Psychology

wtfbm69

Ch1314Lecture.pdf

Home >Business & Finance homework help >Management homework help >Psychology

11/3/2016

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

11/3/2016

Physical Development in Early Adulthood

• All of the organs and body systems, including digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems, peak in functioning during early adulthood.

• Senescence – A pattern of gradual age-related declines in

physical functioning begins in early adulthood.

– Measurable age-related changes in functioning, known as aging, are visible by about age 30.

Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Hair and Skin

• By age 20:

– Age-related changes in the skin

• By age 30:

– Gray hairs

– Hereditary baldness

– Less skin elasticity and some visible wrinkles around the eyes and forehead

11/3/2016

Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Muscle Development

• Muscle development increases throughout the 20s and peaks at about age 30.

• Isometric muscle strength is maintained throughout adulthood.

• Activities that require body coordination and bursts of strength peak in the early 20s; activities that require endurance peak in the early 30s.

Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Reproductive Capacity

• Reproductive capacity declines with age, increasing the risk for women in their mid- to late 30s of experiencing difficulty conceiving

11/3/2016

Figure 13.1: Births to Women Aged 18 to 39 in the United States, 1990 to 2013

Reasons for Infertility

• Females: – Chromosomal anomalies accumulate as egg cells age,

increasing the risk of pregnancy loss, or miscarriage.

– Failure to ovulate.

– Ovarian cancer and ovarian cysts.

– Dwindling reserves of ova.

• Males – Most men remain able to conceive into older adulthood.

– The number and quality of sperm produced declines in middle adulthood, beginning at about age 40.

11/3/2016

Theories of Aging

• Wear and tear theory of aging

– The body wears out from use and thus ages.

– On the contrary, research suggests that we must “use it or lose it”.

• DNA and heredity

– Parents’ life spans predict those of their children and identical twins share more similar life spans than do fraternal twins.

Theories of Aging (continued)

• Caloric restriction

– A nutritious diet that is extremely low in calories is associated with a longer life span.

• Immune system

– Influences the body’s adjustment to external stressors and pathogens encountered throughout life.

• Cellular mutation

– Damage to DNA and chromosomes.

11/3/2016

Theories of Aging (continued 2)

• Free radicals

– Free radicals destroy DNA, proteins, and other cellular materials.

• Limited capacity for human cells to divide

– Human cells have the capacity to divide about 50 times in their life span.

Table 13.1: Theories of

Aging

11/3/2016

Overweight and Obesity

• The absence of parental controls, access to an abundance of food, and busy lives make it difficult for young adults to eat healthily.

• Obesity (BMI of 30 or above) and overweight (BMI greater than 25) have increased substantially in recent decades.

– 34% of American adults are overweight.

– 35% of American adults are obese.

Factors Related to Obesity

• Heredity

• Environmental pressures – Reduction in physical labor.

– Food, especially unhealthy food, is more abundant.

– Sedentary lifestyles.

– Drop in calorie needs between the ages of 25 and 50 and the metabolic rate falls.

– Low SES.

11/3/2016

Risks of Obesity

• High blood pressure

• Stroke

• Circulatory problems

• Diabetes

• Digestive disorders

• Arthritis

• Cancer

• Early death

Physical Activity

• Exercise is an important influence on longevity. – Regular moderate exercise enhances immunity.

– Stress reduction.

– Cardiovascular health.

– Cancer prevention.

– Mental health benefits.

• Guidelines recommend engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate activity each week or 75 minutes of vigorous activity, plus muscle strengthening exercises on at least two days each week.

11/3/2016

Stress

• Psychological stress can motivate behavior or debilitate, impairing functioning.

• Stress is a part of every person’s life.

– Daily hassles.

– Experiencing an overload of daily hassles, negative life events, and unfavorable social conditions is associated with high levels of stress and poor health.

Substance Abuse

• In North America, substance use tends to begin during adolescence, peak in the early 20s, and decline into the 30s.

– Pressures in early adulthood coupled with easy access to drugs and alcohol increase the risk of using and abusing marijuana, alcohol, and other drugs in early adulthood.

11/3/2016

Tobacco

• About 80% of smokers have their first cigarette before age 18, but regular or daily smoking often does not begin until about age 20

• The overall risk of initiating smoking plateaus at about age 22

• 33% of 18- to 39-year olds in the U.S. report smoking tobacco cigarettes

• Cigarette smoking is responsible for about one of every five deaths in the U.S. each year

Marijuana

• The most commonly used substance after alcohol and nicotine in the U.S.

– 20% of 18- to 20-year olds; 13% of 21- to 25-year olds; 6% of 26- to 34-year olds report using marijuana in the last month.

