speech hw 13 musa

Ch13PersuasiveSpeaking.pptx

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Chapter 13 Persuasive Speaking

SPEAK

This chapter begins by describing the nature of persuasive messages and the rhetorical strategies used in them. Next, using the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), you will learn how people process persuasive messages. Then you will learn how to use the rhetorical strategies of logos, ethos, and pathos to develop your persuasive messages.

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The information herein is for informational purposes only and represents the current view of Microsoft Corporation as of the date of this presentation. Because Microsoft must respond to changing market conditions, it should not be interpreted to be a commitment on the part of Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information provided after the date of this presentation. MICROSOFT MAKES NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, AS TO THE INFORMATION IN THIS PRESENTATION.

The mind is Persuasion is often more effectual than force.

~Aesop

Learning Outcomes:

1. What is the nature of persuasion?

2. How do people process persuasive messages?

3. What is the role of logos in persuasion?

4. What is the role of ethos in persuasion?

5. What is the role of pathos in persuasion?

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What Is a Persuasive Speech?

A persuasive speech is one whose goal is to influence people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors.

Persuasive messages are everywhere. For example, friends try to persuade us to participate in certain activities and advertisements urge us to purchase any number of products and services whenever we turn on the radio or television or surf the Internet.

If you understand the nature of persuasion, you can critically examine and evaluate the persuasive messages you receive and you can create effective and ethical persuasive messages of your own.

The Nature of Persuasion

Informing can be thought of as teaching…

whereas…

Persuading can be thought of as leading.

To remember new information, we have to believe it is factual, relevant, and important, so part of your task when giving an informative speech is to convince your audience about the truthfulness, relevance, and importance of your message.

Similarly, before we will be convinced to believe or do something, we must understand (be informed about) what taking that stance or action means. While all speakers are expected to behave ethically, persuasive speakers have an extra burden to demonstrate that what they are advocating is in the best interest of the audience.

Logos, Ethos, and Pathos

Logos, ethos, and pathos are all used in persuasive speeches.

With logos, you construct logical arguments that support your point of view.

With ethos, you argue that your competence, credibility, & character should persuade others.

With pathos, you appeal to listeners’ emotions.

Drawing on the work of ancient Greeks and Romans, we can define persuasion as logical and well-supported arguments developed through rhetorical appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos. In this context, argument is not “to quarrel,” but rather means articulating a position with the support of logos, ethos, and pathos.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

According to the ELM, people process information via the “central route” or the “peripheral route.”

People using the central route & persuaded through logos.

People using the peripheral route are persuaded through ethos & pathos.

According to the ELM, people process information in one of two ways: the central route or the peripheral route. People using the “central route” listen carefully, think about what is said, and may even mentally elaborate on the message. They base their decision to agree with and possibly take action primarily on appeals to logic and reasoning (logos). The “peripheral route” is a shortcut that relies on simple cues such as a quick evaluation of the speaker’s competence, credibility, and character (ethos) or a gut check about what the listener feels (pathos) about the message.

What determines if we use the central or peripheral route? The personal importance we place on the issue. When we feel involved with an issue, we are willing to expend the energy necessary for processing on the central route. When the issue is less important, we take the peripheral route.

So, how closely your audience members will follow your arguments depends on how involved they feel with your topic. The ELM also suggests that people who form attitudes as a result of central processing are less likely to change their minds than people whose attitudes have been formed based on peripheral cues.

The Rhetorical Strategy of Logos

Two types of reasoning

Inductive & deductive

Forming arguments

Claim, support & warrant

Types & tests of arguments

Sign, example, analogy & causation

Two types of reasoning:

1. Inductive reasoning is arriving at a general conclusion based on several pieces of specific evidence.

2. Deductive reasoning is arguing that if something is true for everything that belongs to a certain class (major premise) and a specific instance is part of that class (minor premise), then we must conclude that what is true for all members of the class must be true in the specific instance (logical conclusion). This three-part form of deductive reasoning is called a syllogism.

Forming arguments have three major elements:

1. Claim (the conclusion the speaker wants the audience to believe)

2. Support (the reason or evidence the speaker offers for accepting the claim)

3. Warrant (the logical statement that connects the support to the claim).

Types & tests of arguments:

Although an argument always includes a claim and support, different logical relationships can exist between the claim and the support on which it is based. Four types of arguments commonly used are:

1. Sign to support a claim by providing evidence that the events that signal the claim have occurred. ASK:

Do the signs always or usually indicate the conclusion drawn?

Are enough signs present?

