Keep inquiry and respondent’s answers confidential. Do not discuss the studies with others, and never quote one respondent’s opinion to another.

7. Respect others’ rights. There is a happy medium path to pursue in obtaining this information. On the one hand is failure to get it all; and on the other hand is unnecessary coercion.

· Required Practices

· These are the practical rules of research inquiry, to be followed and used without exception:

1. Complete the number of interviews according to the sampling plan assigned to you. Both are calculated with the utmost precision.

2. Follow the directions provided. Lack of uniformity in procedure can only spell disaster for later analysis.

3. Make every effort to keep schedules.

4. Keep control of each interview you do. It is up to you to determine the pace of a particular interview, keeping several points in mind:

a. There is an established average length of an interview from the time you start to talk to the respondent to the time you finish. It represents a guideline, but some will be shorter and some longer.

b. Always get the whole story from the respondent, and write it all down in the respondent’s own words, but it’s equally important to keep the interview to the subject at hand.

c. Avoid offending the respondent by being too talkative yourself.

5. Complete the questionnaires meticulously. This means:

a. Follow exactly all instructions that appear directly on the questionnaire.

b. Ask the questions from the first to the last in the exact numerical order.

c. Ask each question exactly as it is written.

d. Never leave a question blank. If none of the answer categories provided prove suitable, write in what the respondent said, in his or her own words.

e. Use all the props provided to aid both interviewers and respondents.

6. Check over each questionnaire you have completed. This is best done directly after it has been completed; if you find something you have done wrong or have omitted, correct it.

7. Compare your sample execution and assigned quota against the total number of questionnaires you have completed.

8. Clear up any questions with the research agency.

V. FIELDWORK MANAGEMENT

· Managers of the field operation select, train, supervise, and control fieldworkers.

· Briefing Session for Experienced Interviewers

· There is always a need to inform field workers about the individual project.

· Both experienced and inexperienced field workers must be briefed on the background of the sponsoring organization, sampling techniques, asking of questions, callback procedures, and other matters specific to the particular project.

· If there are any special instructions (e.g., using show cards or video equipment) they should also be covered during the training session.

· Instructions for handling certain key questions are always important.

· Interviewers are provided with minimum information about the purpose of the study, to ensure that they will not transmit any preconceived notions to respondents.

· One technique used to train the interviewers about the questionnaire is for a field supervisor to conduct an interview with another field supervisor who acts as a respondent.

· The trainees observe the interviewing process and afterwards are instructed to personally interview and record the responses of another field supervisor “respondent.”

· Training to Avoid Procedural Errors in Sample Selection

· The briefing session also covers the sampling procedure.

· A number of research projects allow the interviewer to be at least partially responsible for selecting the sample, and the potential for selection bias exists.

· Considerable effort in training and supervisory control should be carried out to minimize these errors.

· Another selection problem is the practice of contacting a respondent when and where it is convenient for both parties.

VI. SUPERVISION OF FIELD WORKERS

· Direct supervision of fieldworkers is necessary to ensure that the techniques communicated in the training sessions are implemented in the field.

· Field supervision of interviewers requires checking to see that field procedures are being properly followed.

· In addition to quality control, continual training may be provided.

· Sampling Verification

· Another important job of the supervisor is to verify that the interviews are being conducted according to the sampling plan rather than at the households most accessible to the interviewer.

· Supervisors must also make sure that the right people within the household or sampling unit are being contacted.

· Interviewer Cheating

· Interviewer cheating in its most blatant form occurs when an interviewer falsifies interviews, merely filling in fake answers rather than contacting respondents (a.k.a., curb-stoning).

· This situation is not common if the job of selection has been properly accomplished.

· However, less obvious forms of interviewer cheating occur with greater frequency.

· Quota samples are often seen as time consuming, and the interviewer may stretch the requirements a bit to obtain seemingly qualified respondents.

· An interviewer may fake part of a questionnaire to make it acceptable to the field supervisor.

· Interviewers fake answers when they find questions embarrassing or troublesome to ask because of sensitive subjects.

· What appears to be interviewer cheating often is caused by improper training or fieldworkers’ inexperience.

· The quality of fieldwork improves if fieldworkers know that a supervisor may follow up with a respondent.

· Verification by Reinterviewing

· Supervisors verify approximately 15 percent of the interviews by reinterviewing.

· Normally the interview is not repeated, but the supervisors recontact respondents and ask about the length of the interview and their reaction to the interviewer.

· Such verification does not detect the more subtle form of cheating in which only portions of the interview have been falsified; rather, it may simply point out that an interviewer contacted the proper household but interviewed the wrong individual.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND CRITICAL THINKING/ANSWERS

1. What qualities should field workers possess?

Field interviewers should be personable, healthy, and well groomed. Being personable is important. Respondents do not like interviewers who act like traffic cops impersonally filling their quotas of parking and speeding tickets. Field workers should be of a similar background to the respondent. Average or greater intelligence, honesty, and diligence are important to ensure that the research is conducted as requested.