• Marijuana is used sporadically and limited in duration for most young people.

• Marijuana is addictive and has similar health problems to tobacco smokers

11/3/2016

Alcohol

• Alcohol is the drug of choice for most people throughout adulthood.

• Binge drinking

– Consuming five or more drinks in one sitting in men and four drinks in one sitting in women.

– Heaving drinking is defined as two or more instances of binge drinking within the past 30 days.

Figure 13.2: Current, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use Among Persons Ages 12 and Older, by Age, 2014

11/3/2016

Alcohol Use Disorder

• A maladaptive pattern of alcohol use that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress, as indicated by tolerance, withdrawal or drinking to relieve withdrawal, inability to reduce drinking, drinking more or for longer than intended, craving alcohol, recurrent alcohol use in physically hazardous situations, neglect of activities and obligations, time spent related to drinking or recovering from drinking, and continued use of alcohol despite alcohol-related psychological or physical problems.

Figure 13.3Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol in the Past Year, by Age, 2013

11/3/2016

Postformal Reasoning

• Thinking and problem solving are restructured in adulthood to integrate abstract reasoning with practical considerations.

• Young adults who demonstrate postformal thinking recognize that: – Most problems have multiple causes and solutions.

– Some solutions are better choices than others.

– All problems involve uncertainty.

Epistemic Cognition

• The ways in which individuals understand how they arrive at ideas, beliefs, and conclusions.

• People’s understanding of the nature of knowledge advances along a predictable path in young adulthood, especially among college students.

11/3/2016

Dualistic Thinking Versus Relativistic Thinking

• Dualistic thinking

– Polar reasoning in which knowledge and accounts of phenomena are viewed as either right or wrong with no in- between.

– Typical of beginning college students.

• Relativistic Thinking

– Most knowledge is viewed as relative, dependent on the situation and thinker; relativistic thinkers recognize that beliefs are subjective, that there are multiple perspectives on a given issue, and that all perspectives are defensible.

Reflective Judgment (there is not a right or wrong, because all are defensible, but some are better than others)

• The most mature type of reasoning.

• Reasoning that synthesizes contradictions among perspectives.

• Reflective judgment recognizes that options and opinions can be evaluated and generates criteria to do so.

11/3/2016

Table 13.2: Postformal Reasoning

Pragmatic Thought

• The use of logic to address everyday problems.

• Entails acceptance of inconsistency and ambiguity.

• Managing various roles and tackling the problems of everyday life requires thinking that is flexible and accepting of contradiction.

• Reasoning in everyday situations is fused with emotion.

11/3/2016

Cognitive-Affective Complexity

• The capacity to be aware of emotions, integrate positive and negative feelings about an issue, and regulate intense emotions to make logical decisions about complicated issues.

• With gains in cognitive-affective complexity, young adults better understand others, including their perspectives, feelings, and motivations, which helps them to participate in social interactions, become more tolerant of other viewpoints, and to solve day-to-day problems.

Developmental Impact of Attending College

• In 2013, about 66% of high school graduates in the U.S. enrolled in two- or four-year colleges.

• Students are encouraged to experiment with alternative values, behaviors, and beliefs.

• Fosters the development of postformal reasoning.

• Advanced moral reasoning.

• Advances in social development.

11/3/2016

Nontraditional College Students

• 27% of college students are between ages 25 and 39

• Returning to college often revolves around career reasons

• Characteristics of nontraditional college students: – Attend college part-time

– Work full-time

– Be financially independent

– Have dependents

Difficulties and Strengths of Nontraditional College Students

• Difficulties

– Colleges are oriented toward traditional students (class times, access to advisors and student support services)

• Strengths

– Show a readiness to learn and a problem-centered orientation toward learning that emphasizes acquiring the knowledge and skills needed for career advancement

– More complex knowledge base from which to draw

– Seeking meaning and applying what they learn

11/3/2016

The Forgotten Third

• Each year, about one third of high school graduates in the U.S. transition from high school to work without attending college.

• Considered “forgotten” because relatively few resources are directed toward learning about and assisting them.

• Reasons for not attending college include:

– Economic barriers

– Desire to work

– Disinterest in academics

Figure 13.4: Median Weekly Earnings by Education in 2014 (age 25 and older)

11/3/2016

Stages of Vocational Development

1. Crystallization (adolescence)

• Think about careers in more complex ways.

2. Specification (18 to 21 years of age)

• Identify specific occupational goals and pursue the education needed to achieve them.

3. Implementation (21 to 24 years of age)

• Complete training, enter the job market, and make the transition to become an employee.

4. Stabilization (25 to 35 years of age)

• Becoming established in a career.