Are contradictory signs present?

2. Example to support your claim by providing one or more individual examples. ASK:

Are enough examples cited?

Are the examples typical?

Are negative examples accounted for?

The warrant for an argument from example can be stated as follows: “What is true in the examples provided is (or will be) true in

general or in other instances?”

3. Analogy to support a claim with a single comparable example that is significantly similar to the subject of the claim. ASK:

Are the subjects being compared in every important way?

Are any of the ways in which the subjects are dissimilar important to the outcome?

The general statement of a warrant for an argument from analogy can be stated as follows: “What is true for situation A will also be true

in situation B, which is similar to situation A.” or “What is true for situation A will be true in all similar situations.”

4. Causation to cite events that have occurred that result in the claim. ASK:

Are the events alone sufficient to cause the stated effect?

Do other events accompanying the cited events actually cause the effect?

Is the cause-effect relationship consistent?

The general warrant for arguments from causation can be stated as follows: “If an event comes before another event and is associated with that event, then we can say that it is the cause of the event.” or “If A, which is known to bring about B, has been observed, then we can expect B to occur.”

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Reasoning Fallacies

Hasty generalizations

False cause

Either-or

Straw man

Ad hominem

Post hoc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRJUvFG8gbE&list=PL0AB48C7B70D398DB&index=2

Reasoning Fallacies:

A hasty generalization is a fallacy that presents a generalization that is either not supported with evidence or is supported with only one weak example.

A false cause fallacy occurs when the alleged cause fails to be related to, or to produce, the effect.

An either-or fallacy is the argument that there are only two alternatives when, in fact, others exist.

A straw man fallacy is when a speaker weakens the opposing position by misrepresenting it in some way and then attacks that weaker (straw man) position.

An ad hominem fallacy attacks or praises the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.

Evaluating Evidence: Guidelines for Evaluating Evidence

Does the evidence come from a well-respected source?

Is the evidence recent and, if not, is it still valid?

Does the evidence really support the reason?

Will this evidence be persuasive for this audience?

The Rhetorical Strategy of Ethos

Convey good character

Convey competence & credibility

Explain your competence

Establish common ground

Use evidence from respected sources

Use nonverbal elements of delivery

Use vocal expression to enhance credibility

Some listeners will pay minimal attention to your arguments and will instead use simple cues to decide whether or not to accept your proposal. One important cue people use when they process information by the peripheral route is ethos. So, you will want to demonstrate good character via goodwill.

Goodwill is the audience’s take on the speaker’s intentions toward them. When audience members believe in the speaker’s goodwill, they are willing to believe what the speaker says. Speakers must not only understand their audience, they must empathize with listeners. Empathy is the ability to see the world through the eyes of someone else. Speakers must also be responsive to the audience by acknowledging feedback, especially subtle negative cues.

The strategies given here will increase your audience’s perception of your ethos so that your terminal credibility, their perception of your expertise at the end of your speech, is greater than your initial credibility, their perception of your expertise at the beginning of your speech.

The Rhetorical Strategy of Pathos

Evoke negative emotions

Fear, guilt, shame, anger, sadness

Evoke positive emotions

Happiness, joy, pride, relief, hope, compassion

When we are involved with something, we care about it and have an emotional stake in it. Emotions are the buildup of action-specific energy. When people experience the tension associated with any emotion, they look for a way to release the energy. So as a speaker, if you can give listeners an emotional stake in what you are saying, they are more likely to use their energy to listen carefully and internalize your speech.

Negative emotions are disquieting, so when people experience them, they look for ways to eliminate them. During your speech, if you can help your audience experience negative emotions, they will be more involved with what you are saying. As a result, they will be motivated to use their energy to listen carefully to you to see if you give them a way to reduce their feelings of discomfort.

In the same way, you can increase audience involvement with your proposal by tapping positive emotions, which are feelings that people enjoy experiencing. With negative emotions, the goal is to show how our proposal will help the audience to reduce or avoid the feeling. With positive emotions, the goal is to help the audience sustain or develop the feeling.

Guidelines for Appealing to Emotions

Tell vivid stories

Use startling statistics

Incorporate listener relevance links

Choose striking presentational aids

Use descriptive & provocative language

Use nonverbal elements of delivery to reinforce your emotional appeal

Use gestures and facial expressions to highlight the emotions you are conveying

These guidelines can help speakers appeal to their listeners’ emotions.

There is nothing to be afraid of if you believe & know that the cause for which you stand is right.

~ Martin Luther King, Jr.