2. [Ethics Question] An interviewer has a rather long telephone interview. The estimate suggests that fully completing the survey will take 30 minutes. However, what do you think the response rate will be if people are told ahead of time that it will take 30 minutes to finish participating in the survey? Should the interviewer fudge a little and state that the survey will take only 15 minutes? Explain.

The respondent must be given an accurate estimate of the amount of time participating in the interview will take. If someone is told that fifteen minutes will be required, and the questioning proceeds to more than that, respondents will tend to quit before completing the interview. Providing an accurate estimate of the time not only helps gain cooperation, it is the ethically correct thing to do.

3. What should the interviewer do if a question is misunderstood? If a respondent answers a question before it is encountered in the questionnaire?

Frequently, when a question is misunderstood, the interviewer is instructed to repeat the question. If skilled interviewers are used, when a respondent answers a question before it is encountered in the questionnaire, the fieldworker will record the response where it belongs, if possible.

4. When should interviewers probe? Give some examples of how it should be done.

Interviewers should probe when respondents give no answer, incomplete answers, or answers that require clarification. In addition, probing is often necessary when the respondent begins to fail to focus on the specific content of the interview. Some examples of probing techniques are (1) repeating the question, (2) using a silent probe, that is, an expectant pause or look, (3) repeating the respondent’s reply, and (4) asking a neutral question.

5. How should respondents’ answers to open-ended questions be recorded?

Verbatim. Although it is difficult to write a respondent’s answer down word for word, this should be the goal. Statements that seem irrelevant to the interviewer may be important to an analyst when interpreting the data. Some suggestions for recording open-ended answers include:

· Record responses during the interview.

· Use the respondent’s own words.

· Do not summarize or paraphrase the respondent’s answers.

· Include everything that pertains to the question objectives.

· Include all of your probes.

6. How should the fieldworker terminate the interview?

Fieldworkers should wait to close the interview until they have secured all pertinent information. The interviewer who departs hastily will be unable to record the spontaneous comments respondents sometimes offer after all formal questions have been asked. Merely recording one of these comments may result in a new product idea or creative campaign. Avoiding hasty departures is also a matter of courtesy. The fieldworker should also answer any respondent questions concerning the nature and purpose of the study to the best of his or her ability. Finally, the interviewer should always thank respondents for their time and cooperation. It is extremely important to leave the respondent with a positive feeling because it may be necessary to reinterview the respondent in a future time period.

7. Why is it important to ensure fieldworkers adhere to the sampling procedure specified for a project?

As the introduction of the chapter illustrates, the best laid plans of mice and men may go astray. Business research is no exception. A great plan, if not properly executed, may fail to achieve its objectives. Chapter 16 pointed out some of the problems involved in sample selection. If fieldworkers do not follow a scientifically selected plan, there may be considerable bias in the project.

8. [Ethics Questions] What forms does interviewer cheating take? How can it be prevented or detected?

Interviewer cheating most often occurs on a portion of the questionnaire rather than the entire questionnaire. Interviewers who find some questions troublesome because the questionnaire is too long or because the questions are embarrassing may skip the questions. For example, if they find it embarrassing to ask income questions, they may estimate the income of the respondents on the basis of the house size, the clothes respondents wear, etc. The best way to reduce interviewer cheating is to control interviewer work with supervision. However, as field services have become larger, control over fieldwork has been slipping. Control over fieldworkers can increase with training. When the interviewer is confident of the task, he or she will be less inclined to skip portions of the questionnaire.

9. [Ethics Question] Two interviewers are accused of curb-stoning. What have they done?

Curb-stoning is a term used to refer to a blatant form of interviewer cheating that occurs when an interviewer falsifies interviews, merely filling in fake answers rather than contacting respondents.

10. Comment on the following field situations.

a. After conducting a survey with about 10 people, an interviewer noticed that many of the respondents were saying, “Was I right?” after a particular question.

This indicates that the respondents are viewing the interview as a quiz rather than a situation where they respond with their true feelings. The interviewer should remind the respondent that there are no right or wrong answers.

b. A questionnaire asking about a new easy-opening can has the following instructions to interviewers: (Hand respondent can and matching instruction card.) “Would you please read the instructions on this card and then open this can for me?” (Interviewer: Note any comments respondent makes. Do not under any circumstances help him or her to open the can or offer any explanation as to how to open it. If respondent asks for help, tell him that the instructions are on the card. Do not discuss the can or its contents.)

The purpose of this situation is to have the respondent determine if the can is easy-opening or not. Another purpose could be the testing of whether or not the instructions are useful to consumers. The instructions are quite clear and specific about the respondent’s tasks.

c. A researcher gives balloons to children of respondents to keep the children occupied during the interview.

The purpose of this technique is to stop children who are constantly disturbing their parent(s). While this technique has some merits, it also has the potential for a boomerang effect. If the children begin rough-housing with the balloons, the parent might be distracted.

d. An interviewer tells the supervisor, “With the price of gas, this job isn’t paying as well as before!”