5. Consolidation (age 35 and up)

• Accumulate experience and advance up the career ladder

Table 13.3: Personality and Vocational Choice

11/3/2016

Contextual Influences on Vocational Choice

– Parents tend to share personality characteristics and abilities with their children and influence educational attainment, which in turn influences career choice.

– Parents act as role models.

– Socioeconomic status and parents’ occupational field.

– Parental expectations and encouragement for academic success and higher-status occupations.

– Parents may give different types of career encouragement and guidance to their daughters than they give to their sons.

Occupational Expectations and Reality

• Daniel Levinson’s theory of development: Forming a dream (involves defining occupational expectations).

– First, young adults attempt to achieve the dream and monitor their progress toward it.

– Throughout adulthood, individuals modify their occupational expectations based on their experiences.

11/3/2016

Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood

11/3/2016

Emerging Adulthood

• Transition to adulthood

– An in-between status in which they are not adolescents yet they have not yet assumed the roles that comprise adulthood

• Ages 18 to 25 (or even into the late 20s)

• Characterized by diversity in lifestyles

• A time of instability and exploration

Why is adulthood delayed and emerging adulthood extended?

• College entrance/advanced degrees

• Longer time to commit to a career

• Financial dependence

• Delayed marriages

• Later family formation

11/3/2016

Psychosocial Development During Emerging Adulthood

• Self-esteem rises

• Depressive symptoms decline

• Well-being increases

11/3/2016

Factors Associated with Limited Emerging Adulthood

• High school dropout

• Early parenthood

• Begin work immediately out of high school

• Low socioeconomic household and community

Intimacy Versus Isolation

• Developing the capacity for intimacy and making a permanent commitment to a romantic partner

• Commitment to an identity (Erikson’s stage 5: Identity versus role confusion) prepares young people for establishing intimate relationships

• The formation of intimate relationships is associated with well-being in young adults

11/3/2016

Intimacy Development

• Identity-achieved individuals are more likely to engage in romantic relationships characterized by loyalty and love

• Typically happens after individuals enter early adulthood

The Social Clock

• Age-related expectations for major life events such as: – Occupational entry

– Marriage

– Parenthood

– Retirement

• Western culture’s expectations for the timing of developmental milestones of adulthood have become less age conscious and rigid

11/3/2016

Adult Friendships

• Based on similarity

– Shared interests, attitudes, and values

– Similar demographics (age, sex, and SES)

• In college, friendships may become more ethnically diverse among white students, less so among black students, and remain unchanged among Latino and Asian students

Friendship Characteristics

• Recently married young people have the greatest number of friends

• Single young adults rely more on friends for social support and acceptance

• Women have more intimate and long-lasting friendships, see them more often, and rely more on them for social and emotional needs

• Men’s friendships center around sharing information and activities

11/3/2016

Romantic Relationships

• The developmental task of early adulthood is to form long-term intimate relationships that will endure throughout adulthood

Mate Selection • Men tend to prefer:

– younger mate

– physical attractiveness,

– domestic skills

• Women tend to assign greater importance to: – Earning potential

– Intelligence

– Height

– Moral character

– Same age or slightly older

11/3/2016

Components of Love • Passion

– Passion, excitement, and happiness that accompany intense physical attraction, physiological arousal, and cognitive preoccupation; may not be accompanied by intimacy

• Intimacy – Emotional engagement, warm communication, closeness,

connectedness, and caring for the other person’s well- being

• Commitment – Grows as people spend more time together, create shared

goals, and solve problems together

Table 14.3: Forms of Love

11/3/2016

Intimate Partner Violence • Includes:

– Physical violence

– Sexual abuse

– Psychological harm

• Victims frequently experience several forms of violence

• Intimate partner violence occurs at similar rates in both heterosexual and same sex couples

Intimate Terrorism

• A pattern of coercive control and repeated severe battering

• Males and females perpetrate intimate terrorism at similar rates

• The main motivation for remaining in the relationship is fear

11/3/2016

Factors Related to Intimate Violence

• Spouses who abuse:

– Higher rates of depression, anxiety, and low self- esteem

– Often display possessive, jealous, and controlling behavior

– Blame partner for causing situations that lead to violence

– Have been exposed to abuse as a child

Statistics of Intimate Partner Violence

• Victims of rape, physical violence, or stalking at some point in their lifetime:

– 36% of women

– 29% of men

• In the past year:

– 6% of women

– 5% of men

11/3/2016

Figure 14.2: Lifetime Rates of Intimate Partner Violence by Sex and Ethnicity

Singlehood • About one third of 25- to 39-year old adults

have never married

• Highly educated professional women who are financially independent, and therefore lack an economic incentive to marry, may find few potential mates who are suitable