When research houses hire interviewers as independent contractors, they are often paid on a per-interview basis or on an hourly basis. If there is a mileage reimbursement rate for gasoline and travel, this partially solves the problem.

e. When a respondent asks how much time the survey will take, the interviewer responds “15 to 20 minutes.” Then, the respondent says “I’m sorry, I have to refuse. I can’t give you that much time right now.”

This is an ideal situation for asking the respondent if another time would be appropriate. The interviewer should try to make an appointment because the respondent appears to be willing but indicated a legitimate time problem at the moment of the request for an interview.

11. Write some interviewer instructions for a telephone survey.

While students’ responses will vary, they should reflect the guidelines given in this chapter.

12. A fieldworker conducting a political poll is instructed to interview registered voters. The fieldworker interviews all willing participants eligible to vote (those who may register in the future) because allowing their opinions to be recorded is part of her patriotic duty. Is she doing the right thing?

This is wrong. The fieldworker should follow instructions to the letter.

13. An interviewer finds when potential respondents ask how much time the survey will take most refuse if they are told 15 minutes. The interviewer now says 10 minutes and finds that most respondents enjoy answering the questions. Is this the right thing to do?

This is a lie. There are other ways, such as using a monetary incentive, to induce cooperation.

14. A fieldworker asks respondents whether they will answer a few questions. However, the interviewer also observes the respondent’s race and approximate age. Is the ethical?

This is a common tactic in research. The observation does no harm to the respondent.

RESEARCH ACTIVITY

1. [Internet Question] Go to http://www.quirks.com/directory/telephone/index.aspx. Using the search window, investigate the following. Suppose you were interested in conducting telephone interviews in a number of places. List telephone facilities in Denmark, Mexico, South Korea and in Alabama (United States). Is CATI available in every county of Alabama?

It’s very easy to search by country and by state. There are several companies available with CATI abilities. However, searching Alabama returned only three companies—2 in Birmingham and one in Mobile, so CATI is not available in every county of Alabama.

CASE 18.1 Thomas and Dorothy Leavey Library

Objectives: To encourage students to think about challenges when using inexperienced fieldworkers.

Summary: This library is located at the University of Southern California. The staff wanted to know more about who its patrons are, what library resources they find helpful, and whether they are satisfied with the library’s services. The goal was to conduct exploratory research for less than $250. A one-page questionnaire was developed, and student workers and library staff would staff a table offering the survey.

Questions

1. Imagine that you were asked to help prepare for this survey. What fieldwork challenges would you expect to arise in a survey such as this, to be carried out by inexperienced fieldworkers?

The fieldworkers should ideally meet certain job requirements: they should be healthy, outgoing, and of pleasing appearance (i.e., well groomed and tailored). People who enjoy talking with strangers usually make better interviewers. One challenge is that the pool of student workers and staff available may not meet these criteria.

2. What training would you recommend for the students and other library staffers conducting this survey? Suggest topics to cover and advice to give these fieldworkers.

All trainees should receive a briefing session on the particular project. The objective of training is to ensure that the data collection instrument will be administered in a uniform fashion by all fieldworkers. Training programs are likely to cover the following topics:

· How to make initial contact with the respondent and secure the interview.

· How to ask survey questions.

· How to probe.

· How to record responses.

· How to terminate the interview.

CASE 18.2 Margaret Murphy O’Hara

Objectives: The objective of this case is to portray some typical problems interviewers face and to discuss the role of the supervisor in fieldwork.

Summary: Ms. O’Hara encounters a number of problems during her first day on the job. The problems encountered are interviewing the wrong person, a high refusal rate, failure to set an appointment for reinterviews with a busy subject, and the like.

Questions

1. Is Margaret going to be a good professional interviewer?

The short description of Margaret appears to indicate that she is personable and diligent. She has not expressed any problems concerning contacting respondents and seems to relish the human interaction.

2. What should Mary Zagorski tell Margaret?

Mary should first tell Margaret that she is doing a good job and then attempt to help her with the various problems. The first thing that Mary might discuss with Margaret is the length of the questionnaire. If an elderly lady fell asleep after twenty minutes, it may be that the questionnaire is too long. The supervisor should attempt to gather some additional information concerning the questionnaire structure.

Margaret should also be informed about the value of a simple random sample. She should be given a statement concerning the sampling procedures so that she may answer questions about individuals being selected. Field interviewers should discuss the procedure for sample selection. When the man substituted for his wife, it may be very likely that this is not what the research designer had planned. She should also be instructed about setting up an appointment for interviews with people who are not at home (such as the man’s wife) or people who are too busy to be interviewed, such as the family having a party for the Army private.

Margaret has also indicated she was having some problems with the income and age questions. The supervisor should instruct Mary on how to handle this, possibly to make a statement that answers will be confidential. She should probably tell respondents that their answers are only used to divide the sample into groups.

Margaret should also be given a statement about the Zagorski interviewing service to explain that it is a “professional research company” and interviewing service, etc.