• Single by choice – Women who are self- supporting, feel a sense of control over their romantic lives, and have not encountered anyone they wish to marry

11/3/2016

Cohabitation • The practice of unmarried couples sharing a

home

• Rates have increased steadily over the past three decades

• About 2/3 of U.S. couples live together before marriage

• Over 75% of couples in Northern and Central Europe and the U.K. cohabit

Factors Associated with Rising Cohabitation Rates

• Increasing prevalence of emerging adulthood

• Not feeling ready for marriage

• Those whose parents are divorced are more wary of marriage

• Assessing romantic compatibility, convenience, and improving finances

• Trial marriage

• SES and ethnicity

11/3/2016

Marriage

• About 90% of North Americans marry at least once in their lifetimes

• Median age of marriage in the U.S. is 27 for women and 29 for men

Figure 14.3: U.S. Median Age at First Marriage, 1890 to 2014

11/3/2016

Benefits of Marriage

• Economic, physical, and psychological benefits

– Married people around the world are:

• Happier, physically healthier, less distressed, and wealthier than nonmarried people

– Egalitarian relationships are associated with marital harmony and increased satisfaction in men and women

Transition to Marriage

• Newlyweds experience multiple changes during their first years of marriage

– Decision-making on various life choices

– Negotiating conflict

– Relationships with family and friends

– Family traditions

• Most couples report a drop in satisfaction over the first year of marriage

11/3/2016

Marital Success

• Predictors include:

– Chronological age

– Psychosocial maturity

– Degree of similarity between both members of the couple

• Men report being happier with their marriages than women

Same-Sex Marriage

• Intimate relationships and marriage appear to have similar meanings for gay and lesbian couples as compared with heterosexual couples

• The stressors that gay and lesbian women face might play a role in how same-sex marriage manifests in health and psychological well- being

11/3/2016

Divorce

• In the U.S., the divorce rate increased during the 1970s, peaked in 1980 (5.2 divorces per 1,000 people), and has declined since to 3.4 divorces per 1,000 people in 2012

Table 14.4: Divorce Rate in Select

Countries, 2012

11/3/2016

Predicting Divorce

• Predictors include: – Poor education

– Economic disadvantage

– Role overload

– Not attending religious services

– Experiencing multiple life stressors

• The best predictor of divorce is the couple’s communication and problem-solving style

Table 14.5: Correlates and Influences on Marriage and Divorce

11/3/2016

Parenthood in Early Adulthood

• The current childbearing rates have declined to 2.1 children in the U.S.

• Rates are lower for many industrialized nations

Figure 14.5: Maternal Age at First Birth in the United States, 1970–2013

11/3/2016

Becoming a Parent

• Women in high-status and demanding occupations are more likely to delay or decide against childbearing

• Reasons to have children:

– The parent-child bond

– Growth, learning, and fun experiences

– The desire to help someone grow into a productive adult

Disadvantages of Parenthood

• Loss of freedom

• High cost of raising a child – A new parent will spend about $245,340 over the

course of raising a child from birth to age 18

• Parenthood is associated with sudden declines in marital satisfaction

• Mothers tend to report more stress and a higher workload

11/3/2016

Stepparents

• Difficulty is providing discipline without the warm attachment bond that characterizes most parent-child relationships

• Stepmothers

– High levels of conflict; disliked by their stepchildren; experience more stress, anxiety, and depression

Never-Married Single Parent

• Four in 10 infants in the U.S. are born to never- married mothers each year

• Recently, more single professional women in their 30s have become single parents by choice

• African American women are disproportionately likely to be never-married parents (40%)

• As a group, never-married mothers often show better health, such as lower rates of anxiety and depression, than do married mothers

11/3/2016

Diversity in the Workplace

• In Europe and North America about ½ of the labor force is female

– 59% of women in the U.S. work

• Glass-ceiling

– The invisible barrier that prevents women and ethnic minorities from advancing to the highest levels of the career ladder

Statistics in the Workplace • Women

– 24% of chief executive positions

– 43% of management positions

– Over 75% of office and administrative support positions

• African Americans and Hispanics – 7% of chief executive positions

– 13% of management positions

– 25% of office and administrative support positions

11/3/2016

Work-Family Balance

• Both men and women report feeling conflict between work and family obligations

– Women are more likely to suffer from role overload

• Women who manage multiple responsibilities while avoiding role overload tend to devote less time to maintaining the household

Workplace Policies

• Workplace policies can reduce role overload and improve employee morale and productivity

– Flexible policies

– Onsite child care